Theories of variable mass particles and low energy nuclear phenomena

PREPRINT, May 4, 2013

Mark Davidson
E-mail:
Abstract.

Spectel Research Corp., Palo Alto, USA

mdavid@spectelresearch.com

Variable particle masses have sometimes been invoked to explain observed anomalies in low energy nuclear reactions (LENR). Such behavior has never been observed directly, and is not considered possible in theoretical nuclear physics. Nevertheless, there are covariant o-massshell theories of relativistic particle dynamics, based on works by Fock, Stueckelberg, Feynman, Greenberger, Horwitz, and others. We review some of these and we also consider virtual particles that arise in conventional Feynman diagrams in relativistic eld theories. Eective Lagrangian models incorporating variable mass particle theories might be useful in describing anomalous nuclear reactions by combining mass shifts together with resonant tunneling and other eects. A detailed model for resonant fusion in a deuterium molecule with o-shell deuterons and electrons is presented as an example. Experimental means of observing such o-shell behavior directly, if it exists, is proposed and described. Brief explanations for elemental transmutation and formation of micro-craters are also given, and an alternative mechanism for the mass shift in the Widom-Larsen theory is presented. If variable mass theories were to nd experimental support from LENR, then they would undoubtedly have important implications for the foundations of quantum mechanics, and practical applications may arise.

Keywords :

hydrated palladium, deuterated palladium, LENR, fusion

PACS numbers: 24.10.-i, 3.65.-w, 3.65.Nk, 3.70.+k AMS classication scheme numbers:

Submitted to:

Theories of variable mass ...

1. Introduction
Many unexplained anomalies have been observed in heavily deuterated palladium, as well as other metal-hydrogen alloys [1, 2] which suggest that nuclear reactions are taking place in condensed matter. There is severe skepticism in the physics community about these claims. This literature is complex, and the subject cannot be mastered easily. It is this author's opinion, after very extensive and long-term study of the literature, that the claims of experimental anomalies have a signicant probability of being true. If pressed, he would roughly estimate a 75% probability that nuclear The following experimental claims have been reactions are truly responsible for many of these anomalies. In this paper, we oer an explanation for these anomalies, assuming that they are true. made by multiple experimenters: 1. In highly deuterated palladium, with loading factors (ratio of the number densities of d and pd) greater than 0.9, some electrolytic cells have produced heat in excess of what can be accounted for chemically. They also have produced Helium-4 in quantities which were approximately consistent with the excess heat if the reaction were nuclear fusion with two deuterons forming an alpha particle, and with the entire energy release going into heat. This is a surface phenomenon restricted towithin a few thousand angstroms of the surface of the palladium. 2. Also in highly deuterated palladium, numerous elemental transmutations have been observed on the surface of the palladium after deuterium loading. 3. cycling. We make an argument here that all anomalous phenomena which fall under the domain of LENR might be explained by variation of the rest masses of elementary particles in a condensed matter environment. We shall consider deviation of rest masses for all charged particles: electrons, protons, deuterons, particles, and even lattice and impurity nuclei. It's even concievable that These reactions can sometimes be stimulated by injecting time-varying electromagnetic elds into the surface, or by laser illumination of the surface, or by sound waves, or by thermal

mass variation might occur for neutrons. Such behavior has never been directly observed, and it is considered impossible and ruled out by conventional physics. Nevertheless, there is a large body of theoretical work which suggests that it might be possible. The LENR anomalies may constitute indirect evidence of such mass deviations. O-mass-shell covariant relativistic mechanics has a long and rather eminent history in physics. Early pioneering work was done by Fock [3] and Stueckelberg [46]. This was followed by applications of essentially the same theory by Feynman in his path integral formalism of quantum mechanics [7](see Appendix A), and later by elaborations and extensions of the theory by Horwitz and Piron [8], and by many others [922]. Other variable mass theories were proposed by Greenberger [2023], and Corben [24, 25]. Thorough reviews have been given by Fanchi [10, 26]. Despite the theoretical interest in these theories, there is no conclusive experimental evidence that they are required to describe any natural phenomena. If o-mass-shell quantum mechanics is needed in order to understand LENR results, then our understanding of quantum mechanics will be aected at a fundamental level. The standard on-shell wave equations would have to be considered as approximations to more general o-shell theories. There is a modern school of emergent quantum mechanics developing, looking for a deeper origin of the quantum laws [2731]. Support from LENR for o-mass-shell dynamics would be of great relevance to this eld. The standard relativistic wave equations (Klein-Gordon, Dirac, Proca, etc.) all have problems with a localized position operator, or negative energies, or negative probabilities. Thus, modern physics regards quantum elds as preeminent over N particle wave mechanics. But a

Theories of variable mass ...

prominent once again. We use units such that noted.

resurgence of the Fock-Stueckelberg theories could change this, and make N-particle wave mechanics

= c = 1, and a relativistic metric signature (-,+,+,+), unless otherwise

2. The well known diculties of explaining d-d fusion in a solid-state setting

Considering the possibility of d+d fusion in a

d2

molecule, Koonin and Nauenberg calculated the

penetration factor through the Coulomb barrier at room temperature [32] which gave reaction rates 50 orders of magnitude smaller than the claimed experimental results of Fleischmann and Pons [33]. Leggett and Baym [34, 35] came to similar negative conclusions based on necessary but unobserved anity enhancement for

He

in deuterated palladium. They and others concluded that either the Recent experiments on

experiments must be wrong, or that the eects were not due to fusion. fusion cross sections than these calculations [3641].

deuteron beam scattering o of deuterated metals of various kinds have exhibited much larger This enhancement has been attributed to unexpectedly large electron screening eects. The other main problem is to explain the extreme distortion of the branching ratios as compared with plasma fusion which has the well-measured ratios [42]

d + d t(1.01 M eV ) + p(3.02 M eV ), (Q = 4.04 M eV ), 51% d + d He(.82 M eV ) + n(2.45 M eV ), (Q = 3.27 M eV ), 49%

3

(1) (2)

d + d 4 He(0.076 M eV ) + (23.77 M eV ), (Q = 23.85 M eV ), (3.8 10 3)%(3)

where Q is the kinetic energy released by the reaction in the center of mass Lorentz frame. Nagel has listed a number of phenomena as illustrative of the challenge to theory [43]. There are also extensive experimental claims of a variety of elemental transmutations taking place inside or on deuterated palladium and also in other metal-hydrogen alloys [1, 2]. The transmutation data are much harder to ignore than

He

production which might be due to environmental contamination,

and they represent strong evidence for nuclear reactions, although not necessarily fusion. Widom and Larsen [44] have presented an alternative to fusion models. A signicant portion of the LENR research community do not believe that fusion is taking place.

3. Variable rest masses for charged particles can probably account for LENR
Rest masses for elementary particles like electrons and quarks cannot vary in conventional relativistic classical or quantum mechanics in a eld-free region. The energy levels and therefore masses of electromagnetically bound systems can certainly be changed by external elds. Examples are the Stark and Zeeman eects in atomic physics, where the mass of the atom is modied continuously according to

E = mc2

depending on the strength of the eld and the energy shift

caused by it. A single charge monopole satises the minimal coupling prescription changes by the nite amount precisely.

p = mv + qA .

This equation comes from the fact that electromagnetic stress energy of the electromagnetic eld

qA

due to the charge-eld interaction as in [4547], but it only So the rest mass is hard to dene

has this very simple interpretation in the transverse gauge. We can interpret this as meaning

is the mass contained in an innitesimal volume

around a point charge, and

p p

is the total mass of the system which includes the local rest mass

plus the external eld's contribution. Charge is always conserved. Consider an N particle collision

Theories of variable mass ...

p q i A i and the electromagnetic contribution of A over the interaction volume. Consequently,
are the

involving nuclear interactions. If the interaction is local, so that the N particles meet at a spacetime point, then both the total momentum independently conserved, ignoring variation inertial momentum or eld does not aect the

mi Vi is also conserved, so that the presence of an external electromagnetic nuclear kinematics. The parameter m, the eld-free inertial mass, changes
Of course, the

discreetly in nuclear collisions in conventional theories, but never continuously.

concept of eective mass is frequently used in condensed matter to describe phenomenological mass parameters in transport equations in a solid. But this is not the fundamental rest mass of the particle which could aect the kinematics of nuclear reactions. So when we talk about rest mass, we are talking about the parameter

m.

In conventional theory, this does not change.

A number of authors, shortly after the rst papers by Fleischmann and Pons, noted that modied mass values could lead to enhanced quantum tunneling rates in d-d fusion [1, 32, 48, 49] One well-studied related example of this is muon catalyzed fusion [32, 50]. Widom and Larsen [44] argued that the electron mass may increase due to electromagnetic interaction with local elds (see 7), and then these heavy electrons can join with protons in a solid and form low energy neutrons through the weak interaction, which can then react with nuclei. The rst suggestion that a variable mass covariant type of theory might be applicable to LENR was due to Evans [51, 52] who applied it to electrons. In this paper, we consider mass changes for all types of particles. We contemplate up to about

12

MeV for deuterons, and less for electrons.

4. Eective Lagrangians in nuclear physics and o-mass-shell propagators

Feynman diagrams for relativistic eld theories like the standard model of particle physics routinely involve o-mass-shell propagator lines. Such particles in the nomenclature of perturbation theory are called virtual. It is often stated that virtual particles are not real, but only mathematical constructions, unlike on-shell particles that appear in initial or nal asymptotic scattering states and which are real. This point of view is reinforced by a fairly rigorous equivalence theorem in eld theory which states that changing eld variables will change o-shell Green's functions while leaving the S-matrix invariant [53, 54]. The relativistic single particle state in general has problems of localizability [55, 56], and moreover quantum entanglement and wave particle duality make the reality of even on-shell particles highly dubious from a fundamental ontological point of view. In addition, no particle is ever truly isolated in nature, for if it were then we wouldn't be able to observe it. Thus all particles are in fact always slightly virtual, and perfectly on-shell particles are a mathematical abstraction. This forces us to conclude that most particles are a very little bit o the mass shell all the time. The fact that this deviation is empirically very small lets us approximate the true situation with theories in which the mass deviation is exactly zero. In the non-relativistic limit this leads to the Schrdinger equation with potential forces and xed masses. This is the basis of almost all condensed matter physics, and so from the start, variable mass behavior is excluded from discussions about condensed matter. This is ne so long as there is no experimental evidence to the contrary. In Schrdinger wave mechanics perturbation theory the virtual particles become o the energy shell, but the mass is still equal to the rest mass. The experimental claims in the LENR area, if correct, point to the possibility that masses are in fact changing in some special condensed matter settings. We can choose one of two paths. Either reject the experimental data as impossible, or generalize condensed matter theory to allow for mass variation. We suggest the second path here for consideration. In developing his path integral quantization method for the Klein-Gordon equation (KGE),

Theories of variable mass ...

Feynman was faced with a dilemma.

5 How to put spatial and time coordinates on a covariant

footing [7](see Appendix A). He chose to introduce a second time variable, call it historical time

It is not the same as proper time in classical particle mechanics, although it plays a similar role

which is to parametrize a curve in space-time. It is useful to review his logic briey. Consider the conventional Klein-Gordon equation for a spinless particle in the presence of an electromagnetic eld

(i A) (i A) = M 2 M
is the particle's rest mass, and where

(4)

is the vector potential for an external electromagnetic takes on both positive and negative values.

eld. There are well known problems with the probabilistic interpretation of this equation because the conserved current is

j = i [( ) ] and j0

Moreover, a localizable Schrdinger type position operator cannot be dened for this equation [55, 56]. Feynman wished to apply his path integration method of quantization to the KGE. In his words ...

we try to represent the amplitude for a particle to get from one point to another as a sum over all trajectories of an amplitude exp(iS) where S is the classical action for a given trajectory. To maintain the relativistic invariance in evidence the idea suggests itself of describing a trajectory in space-time by giving the four variables x () as functions of some fth parameter (rather than expressing x1 , x2 , x3 in terms of x4 ) . So Feynman replaces (4) with (we use x0 = t, and instead
of

and we use spacelike metric, whereas Feynman used timelike)

1 (x, ) = (i A) (i A) (x, ), where x = {x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 } 2 x

(5)

It is very similar to the time dependent Schrdinger equation, but with the historical time replacing the usual time variable t, and with the four coordinates of space-time usual three coordinates of space. Feynman points out that if

replacing the

A does not depend on , then 1 2 separable solutions exist so that (x, ) = (x)exp(i M ) and is the solution to the usual 2 KGE. Because of the similarity to Schrdinger's equation, (5) has a postive denite probability, and
a localizable Schrdinger position operator. Moreover, it is amenable to solution using Feynman's path integral formulation as he shows in [7]. In fact young Feynman had studied this idea more extensively than is commonly realized , but was discouraged by negative reactions to it [57]. Equations of this type were rst studied by Fock [3] and Stueckelberg [46]. The path integral solution includes all paths in space-time connecting two space-time points and parametrized by

with no restrictions on the path, so that o-mass-shell paths are included in the path integral

solutions. This reects that fact that Feynman diagrams contain virtual particles which are not on the mass shell. This theory was extended to multi-particle systems by Horwitz and Piron [8] by postulating that a single

variable acts as a historical time for all of the particles simultaneously.

This greatly simplies the mathematics for both the quantum and classical many particle relativistic equations, but at the expense of some new interpretative challenges. For example, the wave function describes an extended probability cloud not just in the spatial coordinates, but also in time. Let us refer to these types of theories as Fock-Stueckelberg or FS or hisotorical-time theories. We note that, when restricted to a single particle, the mass of the particle is a constant of the motion for any arbitrary electromagnetic eld described by the vector potential particles is not an invariant [8]. These type models can deviate in the mass, even in restricted non-relativistic approximation where the velocities of the particles are much less than c, but their mass can still change due to interactions.

A ,

as it is

in ordinary classical relativistic mechanics, but the mass in Horwitz-Piron theory for two or more

Theories of variable mass ...

In the theory of photonic crystals, it has been found both theoretically and experimentally that

the photon can acquire an eective mass [5862]. This eect might enhance the mass deviation of charged particles which could interact with these massive photons. The nuclear active environment for LENR is known to occur near the surface of palladium, and in areas where the lattice has been deformed. The surface morphology and chemistry are also known to be critical factors. The possibility that o-mass-shell photons are a necessary condition for a nuclear active environment is worth considering. Because of the size of the strong coupling constant, the standard model is too complicated at low energies, and so eective Lagrangian approximations are routinely employed in nuclear physics. Many of these methods predate the standard model. They often exploit the low values for mass of the u and d quarks which when taken to zero lead to chiral-isospin symmetry which can then justify utilizing group theoretical methods to derive general forms for interacting potentials [6365]. One would think that FS type of wave equations would have been considered in the context of eective Lagrangians for nuclear physics, but they haven't been. Fanchi [10] gives a historical explanation for the general lack of interest. The current literature contains treatment of any spin in a path integral approach [15], along with signicant other literature on relativistic wave equations for spin 0 and spin 1/2 systems [9, 10]. Also there is an elegant examination of o-shell quantum electrodynamics [66] for spinless charged particles. Most of theoretical nuclear physics calculations are based on the Schrdinger equation with eective nuclear and electromagnetic potential functions which do not allow any o-mass-shell behavior, even though the relativistic eld theory perturbation does. Up until LENR eects were discovered, there was no need for such behavior in nuclear physics. It is this author's opinion that there is such a need now since conventional approaches have failed by more than 50 orders of magnitude [32] to explain what is being seen in LENR experiments, and it seems that o-mass-shell behaviour of one type or another can explain all of the experimental anomalies. In the modern theory of multi-dimensional tunneling for many-body systems there are many unexpected phenomenon. In Coleman's classic study [67], a quasi-stable vacuum state's tunneling decay into a lower state is described. Condensed matter systems are in fact quasistable systems. The true ground state - after allowing for all nuclear reactions - is at a much lower energy level, but there are large Coulomb barriers which prevent decay. Of course, it is always assumed that tunneling to the true ground state through nuclear reactions happens at such a slow rate that it can be ignored. LENR phenomenon suggests otherwise. Mass deviation, chaos [68], resonances [69, 70], and driving forces [71] are all mechanisms for enhanced tunneling rates. Given all these possibilities, there is certainly no rigorous theorem that says the experimental claims of LENR cannot occur. There may exist eective o-mass-shell Lagrangians for such systems which facilitate calculations of multi-dimensional tunneling, and which give the correct S-matrix when all particles are separated spatially in the initial and nal state. So in this paper we propose that perhaps in a condensed matter setting, the electromagnetic interaction of charged particles can be described by an eective Lagrangian of the o-shell FS type, or some other variable mass type of theory. We acknowledge that the eective Lagrangian is not unique because of the equivalence theorem [53, 54]. It is the author's hope that such an eective Lagrangian could be derived from or at least reconciled with the standard model of elementary particles or perhaps string theory. This is not an easy task, but if direct experimental proof that o-shell behavior of the type proposed here is discovered, then these experiments should provide a critical guide on how to proceed.

Theories of variable mass ...

5. Horwitz-Piron theory
We start with a brief review of the rst of the modern variations of the Fock-Stueckelberg o-shell theory by Horwitz and Piron [8, 9] who presented a solution to the two particle problem of relativistic classical and quantum physics by proposing that a single historical time could simultaneously parametrize two space-time paths for dierent particles. of particles. They postulated a Hamiltonian as follows (written in the most general form) This is easily extended to any number

K,

conjugate to the historical time

They chose

K=
i=1
where

1 (pi eA(xi )) (pi eA(xi )) + 2Mi

Vij (|xi xj |)
i<j

(6)

is an external electromagnetic four vector potential, and

is an inter-particle potential

energy. The dot notation denotes

derivatives . Hamilton's equations of motion become

x i =

K = (pi eA(xi )) /Mi , pi

p i =

K xi

(7)

This leads to the Lorentz force equation

Mi x x i i = eF j =i
The mass of a particle is given by

Vij (|xi xj |) , xi

where Mi x i = pi eA

(8)

2 m2 i x i = M i x i = (pi eA(xi )) (pi eA(xi ))

The particle's mass motion if

(9)

mi

is not necessarily equal to

Mi ,

and is not even necessarily a constant of the

is not zero.

It is straightforward to quantize this system because it is mathematically very similar to the non-relativistic Newtonian particle system, where the usual time variable for each particle is a function of the historical time just as the three spatial coordinates for each particle are. nutshell, this 5D theory let's you have both a relativistic time variable absolute time variable In a

along with a Newtonian

with both managing to coexist, or at least that is the assumption. The

quantum wave equation is ( denotes an operator)

(x, ), p (x, ) = K i = i xi

(10)

6. Pre-Maxwell 5D theory of electromagnetic interaction of massive charged particles

O-shell electrodynamics was generalized to a ve dimensional gauge invariant theory by Saad, Horwitz, Arshansky, and Land [14, 66, 72]. transformations of the form Here we follow the notation in [66]. In this theory,

-dependent gauge invariance was assumed so that the wave equation is invariant under local gauge (x, ) eie0 (x, ) (x, ) i 1 + e0 a5 (x, ) (x, ) = (p e0 a(x, )) (p e0 a(x, )) (x, ) 2M
(11) (12)

Theories of variable mass ...

e0
has units of length

This leads to a non-trivial generalization of electromagnetism. The parameter and is proportional to the electric charge e

e=

e0
is new. The elds transform as

(13)

where the constant parameter

a (x, ) a (x, ) + (x, )

Non-vanishing values of

a5 (x, ) a5 (x, ) + (x, )

(14)

a5

leads to mass variation. The Schrdinger equation (12) leads to a ve

dimensional conserved current

j + j 5 = 0 j 5 = = | (x, )|
2

(15)

The usual

i { ( ie0 a ) ( + ie0 a ) } (16) 2M Maxwell theory is recovered by integrating over , a process termed concatenation. + + J (x) = j (x, )d A (x) = a (x, )d (17) j =

and

where

are the usual Maxwell potential elds and 4-current respectively. Saad et al [72]

suggested an action which had higher 5-dimensional spacetime symmetry so that the Lorentz group O(3,1) is a subgroup. This requires either O(4,1) or O(3,2) symmetry. Both are considered in the literature, and to handle this, a 5D metric tensor is introduced

g = diag (1, 1, 1, 1, ),

where

= +1

for O(4,1) and

= 1

for O(3,2).

The covariant action formula is (and range over the ve indexes including

range over the four space-time indexes, whereas

and

)
(18)

S=

+ e0 a5 (x, ) d4 xd i 1 2M (p e0 a(x, )) (p e0 a(x, )) (x, ) 4 f f

where

f = a a
[1214, 16, 66, 7276]. [OSQED][66].

(19)

This theory has been studied extensively by Horwitz in particular along with a number of co-authors Path integral quantization has been analyzed [15] as has more canonical second quantization approaches to o-shell quantum electrodynamics for spinless charged particles Various FS spin 1/2 wave equations have been proposed [9, 10, 15, 51, 52, 7780]. They have not yet been included in the OSQED. The deuteron has spin 1 and positive parity eective Lagrangian. possibility [83]

J = 1+ .

Although it is composite particle

of six quarks, it is more commonly treated as a composite of a proton and a neutron with an For low energy interactions, it can be treated as an elementary particle. The conventional spin 1 wave equation is the Proca equation [81, 82], although it is not the only

M 2 V = 0

(20)

Theories of variable mass ...

where

9 Lorentz transformations

V is a massive vector eld which transforms under V (x ) = V (x ). The appropriate Lagrangian is

as

V (x)

1 1 Lp = W W M 2 V V , W = V V = [ V ] 4 2
which leads the Euler-Lagrange equations

(21)

W = M 2 V
from which it follows that

(22) which leads to (20). The deuteron has a magnetic moment

V = 0

and an electric quadrupole moment [83], and these can be included in the Proca equation as well when there are electromagnetic elds present. We wish to generalize the Proca equation by adding a historical time been proposed in [15]. Since each component of

It does not appear

that this has been done in the extant literature, however path integral formalism for any spin has

satises the Klein-Gordon equation, it is natural

to write the Stueckelberg version of the Proca equation as

1 U (x, ) = [ ] U = 0 2M

(23)

We take the Lagrangian density to be

where here

1 1 U U p p U Z Z , p = i 2M 4 = U U . L = U i

(24)

The electromagnetic minimal interaction can be added by minimal coupling, although the deuteron does have an anomalous magnetic moment as well as an electric quadrapole moment which can inuence the dynamics in strong elds [83, 84]. Land and Horwitz [66] have applied perturbative quantum eld theory methods to o-shell pre-Maxwell electromagnetism in interaction with spinless charged particles. They have developed Feynman rules and applied them to various scattering processes. This is a 5D theory, and there are two possibilities for the 5D symmetry group that contains the Lorentz group as a subset. The Lorentz group O(3,1) is a subgroup of either O(4,1) or O(3,2), and these two possibilities lead to two dierent theories with dierent physical properties. The results for particle-particle scattering show that in general the masses will change for particles in a scattering process. show mass changes after scattering. o-shell behavior. particle. The self interaction of a classical charged particle in pre-Maxwell theory has also been studied. The solutions are more complicated than the Lorentz-Dirac equation [16, 85, 86]. particle's mass with time. One major problem with the o-shell theories is how or why particles tend to get back on the mass shell if they have moved o of it through various interactions. Some unknown restorative mechanism must be at work, as has been acknowledged by advocates in this eld. Some clues have been found. In [16] a self-interaction theory for a charged particle was developed, and it was found that for many (but not all) initial conditions, the mass increases for a while and then decreases back to the on-shell value. In [87] it was found that the mass distribution of certain distributions The runaway solutions are replaced by chaotic nonlinear equations which include variation of the classical They present detailed cross-section calculations for both Mller and Compton scattering, and both calculations This is an extremely interesting paper as it provides ample The mass of a particle in this theory is a function of the past history of the

10

Theories of variable mass ...

of particles and anti particles can become sharply peaked in mass. A modication for the photon Lagrangian in [88] was proposed, but similar modications might be required for massive particles as well. It was pointed out that the classical behavior of charged particle scattering in pre-Maxwell theory is unphysical without this modication, although the quantum versions of the theory did not seem to have these problems [88]. On a more fundamental level, the kinetic term not positive denite. Thus the Hamiltonian

pu p /2M

is

is not bounded from below in Horwitz-Piron theory.

Extra constraints, which are not derived from the basic theory must be imposed in order to avoid problems. For example, in classical statistical mechanics of many body systems, various authors [18, 89] imposed the constraint on the system that in the non-relativistic limit all masses approach the mass shell. This assumption leads to a narrow distribution of masses about their usual rest masses with a spread in values of width on the order of non-relativistic condensed matter setting.

kB T .

This assumption runs counter to

the behavior that we are proposing here, which is a signicant deviation from rest masses in a This constraint appears to have been imposed on the theory because there was no evidence for o-mass-shell behavior in condensed matter. But LENR might be evidence. Therefore, we assume here that this constraint can be relaxed in these statistical theories. Perhaps these problems could be solved by making the replacement in the Hamiltonian

K p p p p + p p + M 2 2M 2M
where

(25)

is a constant which might be dierent for dierent particles, and it might depend on the

condensed matter environment. This is an obvious generalization of [88] to massive particles. A large value for of

would weigh against o-shell deviation, and a small value for

would allow larger

mass deviations. This replacement renders the Hamiltonian bounded from below for a suitable sign

, and may not aect the on-shell behavior very much.

It adds a cost to going o shell and would

act to inhibit the particle from moving o the mass shell during a collision for example. The idea then would be that in normal matter occur, is large, but in a nuclear active environment, where LENR

would be small.

There are no rigorous bounds on how far o-shell the massive particles can wander in the various FS theories for realistic condensed matter systems, especially in non-equilibrium situations.

7. Some comments on Widom-Larsen theory

In the Widom-Larsen theory [44], it is argued that protons and heavy electrons can react to form a neutron and a neutrino

e + p n + e .

They used the following formula for the mass shift induced

by electromagnetic elds

m e
where

Me = 1+ Me

e M e c2

1/2

A A Me

(26)

Me

is the shifted mass value for the electron and

the electron rest mass in isolation. In

order to have enough energy to produce a neutron, it is required that for (26) is given as [90] (section 40, eq. Lorentz gauge that

me > 2.531.

The source

40.15), which contains a rigorous solution to the Dirac

equation in a monochromatic plane electromagnetic wave. The plane-wave in [90] is written in the

A =0,

but since there are no sources for it, it is possible by appropriate choice

of gauge to arrange that in addition

A0 = 0,

which is assumed in [90], and consequently it follows

A = 0,

and so that the eld is purely transverse. An estimated upper possible value of

Theories of variable mass ...

me = 20.6
questioned [91].

11

on a Palladium-deuterium alloy surface is presented in [44], but this value has been

We can understand (26) by considering the change in the classical electromagnetic momentum vector that happens when a charged particle is moved into an electromagnetic eld in quasistatic approximation. The contribution from the interaction with the eld is simply given by (up to a constant that depends on units) [4547]

p f ield = qAT (x( ))

This formula is only correct in the transverse gauge provided

(27)

AT = 0.

This xes the gauge uniquely

AT

vanishes at

x = ,

otherwise we could add a term

if

= 0.

This can be

thought of as the justication for the minimal coupling formula which follows by adding the intrinsic 4-momentum of the particle expressed in terms of it's proper velocity

p f ield

to

p = M v + qA T

(28)

The Lagrangian for a charged particle in an electromagnetic eld is gauge invariant, and so if all one wants to do is solve for the equation of motion, one can drop the transverse gauge condition for practical purposes, and study a system with gauge symmetry, and this is routinely done by physicists. Taking a time average of the instantaneous mass can be dropped results in (26). There is a problem with the Widom-Larsen argument. Notice that the time averaged correction to the mass is proportional to the charge squared, but the correction to the instantaneous 4momentum is proportional to the charge

p p

and assuming the cross terms

q.

The problem comes from the fact that the proton and

the electron have opposite charge, and this causes their mass shifts to be anti-correlated. Consider the total instantaneous 4-momentum of their initial state

PT ot = pe + pp = (Me ve eAT (xe ( )) + (Mp vp + eAT (xp ( ))

(29)

Since the weak interaction which would produce a neutron is extremely local in space and time (because it is mediated by the massive W boson), and since the external eld is changing very little over the short range and time of the weak interaction, the use of the instantaneous 4 momentum values seems more appropriate than the time-averages. So we see that when the positions of the electron and proton are close enough to react weakly, the two electromagnetic mass terms cancel yielding simply

PT ot = Me ve + Mp vp

(30)

The center of momentum energy is then exactly the same as if there were no electromagnetic eld present. This is just an example of what was mentioned earlier in Section 3, that an external Although this argument is classical, it electromagnetic eld cannot change nuclear kinematics.

doesn't seem that appealing to quantization could change this conclusion. This sheds some doubt in this author's mind regarding the validity of the Widom-Larsen argument. However, in the FS type o-shell theories, and especially in Horwitz-Piron or pre-Maxwell 5D theories, the local mass of structureless point particles can change, and the mass shift can be positive or negative, even in the absence of any local eld. Moreover, there is no bound known on how far the mass can shift o shell. So, these theories might justify the Widom-Larsen theory even given the above result, and moreover the objections raised in [91] may not apply in this case. So in our view the Widom-Larsen processes are possibly part of the picture, but not necessarily the whole story. They may compete with other processes for dominance in dierent reactions. All the

12

Theories of variable mass ...

eects we consider are due to mass shifts, but the shifts can be positive or negative and can apply to any particle. Aside from providing an alternative basis for the Widom-Larsen eect, we oer no opinions pro or con about the rest of their theory. We do consider other reactions that are enabled by mass-shift eects however.

8. The deuterated palladium system and a possible explanation of d-d fusion: mass-tuned quantum tunneling
Consider two neighboring deuterons in a palladium lattice. We assume the masses of the deuterons and possibly the nearby electrons too are moving slowly o the mass shell due to interaction with the condensed matter system according to an o-shell FS type theory, as in (1). We further assume that the nal state masses in the fusion process are the usual rest masses of the particles, that special conditions inside the solid are required for this process to occur, and that these are roughly equivalent to the conditions required for anomalous LENR eects to occur. Finally, we assume that after a period of time, the system returns to normal and all mass values return to their standard values, except for those that have experienced a nuclear reaction. We propose that an active d+d pair reduces its mass slowly until it is approximately equal to the mass of the

4 He (alpha particle),

about a 0.63% reduction, or 11.9 MeV per deuteron. This has never been observed in nature. It is a radical assumption which could be possible if an o-mass-shell eective lagrangian were describing a small volume of the lattic. Koonin and Nauenberg [32] modeled the electron screening eect by assuming that the d+d system acts similar to a Fleischmann and Pons. for the tunneling rate in mass of

d2

molecule.

They showed that the fusion

rate was far too low (by over 50 orders of magnitude) in this case to explain the fusion claims of They also calculated what the electron mass would have to be in order

d2

to explain the Fleischmann-Pons results for excess heat. They found a

10me

was required. There is beam-scattering evidence of enhanced screening in deuterated

palladium [3640, 9296]. This enhancement has thus far been attributed to the higher density of electrons surrounding the deuterons without resorting to heavy electrons. But, it may also be that heavy electrons are playing a role. Resonant tunneling would occur if the sum of the two deuterons equaled the mass of Helium-4, regardless of the type of screening. In this case, any photon produced would have a low energy. The increase in the electron mass enhances tunneling, and the decrease in the deuterium mass allows resonant tunneling directly into an alpha particle and the suppression of neutrons and tritium. Figure 1 illustrates these ideas qualitatively. There is a complication to this basic idea, and that is the existence of a

0+

resonance of

He

which occurs at 20.210 MeV above the mass of

He

[97].

This excitation decays almost

exclusively into t+p with a half-life of

1.3 1021 s.

Only the s-wave component of the resonance

will contribute to the fusion rate, but the proportionality factor is unknown. Assuming a signicant s-wave contribution we should see enhanced tritium production from this resonance as the twodeuteron total energy passes through it with the following kinematics when the two deuterons have exactly the peak energy.

He(20.21M eV ) t(0.099 M eV ) + p(0.2968 M eV ) Q = 0.396 M eV, = 0.5M eV

(31)

Because the Breit-Wigner width is .5 MeV, the proton and tritium energies would actually be smeared out. water is This helps explain the observed enhanced tritium production relative to neutron [98], and thus they would not be observed directly in electrolysis experiments. production in experiments with deuterated palladium. The stopping range of 0.3 MeV protons in

4.27

Theories of variable mass ...

1 .0

13

d/pd (a) loading

0 .0

2md (b) 2md m max me (c) me me

3 .2 7 Electron mass increasing reducing the Coulomb barrier due to screening.

weak resonance at = mass of 4He

2md

m +20.21MeV

resonance 2md

=m

Q(3He+n) (d) (MeV)

0 4 .0 4

end of neutron generation

(e)

Q(t+p) (MeV)
0 2 3 .8 5

possible enhanced tritium at weak resonance

end of tritum generation

(f)

Q(4He+ ) (MeV)
0

Energy of

produced goes to zero

10 (g)
(s )
dd -1

20

10-40 10-60

very strong, but very narrow peak in the fusion rate due to resonance

time

Qualitative time evolution of d+d mass variation to resonant tunneling and fusion (a) shows a plausible but ctional loading process; (b) shows presumed decrease in deuteron mass; (c) shows presumed increase in electron mass; (d) shows the resulting reduction in the energy release from d + d 3 He + n; (e) the energy release from d + d 3 H + t; (f) the energy release from d + d 4 He + ; (g) The non-resonant fusion rate of Koonin and Nauenberg with the very sharp resonant peak superimposed.
Figure 1.

We see in Fig. 1 that the main fusion is occurring at the instant that

m2d = m , but this is not

when most of the heat is added to the solid, because the Q value for fusion is essentially zero then as the masses of the two deuterons sum to very nearly the mass of an alpha particle at resonance. The energy has been given up to the condensed matter prior to fusion due to the continuously varying masses, and transients continue until all masses eventually return to their on-shell values . Energy is conserved by the following formula

d(nd md ) d(ne me ) d(npd mpd ) dEext = + + + dt dt dt dt

where

d(ni mi ) dK dEe&m + + dt dt dt

(32)

is the kinetic energy density of the system, and The mass terms

nd , ne , npd , ni md ,
etc.

are the number densities

of deuterons, electrons, palladium nuclei, and any other particles. These number densities are not conserved because of nuclear reactions. are local mean values for the masses in the solid at a given location, and they are presumed to be varying with time. The term

14

Theories of variable mass ...

dEext is the net energy density rate of change due to conventional transport mechanisms such as dt radiation, thermal conduction, etc, and Ee&m denotes the electromagnetic energy density. In the
non-relativistic limit, density of radiation. shown so long as

Ee&m

can be replaced by a pairwise Coulomb interaction plus the energy We see from We don't

Thus we have energy conservation at every step of the way. Tritium can be produced so long as

Figure 1 on page 13 that neutrons can be produced only at the very beginning of the time interval

Q(3 He + n) > 0.

Q(3 H + p) > 0.

expect all of the particles of a given type at a given location to necessarily have the same mass. So we dene a probability density probability that the mass

lies between

d , e , pd , etc. with functional form (x, t, m), where dm is the m and m + dm. We restrict the sign of the particle mass

to be positive, and so we write the normalization condition as

and

m(x, t)

for masses.

(x, t, m)dm = 1 (33) 0 = 0 m(x, t, m)dm. The masses in Figure 1 on page 13 are these mean values At most locations, the critical condition m2d (x, t) M will not ever be achieved,
In order for many fusion reactions to Fusion depends on Correlations Therefore, in general

and therefore signicant fusion will never occur there.

occur, the critical condition must be satised at a number of locations. in mass may well occur between particles of the same or dierent species.

two tuning parameters - the mean deuteron mass, and the mean electron mass.

(x, t, m1 , m2 ) = (x, t, m1 )(x, t, m2 ).

As a simplifying approximation to this situation, let us assume that at a given location the mass values are sharply peaked about a mean value that depends on time. anything precise about the solid, so let us rather study the It is dicult to say

d2

molecule, as was done in [32]. This For simplicity let the

four-body system allows us to estimate the eect of resonant tunneling. deuteron masses both be the same, and similarly for the two electrons in the The non-relativistic Hamiltonian for

d2

molecule. We treat

the masses as slowly varying in time so that a quasistatic approximation can be used.

d2 ,

is (34)

2 2 2 2 = pd1 + pd2 + pe1 + pe2 + V (xd1 , xd2 , xe1 , xe2 ) H 2md 2md 2me 2me
where we treat the

as spinless, and where

is a sum of six two-body terms. One can obtain

this from a Horwitz-Piron or other FS theory provided the masses of the deuterons and electrons have been modied by prior and ongoing interaction with the solid and are changing slowly.

V (xd1 , xd2 , xe1 , xe2 ) = Vdd (|xd1 xd2 |) 2 + i,j =1 Vde (|xdi xej |) + Vee (|xe1 xe2 |) + Vmasses Vmasses = 2md + 2me Vmasses Vde
is slowly varying with time, and so it must be included in the energy. We take

(35) (36)

Vee

and

to be pure Coulomb potentials

Vee (r) = Vde (r) =

but we tak for

e2 r an .

(37)

Vdd

to be a modied Coulomb potential which includes nuclear forces of connement

less than an eective nuclear force range

Vdd (r) =

e /r, r > an 10 fm Udd (r), r an

(38)

Theories of variable mass ...

where

15

Udd

includes the short-distance attractive nuclear force between the deuterons, as well as Even if

electromagnetic forces.

Udd

were known accurately, solving these equations exactly is We ignore the time variation of the masses in

complicated and requires numerical techniques.

solving for the wave functions. The standard treatment for the hydrogen molecule uses the adiabatic approximation and the clamped nuclei computation [99]. The calculation begins by solving for the ground state of the clamped nuclei Hamiltonian

H0 :
2

2 2 0 = pe1 + pe2 + Vdd (|xd1 xd2 |) + H Vde (|xdi xej |) + Vee (|xe1 xe2 |)(39) 2me 2me i,j =1
The nuclei are slowly moving compared to the electrons, and their positions are held xed (clamped) in this rst step. In the center of mass system, let held xed are the electron coordinates. The eigenfunctions for the electronic states are solved rst with

R = xd1 xd2 , R = |R| , and xe1 , xe2 R

(40)

0 0 j (x, R) = Ej H (R)j (x, R)

Expanding the full wave function in terms of these by solve the full Schrdinger equation

(x, R) =

j (R)j (x, R)

we must

(x, R) = E (x, R). H

This can be written in the form of an

equation for the nuclei in an eective potential after making an adiabatic approximation [99]

1 2
where by

+ Uj (R) E j (R) = 0

(41)

is the reduced mass of the two o-shell deuterons, and where the eective potential is given
0 Uj (R) = Ej (R ) + C j (R )
(42)

The rst term in this equation is the Born-Oppenheimer approximation. Several corrections making up

Cn

are included in [99] to improve accuracy.

Koonin and Nauenberg [32] used these The barrier

results in their estimate of fusion rates. eective potential

Here we shall only consider the ground state, and the

Vef f (R) = U0 (R)

aN

which will depend on the electron masses.

penetration factor obtained from the WKB approximation is

B = exp 2
rtp

(2(Vef f (r) E ))1/2 dr Vef f .

(43)

This factor is real-valued and very sensitive to the electron mass through independent of deuteron mass to a rst approximation.

It also depends

on the deuteron mass, but for the 0.6% change we are contemplating here, it can be treated as We follow the basic approach of a two-level quantum system as given by Hagelstein when near to a resonance [69]. There are two weakly coupled eigenstates (i)

is the ground-state for the hydrogen-like molecule constructed from the two slightly o-shell

deuterons and o-shell electrons. nuclear force is not included.

Vef f

is changed by the masses being o-shell.

is a solution

to the modied o-mass-shell 2-body problem where the parameter

an

is taken to zero and the

16 (ii)

Theories of variable mass ...

n
is a nuclear bound state consisting of two o-shell deuterons bound together by the nuclear force and surrounded by a two-(o-shell) electron cloud around them in a ground state solution to a

He

like atom. There are two resonant states to be considered at the masses of

He

and

it's rst excited resonance which is at 20.210 MeV. In the interest of simplicity, we shall now make a crude approximation and develop the two-level theory using only the stable state for

He.

We also consider a third state

4 He

which is an on-shell

He

atom with a nucleus that has irreversibly (we assume) changed from a two-deuteron state

into an

particle.

Once this transformation happens, the reversible dynamics are over for that

molecule. Near a resonance, the states

and

can tunnel back and forth reversibly through the

screened Coulomb barrier that separates them. We start with the following formula from [32] to relate the nuclear fusion rate to the deuteron wave functions when electrons and deuterons are on-shell

dd = Add |a (an )|
where

2
dd fusion, and

(44)

Add = 1.5 10

16

3D wave function with units

cm s is the rate constant for (1/L)3/2 . We only know Add

3 1

a (an )

is a normalized

for on-mass-shell deuterons. This same

rate formula was also used for describing muon catalyzed fusion - a similar problem - in a seminal paper by Jackson [50]. It has problems in the present context. It should be applicable for any wave function

but consider a wave function which vanishes at

r = an ,

but is non-zero for

r < an .

The

formula then wrongly predicts even closer together than

dd = 0.

But the deuterons have a non-zero probability of being

an

in this case, and consequently they should fuse with some non-zero

probability. For a molecular eigenfunction which varies slowly with position for two deuterons, (44) works ne. The following generalization of (44) xes this problem and agrees with (44) for slowly varying s-wave radial wave functions

dd = Add
The radial s-wave function

r<an

| (r)| d3 r 4a3 n
(45)

R (r )
1/2

is dened by

(r ) =

R (r ) (4 ) r

,
0

|R(r)| dr = 1

(46)

and it is easy to show that (45) is consistent with (44), and that for slowly varying radial s-wave functions value.

R(0) an

dd /Add .

The following o-mass-shell formula, based on accurate hydrogen

molecular orbitals, is presented in [32] where

me

is the o-shell electron mass and

me

its usual

dd (me ) =
where

Add a3 0

MN

106.579 me /me MN

(47) is the nucleon

a0

is the Bohr radius,

is the reduced mass of the two deuterons, and

mass. We assume that the rate constant

Add

does not depend on electron mass, but it could and

probably does depend on the deuteron mass. We see then that the rate

dd

depends dramatically

on the electron mass, and as the electron gets more massive the rate goes up dramatically as in (47), and illustrated in (2). This is a well-known and veried phenomenon from muon-catalyzed fusion [50].

Theories of variable mass ...

two quantum states in a nuclear

17

Now we proceed with the resonant theory, following Hagelstein's two level approach [69]. The

|a

and

|n

denote two deuterons in a molecular bound state, and bound They are orthonormal eigenstates of

He

stable ground state respectively.

0. H

We

presume that the nuclear bound state has the same mass as deuterons. The state vector and Hamiltonian operator are

He,

indepdendent of the mass of the

| (t) = ca (t) |a + cn (t) |n H(t) = Ea (t) |a a | + En (t) |n n | + [ (t) |a n | + (t) |n a |] 0 = Ea |a a | + En |n n | H

Without loss of generality, we can take absorbed into the relative phase dierence between

(48) (49) (50)

(me , md ) to be real, since any phase of can be a and n . In the WKB approximation, is

proportional to the barrier penetration B (43), and thus will not depend on the deuteron mass very much. The Hamiltonian is Hermitian, and the dynamics will be reversible, as a rst approximation. Because masses are presumed changing, the parameters the system is in the ground state of the

Ea

and

will be slowly varying functions

of time as in (1). We assume that at the initial time the coupling

is extremely small, and that

d2

molecule with electrons and deuterons on the mass

shell. Although tempting, we do not use the adiabatic approximation here because coupling

could be so

small that the relaxation tunneling time would be larger than the run-time of an experiment. The

can grow greatly over time because the electron mass is assumed to increase. The fusion

rate at any instant follows from (45), and is given by

dd = Add

|cn (t)| 4a3 n

2
(51)

The Hamiltonian is presumed to be slowly varying with time due to the variation of the electron and deuteron masses. We include the rest masses of the deuterons in energy, but we ignore time derivatives of they would be the same in the two states mass, we have

Ea = 2md (t) + mbea (t)

and

0 along with the binding H 0 . We don't need to add the electron masses because H |a and |n . Assuming both deuterons have the same En = m4 He = m , where mbe denotes molecular binding

energy. The time evolution equation is then simply

| (t) = i | (t) = ic H(t) a (t) |a + ic n (t) |n t

We need a functional form for the true eigenstates of amounts to nding the

(52)

in order to proceed. We can deduce it from [32] by calculating t = 0 which we take as the start time for deuterium loading. This eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a 2 2 matrix H
at

Ea (0) (0)
with solutions

(0) En (0)

a n

=E

a n

(53)

E = a n

Ea + En 1 2 2 =

(Ea En ) + 4 2 1 , = (E Ea )/

(54)

1 1+ 2

(55)

18 For on-mass-shell electrons,

Theories of variable mass ...

= / |Ea En | 1
and we can approximate and nd

a n
deuterons are on-shell

=
+

/(En Ea ) 1

+ O( 2 ),

a n

1 /(En Ea )
we nd at

+ O( 2 )

(56)

Calculating the fusion rate for the (-) eigenvector with

a 1,
2

t = 0

when the

dd = Add
Solving for

|/(m 2md )| |/(En Ea )| = Add 4a3 4a3 n n

(57)

we nd

(me ) =

dd (me ) 2 4a3 n (m 2md ) , Add md

is the on-mass-shell deuteron mass and

(58)

We can substitute (47) into (58). Note that measured on-shell value in (58).

Add

is the

Having thus established

(me ),

we can use it for the range of

electron masses. The equations for the evolution of the two-level system are then

d cn (t) = En cn (t) + ca (t) dt d i ca (t) = Ea ca (t) + cn (t) dt

and in

(59)

(60)

The solutions are [69, 100], ignoring any time dependence in and with initial conditions

Ea

for a rst approximation,

cn (0) = 0 4 2 (En Ea ) +
2 2

|cn (t)| = =
For small resonance, of

4 2

sin2 (

t ) 2

(61)

(En Ea ) + 4 2

(62) At exact the mass

t we nd |cn (t)| t, so that is just the barrier transmission coecient. En = Ea , which can happen if the deuterons are o-shell and their sum equals res = 2 (me )

He,

we obtain (63)

The two energy eigenvalues (54) are not degenerate at resonance, the degeneracy having been split by the coupling

The time to rst maxima for A value of 1 day for

|cn (t)|

is given by

Tmax = /.

This is a

critical parameter because we don't want to have to wait around for a long time before a resonance has a chance to build up. the standard electron mass. At resonance

Tmax requires an electron mass about 2.4 times |cn (Tmax )| = 1.0, representing 100% barrier penetration!

Using (51) we nd the following fusion rate at resonance

dd =

Add |cn (t)| 1.19 1019 s1 at resonance and at peak time 4a3 n
but as this is an enormously large fusion rate,

(64)

In arriving at the numerical estimate, we have made a questionable assumption that does not depend on

Add

md ,

Add

could be smaller by

Theories of variable mass ...

many orders of magnitude without changing the basic conclusion.

19 According to [32], the fusion

rate originally claimed by Fleischmann and Pons requires an electron mass ten times heavier than normal for a non-resonant theory. This translates into a fusion rate of

F P = 109.1 s1

from table

2 in [32]. Thus, at resonance peak, we have a fusion rate here which is 28 orders of magnitude larger than claimed by Fleischmann and Pons, but which persists for only a very short time. To achieve this resonance value, the energy dierence term must be zero to extremely high precision so that

|En Ea | < 2 (me ).

rate of

This precision would be unfeasible if it had to be experimentally controlled

as has been already pointed out by Hagelstein [69]. We can relax this precision and still achieve a

F P

by the following

dd
So the factor

4 2 Add = F P 2 2 4a3 n (En Ea ) + 4

(65)

4 2 28 14 can be as small as 10 , or |En Ea | 2 (me ) 10 . But even (En Ea )2 this would require extreme precision. What saves this theory is that we have assumed that the
deuteron mass is slowly and continuously varying with time as is illustrated in Figure 1 on page 13. So provided the asymptotic value of this mass is low enough, the combined masses of the two deuterons will at some time or another have to pass through the resonant value, and then the particle will fuse at that point with a probability of

|cn (t)|

. If this coincides with the broad

maxima in time of (61) then the pair will fuse with near 100% probability owing to the huge rate at resonance (64). The fact that resonance is required for signicant fusion serves as a safeguard which prevents harmful radiation from being produced because at resonance there is no energy (or Q) left over to produce it. This is an enormous benet to this form of nuclear energy if it can be veried. The energy given to the lattice by the fusion event is actually given up prior to the event as reected in the reduced masses of the two deuterons which subsequently fuse into

He

with zero

Q.

The

d2

molecule has been treated as a closed system, but the slow mass variation would require

continuous soft electromagnetic interaction with the lattice. As the deuteron mass decreases, the

n +3 He phase space reaches zero before the t +3 H channel does. Moreover, as the electron mass is 3 supposedly increasing during this time, the t + H channel benets from a relatively lower Coulomb
barrier, as well as the resonance 20.21 MeV (31). This explains why signicantly more tritium is produced than neutrons. After all reactions have ceased, we expect all particles to return to their normal rest masses, and so the energy stored in the electrons' higher masses would be returned to the solid then too. This relaxation process may take some time, and might result in apparent heat production after all driving factors such as electrolysis have ceased. This could explain the so-called life-after-death phenomenon which has been observed in LENR reactions [1]. This theory can be generalized to the case of time varying masses by utilizing the theory of two-level systems with dynamic coupling [100]. From a practical standpoint, long. This requires that the Coulomb barrier penetration factor page 21 shows a plot of

Tmax

must not be too

not be too small. Figure 2 on

dd , ,

and

Tmax .

This sets a limit on how small the electron mass can be

and still achieve the observed fusion rates. But the eect of screening in the actual palladium lattice should be included too, and this goes beyond our simple

d2

model. It's important to note that

dd

is

the conventional fusion rate which does not include the eects of resonance as calculated in [32]. For understanding the eects of resonance, it is more imprortant to look at the

Tmax

parameter. Any

deuteron pair which goes through resonance near to this time will fuse with nearly 100% probability because of the extremely high fusion rate at resonance. Thus the energy release depends on how many deuteron pairs are passing through resonance near to randomize the resonance time, then on average the value of

Tmax at some time or 2 |cn | will be 1/2 as can

other.

If we

be seen from

20

Theories of variable mass ...

This could have a number of eects on the dynamics of this system as currently

(61). It is known that external time dependent stimulation of the system can enhance the excess energy eect. described, but the details remain to be explored. One speculation is that the deuteron mass might acquire a small ripple in time, and this could cause the resonance value to be crossed more than once, which in some circumstances may enhance the fusion rate. Or maybe the time dependent due to this eect. In our calculations we have assumed that the rate constant for dd fusion independent of the deuteron mass. at some expected behavior of of all, as the phase space for

term can become was a constant,

Add

This assumption was made in the interest of simplicity, and

because a theory for the o-mass-shell dependence of this parameter is not known. We can guess

Add as the deuteron mass decreases and approaches resonance. First d + d n +3 He and d + d t + p both go to zero, Add is expected
4

to decrease by as much as 5 orders of magnitude. This is still a small eect on a logarithmic scale

Add may be increased somewhat by the unstable He resonance is approached, we can expect a Breit-Wigner 4 resonance form for the S-matrix of d + d + He, and this resonance should more than oset the
compared to the quantum tunneling factor. But, resonance at 20.210 MeV. As the stable reduction in the photon phase space as resonance is approached. As a consequence, there should be an enhancement in the number of

produced as the deuteron mass approaches resonance, and the

energy approaches zero. Very near to the to a future publication.

He

resonance, multiple photon emission events will

probably become important as well. We defer a more detailed model for the functional variation of

Add

9. Transmutation in deuterated palladium

With varying particle masses, transmutations can conceivably in theory occur in a number of ways in a palladium-deuterium lattice. These include electron capture, beta and alpha decay of nuclei whose mass has increased, resonant fusion of deuterium with other nuclei including palladium, resonant fusion of alpha particles and other nuclei including palladium, and even ssion of palladium and/or other impurity elements after a mass increase. Also, there is the possibility of neutron creation and subsequent capture as in the Widom-Larsen theory, leading to many possible reactions with no Coulomb barrier to be overcome. In short a world of possibilities exist. The fusion possibilities mentioned in this list have a much higher Coulomb barrier than the deuterium molecule. Nevertheless, if resonant tunneling occurs, there might be small numbers of such events occuring, as has been reported in [101]. We shall defer a detailed examination of this subject to a future publication.

10. Micro-craters
Many experiments have revealed micro-crater damage to the Palladium surface after LENR activity has been observed [102105]. It has been commonly thought that these craters were evidence of micro explosions. We oer a dierent explanation. If all (or a substantial fraction) of the electron masses were to increase in a small local region, the lattice spacing would be reduced approximately inversely proportional to their average mass, and this would cause a severe mechanical deformation of the surface of the palladium which could leave a crater caused by shrinkage. If all the electrons were to increase in mass by say a factor of 3 in a small volume on the surface, the volume would decrease by a factor of

33

or 27, which might well leave a crater on the surface. This would explain

why transmutations are often observed to have occurred in or near these craters, as these are

Theories of variable mass ...

100 10-10 10-20
-30 dd 10 (s-1) 10-40

21

(a)

1015 1010 105 100

(b)

(s-1)

10-5 10-10 10-15

10-50 10-60 10-70 0 5 10 15 20

10-20

10

15

20

me (me)
1015 1010 105

me (me) (c)

Tmax (days)

100 10-5

me=2.3971me

10-10 10-15 10-20 0 5 10 15 20

me (me)

Fusion rates vs. electron mass. Deuterons are on-shell. (a) shows the non-resonant fusion rate of Koonin and Nauenberg; (b) shows the estimated parameter as a function of electron mass; (c) shows the amount of time in days until the rst maxima of the cyclic, two-level model resonant tunneling if the electron's mass is held xed.
Figure 2.

locations where the mass variation would be expected to have been the largest. and possibly look like excess material on the rim of a crater.

Later, after all

reactions were over and the electrons returned to their original mass, the volume would re-expand

11. Predictions and an experimental test of o-mass-shell variation

Assuming that this theory is correct, and that masses of deuterons are decreasing slowly as the loading factor testable.

d/pd

increases, then we can make a very simple experimental prediction that is

We predict that the Q values for the reactions in (1), (2), and (3) will be observed to

decrease with time, as the loading progresses, as in Figure 1 on page 13, in those systems that exhibit excess heat production. Perhaps observable eects will even be seen in systems where no excess heat is produced, as excess heat requires that the deuteron mass must decrease until it is resonant with the

He channel, but less mass change could still reduce the Q values for the reactions.
3

As the

phase space for all three channels will change as the Q values diminish, then the relative branching ratios for the 3 channels will change as well. The rst channel to zero out would be the

He + n

22

Theories of variable mass ...

t + p,
4

channel. Then, once the mass of the deuterons decrease below the threshold for producing the only channel open would the

He + .

Such a reduction in Q values for a fundamental nuclear

reaction has never been observed before. It would be a clear and undeniable proof that the deuteron rest mass was changing in these settings. We also expect that the energy of the gamma rays will be reduced from the expected value of

23.77 M eV

continuously down to zero at the resonance point.

These non-resonant fusion events would be governed by the conventional fusion rate formula only

dd ,

and thus would be generally much fewer in number than the resonant fusion events which produce

He

and heat.

Perhaps the simplest apparatus to look for reduced

values in

d+d

fusion would be the gas

permeation methods of Iwamura [106, 107]. Alternatively, beam experiments might be used with low-energy deuterons incident on a palladium metal surface. In either case, precision detection of energetic charged particles, neutrons, and

leaving the surface would be desired.

The charged

particles would include Tritons, Helium-3 nuclei, protons, and of the deuteron rest mass.

particles.

The loading factor

increases in both systems over time. The energies of the charged particles produced are functions If the deuteron rest masses are changing, then this would show up [3640, 92, 93]. Various charged particle as a broadening of the energy spectrum for a given type of charged particle. Beam experiments have been performed already by Huke, Czerski, et al. anomalies have already been observed in those experiments and others [1]. Iwamura et al. [106] have measured radiation produced in experiments with deuterium diusing through pd foil. They nd a broad spectrum of X-rays along with neutron detection, but no correlation between neutrons and X-rays, or with excess heat. These X-rays could indicate fusion events between two o-shell deuterons, which are relatively close to resonance (64). We leave the job of determining whether this phenomenon is occurring to experimentalists, and will not try and draw any conclusions from the various anomalous radiation events that have been reported in the literature here.

12. Conclusion
We want to emphasize that there is no direct experimental evidence yet that masses of electrons, nucleons, or nuclei can change signicantly in a condensed matter setting. What is being proposed here is a radical departure from existing accepted nuclear and condensed matter theory, and deserves to be treated with a great deal of skepticism. Nevertheless, it is this author's opinion that FockStueckelberg or other type of o-mass-shell theories are a possible explanation for such variations and that all of the experiments in LENR can potentially be explained if they are occurring. The experimental claims that have been made about the occurrence of fusion, transmutation, ssion, and lack of signicant radiation in most experiments have been easily judged as absurd and preposterous by many physicists. Yet each year that passes sees more experimental papers claiming to validate these phenomena in the international scientic literature. Any theory that could describe this growing body of experimental evidence will likely seem equally absurd. The author freely admits that the theory he has proposed here is radical and hard to believe, but he sees no other way to explain these experiments, and thus feels compelled to persist. If experiments conrm that mass variation is occurring in deuterated palladium, then it is likely that all of the eects of LENR can be explained by this when applied to various types of charged particles. Controlling the mass variation will consequently become the key engineering challenge required for controlling low energy nuclear reactions. It is ironic that on the one hand in the case of LENR, the acceptance of the experimental results has been impeded for over 20 years by the lack

REFERENCES

23

of a theoretical framework in which the results could be contemplated as even conceivable, whereas in the case of the o-mass-shell covariant relativistic dynamics, the acceptance of this theory into the canon of physics has not happened for over 70 years because of the lack of any experimental evidence for it. chemistry. We have made clear and simple predictions that the Q values for the deuterium fusion reaction channels will reduce with time in deuterated palladium experiments that produce excess heat, and at resonance the Q values will all be zero so that no radiation is produced for the bulk of the fusion events which occur then. If this behavior is conrmed experimentally, then it will be proof that rest masses are changing in a condensed matter setting. Although we have concentrated on the deuterated palladium system here, it is clear that many reactions can occur in other systems such as nickel and hydrogen if masses vary there too. same can be said for combinations of deuterium and metals other than palladium. The body of experimental evidence in this eld has now grown rather large, and it is quite complex. It takes a good deal of time and eort to gain a good understanding of it. In 1990, given the 50 orders of magnitude discrepancy between nuclear theory and the original Fleischmann-Pons experiments, the conclusion was reached that the experiments were wrong. Today this discrepancy remains, mitigated somewhat by enhanced electron screening arguments, but worsened by the abundant transmutation evidence now observed and requiring an explanation. The growing weight of evidence has been slowly tilting the verdict in favor of the experiments. Extrapolating this trend, it seems likely that scientists in the future at some point may come to believe that the nuclear theory circa 1990 was incomplete, and that the experiments showing LENR anomalies were and are in large measure correct. The nal chapter in this epic story has clearly not yet been written. The If o-mass-shell behavior is conrmed, then it will undoubtedly have profound implications for the foundations of quantum mechanics, as well as for other branches of physics and

Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges valuable correspondence with Lawrence Horwitz, and valuable discussions with Peter Hagelstein, Michael McKubre, David Nagel, and Paul Marto. He also acknowledges Any errors are Vladimir Kresin for extensive critical but good-spirited and helpful discussions.

entirely the author's, and he makes no claim of endorsement of this theory by anyone.

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