University of St Andrews School of English GUIDE TO STYLE IN ESSAYS, THESES AND DISSERTATIONS

1. General Clarity, proportion, and consistency are essential characteristics of good presentation. A well-written thesis should be lucid in expression and structure, and designed throughout to facilitate understanding, with the needs of the reader kept always in mind; it should distinguish effectively between points of greater significance and those that are subordinate, so that the discussion devoted to an issue is proportionate to its importance; and it should adhere to a single set of conventions in spelling, punctuation, and layout. Supervisors will give advice on the lucidity of expression and cogency of organization of the thesis in its draft form, and these features are best judged in relation to the specific topic of research. The recommendations given here are concerned with formal conventions of presentation which are independent of the particular subject of a thesis. Some aspects of presentation are subject to strict rules that must be followed; but in other areas, such as the citing of references, several different procedures are acceptable. In such cases it may not much matter which procedure is followed; what does matter is that a single method should be chosen and maintained throughout. Fluctuation between different methods is unacceptable and must be avoided. In the Universitys regulations a distinction is made between a thesis and a dissertation, the term thesis being used for a work submitted for a PhD or MPhil, and dissertation for a work submitted to complete the requirements for an MLitt. Here, however, thesis will for the most part be used as a general term denoting a work submitted to fulfil the requirements for any postgraduate degree, and the technical distinction between a thesis and a dissertation will be observed only in the few instances in which it is essential to do so. MLitt students will find it helpful to follow these conventions for their essays as well so that consistent use of the school style guidelines becomes a matter of habit before the preparation of the dissertation. 2. Formatting The regulations applying in the Faculty of Arts prescribe that theses submitted for the PhD or MPhil and dissertations submitted for the MLitt must be typed on A4 paper, with a left-hand margin of at least 30 mm. The requirement of a minimum left-hand margin is essential for the satisfactory binding of the thesis, and this regulation must be carefully observed. The regulations also require that the thesis or dissertation should be typed either with double spacing or with one-and-a-half spacing; double spacing is normally preferable, and should be chosen unless there are compelling reasons not to do so. Theses submitted for the PhD or MPhil and dissertations submitted for the MLitt must be prefaced by an abstract and a preliminary declaration following a prescribed form. The regulations are set out in the relevant Policy for Supervisors and Students (separate ones for Taught and Reseach Programmes) on the universitys postgraduate webpages: Current postgraduates > Academic Matters > Most Requested Documents

2 3. Divisions and headings The thesis should comprise the following elements, in this order: (1) title-page; (2) abstract; (3) declarations required by University regulations; (4) acknowledgements; (5) list of contents; (6) list of abbreviations (if necessary; abbreviations in common use, such as e.g. and i.e., should not be listed); (7) text of the thesis; (8) appendices (if any); (9) bibliography. Each element should begin on a new page. The pages containing elements (1)(6) should be numbered consecutively using small roman numerals (e.g. ivii); the pages containing elements (7)(9) should be numbered consecutively using arabic numerals. Page-numbers, whether arabic or roman, should be placed in the top right-hand corner of the page. The text of the thesis should be divided into chapters, each chapter beginning on a new page. Chapters should be numbered using large roman numerals, e.g. Chapter IV, and each chapter should also have a title. The number and title of the chapter should be printed in capitals, centred, at the head of its first page. Ideally the chapter-title (or a shortened form of it) should also be printed at the top of each subsequent page of the chapter; this running title, which need not be printed in capitals, should be placed on the same line as the page-number, though clearly separated from it. Within Microsoft Word a running title of this kind can be inserted as a header. Neither the main title nor the running title of a chapter should be followed by a full stop. Long chapters should normally be divided into sections, preferably with descriptive headings; if these sections are numbered, arabic numerals should be employed. The headings of sections should be consistent in style (either emboldened or italicized) and should not be printed in capitals unless it is necessary to distinguish between main headings and sub-headings. Headings should not be followed by a full stop. A new section of a chapter should be preceded by a two-line space, and its heading should be followed by a one-line space. But spaces should not be placed between successive paragraphs. The first line of a paragraph should normally be indented. The opening paragraph of a chapter or section of a chapter, however, may either be left without indentation (as in this Guide) or may be indented like other paragraphs. In some studies, such as systematic treatments of linguistic topics, it is an aid to clarity if every section of the thesis is numbered. In such cases the numbers should either follow a single series for the whole thesis (e.g. 1300), or should be numbered afresh for each chapter, with an initial numeral to denote the chapter (e.g. 1.11.15 in Chapter I, 2.12.15 in Chapter II, and so on). Within the latter system subordinate numerals can also be used for divisions within sections (e.g. 1.1.1, 1.1.2, and so on). Microsoft Word has facilities for the automatic renumbering of numbered sections, whether these follow a single series or have the form 1.1, 1.2, etc. Normally, only the text of the thesis, not the prefatory matter, bibliography or any appendices, is the subject of any specified word limit for the thesis.

3 4. Underlining and italicization Underlining and italicization are equivalent codes, and should not be mixed within a single document; if underlining is employed italicization should be avoided, and vice versa. In this Guide it is assumed that italics will be employed, in order to avoid repeated use of the phrase italicization or underlining; but if underlining is being used instead, italicization or italics should be taken to signify underlining. Italics should be used for the titles of books, journals, or newspapers (e.g. Vanity Fair, English Studies, The Times), for the titles of plays or long poems (e.g. Waiting for Godot, Paradise Lost), for cited words or forms (e.g. the word gentil in Middle English, the prefix hyper-), and for foreign words or phrases that have not been fully assimilated into English (e.g. bte noire, Zeitgeist). Italics should not be used for the Bible or books of the Bible, which should be in roman print; nor should italics be used for the titles of short poems, articles, or unpublished theses, all of which should be placed in quotation-marks (e.g. The Eve of St. Agnes, lfrics Use of Etymologies). Commonly-used abbreviations of Latin terms, such as e.g., ibid., and i.e., should be in roman print, not italics. 5. Abbreviations Abbreviations should not be employed unless they are likely to be of service to the reader, by avoiding the clumsy repetition of frequently-used terms. In a linguistic study, for instance, Old English, Middle English, and Modern English, should normally be abbreviated to OE, ME, and MnE; and in footnotes and references the titles of works recurrently cited may appropriately be abbreviated (e.g. AYL for As You Like It, SGGK for Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, OED for Oxford English Dictionary). It is also sensible to employ abbreviated forms for the titles of periodicals to which reference is frequently made in footnotes or in the bibliography (e.g. RES for Review of English Studies). In the main text, however, works should normally be referred to by their full title, unless there are special reasons for employing an abbreviated form. It is important to make sure that abbreviations are easily understood. So far as possible, abbreviations should follow existing conventions, and practice should normally be based on that of well-regarded published works in the same area of study. When abbreviating the titles of periodicals, it is best to follow the usage of the MLA Directory of Periodicals. Idiosyncratic abbreviations which cannot be readily interpreted by the reader should be avoided. The abbreviation MS should be used when referring to a particular manuscript, e.g. British Library MS Cotton Nero A. x. But in other contexts the word should be written in full, e.g. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight survives in a single manuscript. 6. Quotations A brief quotation in prose or a single line of verse should be included within the main text, in quotation-marks. Either single or double quotation-marks may be employed, provided the choice is followed consistently. If single quotation-marks are normally employed, then a quotation within a quotation should be placed in double quotationmarks; if double quotation-marks are normally employed, a quotation within a quotation should be placed in single quotation-marks. Other marks of punctuation, such as a comma or full stop, should normally follow the closing quotation-mark, not precede it.

4 A longer quotation in prose or a passage of verse that is more than a single line should be set off from the main text by a line-space before and after, and should not be placed within quotation-marks. Quotations set off from the main text should be indented and in single spacing. Quotations should normally preserve the exact form of the original text. If a departure is made from the original, this should be placed in square brackets, e.g. Eagleton claims that he wish[es] to recall literary criticism from certain fashionable, new-fangled ways of thinking that it has been seduced by. Eagletons own words were I wish to recall literary criticism from certain fashionable, new-fangled ways of thinking that it has been seduced by. If words are omitted from a quotation, this should be indicated by inserting three points, e.g. Of the so-called Yale school of deconstruction . . . de Mans criticism in particular has been devoted to demonstrating that literary language constantly undermines its own meaning. 7. Footnotes Notes should preferably be placed as footnotes, not endnotes. Microsoft Word will automatically place footnotes in the correct position and automatically number them. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively for each chapter. Within the main text, the number of the footnote should be superscripted, and should follow any mark of punctuation, not precede it. In the footnote itself the number should likewise be superscripted.1 Footnotes should be used judiciously. The function of footnotes is to enhance clarity and intelligibility, by enabling ancillary material to be subordinated rather than interrupting the main text. Footnotes may therefore be used to cite references, to explain detailed matters of procedure or fact which should be indicated but are inessential to the main argument, or to mention significant points which it is not appropriate to include in the main text. Footnotes should not be used as a repository for needless amplification or unnecessary additional observations, or for the ostentatious display of irrelevant learning; nor should material that has an important role in the argument be consigned to a footnote, rather than being integrated properly into the main text. 8. References Full and accurate references are vital in scholarly work, so that readers may verify assertions and properly assess judgements that are offered. It is also essential to acknowledge, through exact references, indebtedness to existing scholarly work; failure to do so is bad practice academically and also dishonest. There are two chief methods by which references may be included within a thesis: by the use of footnotes or by parenthetical insertions within the text. These are described in separate sections below. Passages from the Bible should be indicated as in: Matthew 7. 1516. Passages from Shakespeares plays should be indicated as in: Othello IV. ii. 738.

This exemplifies the procedure for a footnote.

5 9. References in footnotes If references are given in footnotes, full information should be provided when the work is first cited; any later reference may be given in an abbreviated form, sufficient simply to identify the work. References given in their full form in a footnote should be presented as in the following examples: (1) A book: L.C. Knights, Drama and Society in the Age of Jonson (London, 1937), pp. 95 7. If the publisher is to be indicated as well as the place of publication, this should be done as follows: (London: Chatto and Windus, 1937). Publishers should be specified either in all instances or in none; they must not be indicated in some cases but not in others. If the work comprises more than one volume or is other than the first edition, the number of volumes and the edition should be specified, as in: E.J. Dobson, English Pronunciation 15001700, 2 vols., 2nd edn. (Oxford, 1968). [or (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968)] (2) A contribution to a book: S.J. Keyser, Wallace Stevens: Form and Meaning in Four Poems, in D.C. Freeman (ed.), Essays in Modern Stylistics (London, 1981), pp. 10022. [or (London: Methuen, 1981)] (3) An article: J.W. Binns, Shakespeares Latin Citations: The Editorial Problem, Shakespeare Survey 35 (1982), 11928. (4) An edition of a work: D. Fox (ed.), The Poems of Robert Henryson (Oxford, 1981). [or (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981)] Once the full information about a work has been presented, later references may be given in an abbreviated form, e.g. Knights, Drama and Society, Binns, Shakespeares Latin Citations. Sometimes the most convenient abbreviation is simply the authors name, e.g. Ricks, p. 71. Do not use op. cit. to refer to a work previously specified; an abbreviated title or the author's name is much clearer for the reader and always preferable. If references are given in footnotes, a work mentioned once in passing may simply be indicated in the footnote; it need not be listed in the bibliography if it is not otherwise germane to the study. Works listed in the bibliography should be arranged alphabetically by the authors name, and set out as follows: (1) A book: Ricks, C. Miltons Grand Style. Oxford, 1963. [or Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963.]

6 (2) A contribution to a book: Keyser, S.J. Wallace Stevens: Form and Meaning in Four Poems, in D.C. Freeman (ed.), Essays in Modern Stylistics, pp. 10022. London, 1981. [or London: Methuen, 1981.] (3) An article: Binns, J.W. Shakespeares Latin Citations: The Editorial Problem, Shakespeare Survey 35 (1982), 11928. (4) An edition of a work: Fox, D. (ed.). The Poems of Robert Henryson. Oxford, 1981. [or Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.] If a book forms part of a series, the title of the series and the volume-number of the book should be specified, as in: Sutherland, J. English Literature of the Late Seventeenth Century. Oxford History of English Literature 6. Oxford, 1969. [or Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969.] 10. References within the text The other method of giving references is to insert them in parentheses within the main text, using the author-date system. Works are specified within the text by their author and date, followed by a colon, then by the relevant page-numbers, as in: Paradise Lost IX. 444 has been described as Miltons masterpiece of syntactical fluidity (Ricks 1963: 138). If the authors name has already been mentioned in the immediate context, it need not be repeated in the parenthetical reference, as in: Ricks has described Paradise Lost IX. 444 as Miltons masterpiece of syntactical fluidity (1963: 138). Every work referred to in this way must then be listed in the bibliography, as in the following examples: (1) A book: Ricks, C. 1963. Miltons Grand Style. Oxford. [or Oxford: Clarendon Press.] (2) A contribution to a book: Keyser, S.J. 1981. Wallace Stevens: Form and Meaning in Four Poems, in D.C. Freeman (ed.), Essays in Modern Stylistics, pp. 10022. London. [or London: Methuen.]

7 (3) An article: Binns, J.W. 1982. Shakespeares Latin Citations: The Editorial Problem, Shakespeare Survey 35, 11928. (4) An edition of a work: Fox, D. (ed.). 1981. The Poems of Robert Henryson. Oxford. [or Oxford: Clarendon Press.] If a book forms part of a series, the title of the series and the volume-number of the book should be specified, as in: Sutherland, J. 1969. English Literature of the Late Seventeenth Century. Oxford History of English Literature 6. Oxford. [or Oxford: Clarendon Press.] If two works listed in the bibliography were published by the same author in a single year, they should be distinguished by the addition of the letter a or b after the date, as in: Mitchell, B. 1964a. Syntax and Word-Order in the Peterborough Chronicle 1122 1154, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 65, 11344. 1964b. The Faery World of Sir Orfeo, Neophilologus 48, 1559. 11. References to Internet Sites Give as much information as possible including the full http address and the date that the site was accessed: The Thomas Hardy Association, Novels Page, director Birgit Plietzsch, at http://www.yale.edu/hardysoc/Novels/Novels.htm Consulted on 16 October 2006. Internet sites should be listed in a separate section of the bibliography. Note that for electronic journals or ebooks, only the paper publication details should be given. Website addresses are only needed for material which is available exclusively on the web in that form. 12. Other media References to other media (films, DVDs, videos, theatrical productions) must include sufficient information to identify the source in question. In the case of films, this will involve citing the name of the film, the director, and the date of release: William Shakespeares Romeo + Juliet (Baz Luhrmann, 1996). In the case of some non English language films, it may also be desirable to provide a translation of the title, or (when using a translation) to indicate the original title. When referring to theatrical productions, it is appropriate to cite the director of the production, its date, and the company involved.

8 13. Bibliography The layout and inclusiveness of the bibliography depend in part on the method used to cite references within the text, as described in 1013 above. In the bibliography the surname of the author should precede his or her initials. If a work is by more than one author, the name given first should be in the order surname then initials; a second or later name may either have the order surname then initials, or initials followed by surname. Whichever practice is adopted, it must be adhered to consistently. If the bibliography includes more than one work by a single author, the authors name may be repeated in each case, or may be replaced by a long dash in the second and later entries, as in the example given at the end of 11 above. A consistent practice must be maintained throughout. In the titles of works written in English the first word and subsequent main words should have initial capitals, as in the following examples: The Hero in the Earthly City Shakespeare and the Victorian Stage Hidden Glosses in Manuscripts of Old English Poetry The Concept of Romanticism in Literary Scholarship In the titles of works written in French the first word should have an initial capital, and also the second word, if it is a noun or adjective; if the adjective is followed by a noun, this too takes an initial capital. Otherwise capitals are employed only if the word is normally capitalized in French. Examples are: La Structure de la phrase verbale lpoque Alfrdienne Prcis dexplication franais Les Ides et les lettres In the titles of works written in German an initial capital is used only if the word is normally capitalized in German or is the first word of the title. Examples are: Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache Die antike Kunstprosa Geschichte der deutschen Literaturwissenschaft When page-numbers are given, shortened forms should be employed to avoid the repetition of figures; thus, for instance, pp. 1547 (not 154157, or 15457). But numbers from 10 to 19 should be not be shortened; so, for instance, pp. 1417 (not 147), and likewise pp. 21417 (not 2147). It should not be assumed that length is necessarily a merit in a bibliography. Every item included should either be referred to within the thesis, or else be clearly relevant to the study. Bibliographies should not be swollen by the inclusion of every work that may have been consulted in the course of preparing the thesis, regardless of whether it has a significant bearing on the topic or is referred to in the thesis. 14. Production of the thesis The thesis should normally be produced using a word-processing package such as Microsoft Word. It is essential to keep more than one copy on disk of every essay or section of the thesis, at every stage of its composition, so that work is not lost if your

9 CD or memory stick becomes corrupted or goes astray. To keep only a single back up of ones work, or to fail to keep copies up to date, is to invite disaster. 15. Further information This Guide is intended to cover the main conventions of presentation in theses, but it cannot treat every issue that may arise. Further guidance may be obtained from the following works: Harts Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press Oxford, 39th edn. (Oxford: University Press, 1983). J. Gibaldi, The MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, 2nd edn. (New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1998). MHRA Style Book: Notes for Authors, Editors and Writers of Theses, 5th edn. (London: Modern Humanities Research Association, 1996; repr. 2002) For models of presentation it is probably best to consult books produced by reputable academic publishers, rather than other theses. A successful thesis may not exemplify the ideal mode of presentation in every respect; but a published book will normally have been scrutinized by a professional copy-editor, making it a more reliable guide to good practice. Most publishers provide Author Guides on their websites, as do many journals. These provide handy (and free!) summaries of the kinds of house style that will be relevant to you.

Director of Postgraduate Studies June 2011