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Decoding Pressure Vessel Design

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Bridging the gap between users and manufacturers responsibilities for the ASME pressure vessel code
basis of design, users often lack access to the code language and its associated interpretations. Basis of design refers to well-defined information that could form the foundation for inspection and test acceptance criteria. While engineering specifications often provide sufficient data for a manufacturer in certain basic areas such as internal and external pressure, temperature, vessel orientation, material of construction, corrosion allowance and vessel contents pressure vessel fabricators usually receive insufficient information from users in areas such as wind, seismic and external loadings. The incomplete specification information makes a proper and complete vessel design difficult and can lead to inaccurate price quotes. Providing complete information will help avoid cost overruns and change-orders. The intent of this article is to clarify those areas of pressure vessel specification where information is commonly omitted and areas where further clarification is required. Further, this article is intended to improve understanding of which responsibilities are shouldered by vessel users and which by manufacturers. By providing a more comprehensive basis of design for a vessel, users and manufacturers can save money and formulate specifications with public safety in mind. All 50 U.S. states, all Canadian provinces and many local jurisdictions and territories have formally adopted the ASME Code as a safety standard for boilers and pressure vessels. Each jurisdiction employs a chief inspector who is a member of the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors. Meanwhile, the code is frequently a prevailing basis in other countries throughout the world.

Keith Kachelhofer, Jedson Engineering Inc.

racing its origins to 1915, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (the code) [1] has become the established safety standard governing the design, fabrication and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels, as well as nuclear power plant components during construction. Section VIII, Division I of the code addresses pressure vessels operating at either internal or external pressures exceeding 15 psig. Despite the prevalence of pressure vessels in the chemical process industries (CPI), a clear understanding of the basis-of-design responsibilities involved in designing, fabricating and repairing such a device remains elusive. Vessel users are responsible for providing all necessary data to ensure the manufacturer can design and fabricate a pressure vessel in full compliance with the code. The lack of clear understanding can result in a disconnect between users and manufacturers during pressure vessel specification. The disconnect is often magnified because, although Section U-2(a) of the ASME Code clearly defines the responsibilities for establishing the

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4 U F

Vessel Design Design versus operating T and P

In engineering specifications, often no distinction is made between the design pressure and operating pressure. Section UG-21 of the code recommends a suitable design pressure above the operating pressure of the vessel at which the vessel will normally operate. The operating pressure should represent the most severe exposure of pressure and temperature the vessel is expected to experience under normal operating conditions, whereas the design pressure should allow for potential pres-

Table 1. surface finish comparison

Grit finish 36 60 80 120 Ra (microinch) 142 87 71 52 RMS (m) 4.06 2.49 2.03 1.47

that is the case, clearly indicate it in the specification. A material specification for 150 42 1.20 appurtenances is commonly 180 30 0.86 not given. Items such as lift220 19 0.53 ing lugs, support lugs, skirts 240 15 0.43 and support legs can often be specified with a different grade 320 12 0.36 material than that of pressure Figure 1. The pickling process re400 9 0.25 retaining items. The user may moves the heat tint produced during Mirror +/- 4 0.13 have a vessel where all of the welding (left = before; right = after) pressure-retaining items and sure surges up to the setting of the strictions for material-grade, post-weld wetted surfaces are 316L stainless pressure-relief device. The design tem- heat treatment, and allowable hard- steel, but the lifting lugs and support perature should account for the lowest ness of the weld and heat-affected zone; ring may be fabricated from 304 stainand highest operating temperature, in all of which will impact the manufac- less steel. Depending on the user and addition to operational upsets, atmo- turers cost for fabrication. The user the service, a stainless-steel vessel spheric temperature and other sources should identify dangerous compounds with carbon-steel legs might be acceptof cooling. The design and operating in its process and address the dangers able, provided there is a poison pad between the two materials such that conditions should be established in a in a process safety review meeting. The user should provide the specific the pressure-retaining items are not process safety review meeting within gravity of the process fluid, since the at risk of carbon contamination. Often the users organization. Based upon the material of construc- manufacturer must account for the ad- manufacturers will specify an altertion, the nominal plate thickness and ditional static pressure due to the static nate material grade for appurtenances the minimum design temperature, the head of the liquid, per section UG-22(b). in order to minimize fabrication cost. If alternate material grades are unacceptmanufacturer will have to determine able for appurtenances, that should be the requirements for welding. For car- Materials of construction bon steel and low-alloy vessels, the re- While the material of construction is stated in the specification, particularly quirement for Charpy impact testing commonly included in equipment speci- when manufacturers are competitively can be determined in Section UCS-66 fications, clarification is often required bidding for the contract. of the code. For high-alloy vessels, as to the impact the material specifisuch as those fabricated of austenitic cation has on the fabrication and the Stainless-steel surface finish stainless steel, the manufacturer will quote. Information in the specification For users in the food-and-beverage and refer to Section UHA-51 of the code. should allow the manufacturer to deter- pharmaceutical industries, there are The manufacturer will determine if mine whether or not its qualified weld often requirements for special interimpact testing is required and if the procedures and qualified welders are nal- and external-surface finishes. Amshop has a qualified weld procedure to sufficient for the alloy specified. In cases biguity and different interpretations meet the requirements of the Code. where the manufacturer has to qualify about user expectations and manufaca procedure for an alloy not commonly turer capabilities can arise when the welded in the shop, the cost impact mechanical finish is specified as one Vessel contents of the following: satin, polished, bright, With regard to vessel contents, the should be evaluated. The material specification and the dull or mirror. Parameters such as conkey phrase for the fabricator is lethal service. Vessels are considered lethal grade designation should also be pro- tact time, material feedrate, abrasive service if the contents, whether mixed vided to the manufacturer. For ex- pressure and application of lubrication with air or alone, are dangerous to life ample, if the vessel is fabricated from will have an impact on the finished when inhaled. Lethal service imposes austenitic stainless plate, then indi- product. Special finishes supplied by mandatory Code-compliance require- cate the ASTM International (ASTM) the manufacturer are not published by ments on the manufacturer, such as specification and grade, such as: A240- ASTM International. Polishing and grinding involve the 100% radiography of all welds. These 316L. For the nozzles the specificarequirements can substantially in- tion and grade will be A312-316L. If removal of metal from a surface with the process safety review determines an abrasive, resulting in surface direccrease the vessels fabrication cost. If the process involves hydrogen that seamless pipe is required for the tional marks. There is no definition of sulfide, where there is a risk of sulfide nozzles, then this should be clarified, an abrasive grit size that differentiates stress cracking, then the manufacturer since it will impact the vessels cost. grinding from polishing. As a guide, needs to be advised of the require- For flanges, the specification and grade however, grit sizes of 80 and coarser can ments of the National Association of will be A182F-316L. Depending on the be associated with grinding, whereas Corrosion Engineers (NACE) standard process, some users may prefer using a grit sizes of 120 and finer can be asRP0472 and NACE publication 8X194. carbon-steel backing flange in conjunc- sociated with polishing. Nevertheless, Hydrogen sulfide service will have re- tion with a stainless-steel stub-end. If simply specifying the grit size cannot
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Table 2. guideline for head thinning during forming

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be equated to a specific surface finish. Buffing is not intended to remove metal from the surface. It is intended to brighten and smooth the existing surface with cotton- or felt-based media and with the application of lubricants to the buffing wheel. For precise and consistent results, it is recommended that the surface finish be specified in a range of minimum and maximum level of roughness average (Ra). This can be expressed in microinches or micrometers (Table 1). The Specialty Steel Industry of North America (SSINA) publishes a designer handbook of specialty finishes for stainless steel, which provides detailed descriptions and sample photographs. The handbook can be downloaded free of charge at www. ssina.com. Photographs for comparison of certain standard finishes (Nos. 1, 2B, 2D, 2BA, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8) for sheets or various nominal thicknesses can also be found at the website.

Head thickness range

Allowable thinning during forming 0.032 in. 0.062 in. 15%

12-gauge, up to and including 0.25-in. plate 5/16-in. nominal thicknesses up to and including 0.5-in. plate 9/16-in nominal thickness up to and including 1.0-in. plate

Vessel heads

Some of the most common heads in service are as follows: ASME flanged and dished (torispherical), 2:1 elliptical flanged and dished (ellipsoidal), conical, toriconical, hemispherical and flat. Heads are formed based upon outside vessel diameter, with the exception of elliptical and hemispherical heads, which are formed to the inside diameter. When ordering the head, the vessel manufacturer will provide the head manufacturer with the minimum permitted thickness that is required based upon the calculations. Thinning of the vessel head takes place primarily at the knuckle regions and the center of the dish (Table 2). Torispherical heads. Torispherical heads have dish radii equal to the diameter of the head or vessel shell, and the knuckle is 6% of the head insidecrown radius as required by Section UG-32(e) of the ASME Code (Figure 2). The straight flange (skirt) is a standard 1.5 in. for heads formed from 3/16-in. plate and heavier. Straight flanges up to 2 in. can be provided upon request. For some head manufacturers, a 3-in. straight flange can be provided for head diameters ranging from 36 to 54 in. as long as there is a minimum plate thickness of 3/16
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in. For heads 54 in. and larger, a 3-in. straight flange can be provided with a minimum plate thickness of 0.25 in. When specifying a torispherical head for a pressure vessel, it is important for the user to clearly define an ASME flanged and dished (torispherical) head. Standard flanged and dished heads are manufactured, but do not meet the code requirement of a minimum 6% inside-crown radius for the knuckle region. As a result, the standard flanged and dished heads provide a higher stress concentration factor and discontinuity in the knuckle region. Some manufacturers offer an ASME 8010 head where the dish radius is 80% of the head diameter and the knuckle radius is 10% of the head diameter. The advantage of an ASME 8010 head is that it is thinner (~66% of the thickness of an ASME torispherical head), which results in a smaller blank size and reduced labor cost. A third option for a torispherical head is an ASME high-crown head, where the dish radius is 80% of the head diameter and the knuckle radius is a minimum of 6% of the head diameter. Ellipsoidal (2:1) head. A 2:1 elliptical flanged and dished head provides a dish radius that is approximately 90% of the inside head diameter and a knuckle that is approximately 17.3% of the inside head diameter. The geometry of the ellipsoidal head is provided in Section UG-32(d) of the ASME Code. The decision of whether to specify and use a torispherical head versus an ellipsoidal head is mainly an issue of head clearance. Users should decide which head better suits their needs. If a dished head requires a bolting flange, then the manufacturer must design the head and flange in accordance with the codes Appendix 1 (16). The cost of adding a bolting flange is significant. Toriconical heads. The transition geometry of a toriconical head is typically limited to a maximum half-apex angle of 30 deg (Figure 3). The knuckle cannot be less than 6% of the outside diameter of the head skirt or less than three times the calculated knuckle

thickness as outlined in UG-32(h). Toriconical heads or transitions may be used when the half-apex angle is greater than 30 deg and further requires the design to be in compliance with the mandatory Appendix 1 of the code. A conical head or transition does not have a knuckle. Therefore a reinforcing ring is required by Appendix 15(d) and (e). Half-apex angles greater than 30 deg for conical heads and transitions shall be in accordance with Appendix 15(g) of the code. Un-stayed flat heads. These can be incorporated into the design, but have limitations in pressure and temperature due to their geometry (Figure 4). Section UG-34 of the code provides the design requirements for un-stayed flat heads and covers. This includes bolted blind flanges, flat plates with retaining rings, and threaded covers. The section provides nineteen examples of un-stayed flat heads that can be used, but clarifies that other designs, which meet the requirements of UG-34, are acceptable. The user may have an un-stayed flat head design that is to be incorporated. If so, users should provide a sketch of what is desired and allow the manufacturer to bring the proposed design into compliance with the code. Details are needed when specifying closure heads on a pressure vessel. When specifying the vessel shell length, reference it from the tangent line of one head to the tangent line of the opposite head. The tangent line is an accepted datum for most shops.

Nozzle schedule

Most users generally provide a nozzle schedule, but significant information is inherently omitted. When providing a nozzle schedule, the manufacturer is focused on size, type and quantity. The physical placement of the nozzles, and their projections can be addressed during the drawing review process (Figures 5 and 6). The user needs to be clear on the types of flanges required raised-face slip-on flanges, raisedface weld-neck flanges or lap-joint flanges with stub-ends. When stubends are considered, be sure to clarify

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Inside dish radius Inside knuckle radius

Straight flange

Tangent line Material thickness Outside diameter (O.D.)

Telltale holes are not permitted in vessels intended for lethal service.

Non-destructive examination

Inside dish radius 80% (O.D.) Knuckle radius 10% (O.D.)

Straight flange

Tangent line Material thickness Outside diameter (O.D.)

Inside dish radius 90% (I.D.) Inside knuckle radius 17.3% (I.D.) Tangent line Material thickness Inside diameter (I.D.)

Straight flange

A common oversight is the specification of the degree of non-destructive examination (NDE) testing that is required. Radiographic examination is the most common method of NDE and is incorporated into the code to establish joint efficiencies for the weld seams. All radiographic examination should be in accordance with Section VIII, Division I, UW-51 and with Article 2, Section V of the code. Section UW-52 provides the minimum extent of spot radiography, as well as procedural standards, evaluation and retesting. When specifying NDE, be sure to clarify what level is required. Radiography will increase the cost of the vessel.

Inspection openings

Figure 2. The geometry of an ASME 80-10 torispherical head is such that the dish radius is 80% of the head diameter and the knuckle radius is 10% of the head diameter, while an ellipsoidal head has a dish radius that is 90% of the inside head diameter and a knuckle 17.3% of the inside head diameter

Type A or B stubs ends. For the nozzle necks and any internal piping, specify electric-resistance-welded (ERW) pipe or seamless pipe (SMLS). Seamless pipe cost is considerably higher and will increase the vessels cost. The manufacturer is responsible for determining if the nozzle requires a reinforcement pad. Users should also define the nozzles used for inspection and overpressure protection. If there is not a safety relief device attached directly to the vessel, most users will not identify an overpressure protection nozzle. If the safety relief device is not directly attached to the vessel, identify the nozzle connected to the piping system containing the safety relief device. If the vessel has a manway opening then clarify whether or not a hinge or davit arm is required. If the vessel requires a stud pad or sight glass, then specify it. A manufacturer and model number for the sight glass should be provided with the vessel specification so the manufacturer can obtain a quote. For stud pads, be sure to specify the size and flange rating for the pad.

Safety and teSting Corrosion allowance

The user should also specify a corrosion allowance for the vessel according to Section UG-25 of the pressure vessel code. The only situation for which a corrosion allowance is not required in the specification is when experience in like service has proven corrosion did not occur or the corrosion is superficial. Both the internal and external surfaces of the vessel should be considered. If the vessel is subject to internal corrosion, then the design should incorporate a drain nozzle at the lowest point or a pipe extending into the vessel from any other location to within 0.25 in. of the lowest point. Depending on the service, the user may elect to have telltale holes drilled part of the way into the pressure retaining items. The code requires the holes to be 1/16-in. to 3/16-in. dia. The holes depth must be greater than 80% of the thickness required for a seamless shell of like dimensions. The holes should be on the surface opposite where the deterioration is expected.

Inspection openings are important for routine inspections of the vessel for safety and life expectancy. Elliptical manhole openings are permitted by the code provided the opening is not less than 11 in. by 15 in. or 10 in. by 16 in. and a circular manhole is not less than 15-in. inside diameter (ID). For hand-holes, the minimum size restriction is 2 in. by 3 in., except for vessels over 36 in. dia. where the minimum size handhole is 4 in. by 6 in. and is used in place of a manhole. If the vessel is less than 18 in. ID but over 12 in. ID, the code requires the vessel to have at least two handholes, or two plugged and threaded inspection openings, no smaller than 1.5 in. nominal pipe size (NPS). For vessels with ID between 18 and 36 in., the code requires either a manway, two handholes or two plugged, threaded inspection openings not less than 2 in. NPS. For vessels with IDs in excess of 36 in., the code requires one manway opening, with the exception that two 4- by 6-in. handholes can be used if the vessel geometry does not permit a manway. Nozzles attached to piping or instrumentation can be used for inspection openings, provided the openings meet the required size and are located to afford an equal view of the interior of the vessel. It is the users responsibility to identify the
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Table 3. Examples of Combined Loadings

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inspection openings on the vessel prior to design and fabrication.

Design Pressure in Inner Vessel, psig +250 -15 +100 and -15

Design Pressure in Annulus, psig +50 +200 +150

Pressure Used for Design of Inner Vessel, psig +250 and 50 215 +100 and165

Pressure Used for Design of Jacket, psig +50 +200 +150

Overpressure protection

All vessels are required to have overpressure protection in accordance with Section UG-125 of the code. The relief device can be located directly on the vessel or installed within a process or utility pipeline connected to the vessel. In either case, authorized inspectors may require identification of the nozzle that will be connected to the safety relief device. The identification of the nozzle for safety relief is the responsibility of the user and should be discussed internally during the users process safety review.

Stainless-steel surface treatment

Users requiring a stainless-steel vessel often do not provide specifications for cleaning the vessel prior to shipment. Stainless-steel surfaces and welds require special surface treatments in order to remove light surface contamination. During fabrication, a vessel may be exposed to shop dirt, carbon-steel particles, permanent marker, crayon marker, oil and grease all contaminants that can accelerate corrosion. Carbon steel particles and iron can become embedded in the plate and heads due to routine shop handling, forming rolls, layout tables, cutting tables and carbon-steel grinding operations. The most complete resource for cleaning stainless steel is ASTM International A380-06 (Standard Practice for Cleaning, Descaling and Passivation of Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment and Systems) [2]. The standard recommends the user precisely define the intended meaning of passivation since there are several distinct operations. The first of these operations is defined in Paragraph 1.1.1 of ASTM Standard 380, where passivation is a process by which a stainless-steel surface, when exposed to air or other oxygen-containing environments, will spontaneously produce a chemically inactive surface. It is now accepted that this film will develop in an oxygen-containing environment provided the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and descaled. For most users, passivation is the
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removal of iron compounds from the surface of stainless steel by means of a chemical dissolution. This is accomplished with an acid solution that will not etch the surface or have significant effects on the material. Some methods involve cleaning the vessel with a 2025 vol.% nitric acid solution at 120F for 30 min. The nitric acid solution removes contaminants and oxidizes nickel on the surface to form a chromium-oxide film on the surface and thus prevent further corrosion and oxidation. Citric-acid treatment is the least hazardous and most environmentally safe method for removal of free iron and other metal and light surface contamination. Citric acid is preferred with most manufacturers, since no special handling equipment or safety devices are required; no NOx fumes are released and no corrosion occurs in nearby equipment that might come in contact with the solution. Typical citric acid solutions are 410 wt.%. Spraying the solution and lightly scrubbing the surface with a soft brush is the preferred method for cleaning large vessels. The user must be aware that a passivation treatment includes degreasing, immersion and rinsing. The degreasing process is crucial since air cannot form a protective film when grease or oil is present on the surface. Therefore, it is important that the manufacturer clean the vessel with a commercial-grade degreaser prior to passivation. After treating the vessel with nitric or citric acid, a thorough rinse with clean water should follow without allowing the surface to dry between steps. The pickling process removes the heat tint produced during welding operations (Figure 1). Since nitric and citric acids do not remove surface layers, pickling removes the protective oxide layer between 0.001 and 0.0015 in. of the substrate layer. Pickling paste, nitric-hydroflouric acid (HNO3HF), is typically applied with a nylon brush and can only be left in contact for 1530 min before excessive corrosion is initiated. Similar

to the passivation treatments with nitric acid, shop personnel will need to wear the proper protective clothing and receive proper training for handling the product. ASTM standard A380 also addresses mechanical cleaning, including such processes as power brushing, sanding, chipping, grinding and abrasive blasting. For removal of localized areas of scale, grinding is typically the most effective. To avoid the risk of contaminating the stainless steel, grinding operations have to be carefully monitored to ensure the grinding wheels being used have not been previously used on carbon steel plate. However, the standard does not recommend abrasive blasting with silica, since it is nearly impossible to remove the embedded silica from the surface of the material. Walnut shells or glass beads are the preferred media for abrasive blasting.

External loadings

Section UG-22 of the code provides a short list of various external loading conditions that need consideration, including the following: wind, snow, seismic loadings, as well as superimposed static and dynamic reactions from attached equipment, such as machinery, piping and insulation. While most specifications issued to fabricators cover the bare necessities for sizing a new vessel, many exclude external loadings. Some specification sheets are incomplete, such as those requesting consideration for wind and seismic loadings. Specifications typically will reference the required code for wind and seismic loadings, such as American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Standard 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures [3]. However, they often do not provide specific information on the vessels geographical location, the wind exposure category, the elevation of the vessel from grade or the importance factor. Without these details, the wind and seismic loadings provide an inaccurate picture as to what the vessel might see in an upset condition. The ASME

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Inside diameter (I.D.) Material thickness Inside knuckle radius 6% (I.D.) min. Tangent line

Straight flange

termining wind speed, importance factor, exposure category, topographical factor and gust 30.0 factor. The wind speed is obtained from ASCE 7-05., which provides a map of the U.S. with basic wind speeds for various locations, including special wind areas at the hurricane coastlines of the following regions: the west coast of Mexico, the eastern part of the Gulf of MexFigure 3. Toriconical heads and transition ico and the Southeast U.S. and geometries are limited to a maximum half-apex the Mid- and North Atlantic. angle of 30 deg It is important to understand that it is assumed that the wind could come from any horizontal direction. Where there is mountainous terrain, gorges or other C L Vessel special wind regions, there can be an adjustment made to the Figure 4. Requirements of un-stayed flat values in Figure 6-1 of the code heads and covers include bolted blind flanges, to account for higher local wind flat plates with retaining rings and threaded covspeeds. This adjustment shall ers. Here are a few examples be based on local meteorologiBoiler and Pressure Code, Section VIII cal information. The occupancy category is provided is referenced in ASCE 7-05. Seismic loadings. Section 15.7.2 (c) in Table 1-1 of ASCE 7-05. The occuof ASCE 7-05 requires hydrodynamic pancy category is based upon the navertical, lateral and hoop forces to be ture of occupancy during upset condiconsidered in cylindrical tank and ves- tions involving excessively high winds sel walls. These forces shall be evalu- or earthquakes. The categories for ocated to determine the increase in hy- cupancy range from Occupancy Category I (buildings with low hazard to drostatic pressure and hoop stress. In addition, Section 15.7.3 requires human life in the event of catastrophic the evaluation of all structural com- failure) to Occupancy Category IV (esponents that are an integral part of sential facilities, such as hospitals). the lateral support system. The evalu- Facilities that manufacture or process ation should ensure that connections hazardous fuels, hazardous chemiand attachments for anchorage and cals, hazardous waste or explosives other lateral-force-resisting compo- are considered to be an Occupancy nents, as well as nozzle penetrations Category III. If the hazardous mateand openings are designed to main- rial exceeds a threshold quantity estain structural stability and integrity tablished by a local jurisdiction, then of the shell. Vessel stiffness in rela- the vessel is classified as Occupancy tion to the support system should be Category IV. The importance factor used to determine the forces on the for wind loadings is provided in Table vessel. If the vessel is oriented hori- 6-1 of ASCE 7-05 and is based upon zontally, then analysis is required the occupancy category. Pressure vessels are placed into one at the saddle supports per Section 15.7.14.3. The combination of these of three exposure categories (B, C or loads should be used to establish the D), which depend on ground surface maximum allowable working pres- roughness. To derive the exposure catsure of the vessel as outlined in Code egory, surface roughness must first be defined. Surface roughness is deterInterpretation VIII-1-01-03. Wind loadings. Wind loadings are mined by natural topography, vegetacovered in Section 6.5 of ASCE 7-05. tion and nearby buildings and strucThe design procedure for wind load- tures. Surface roughness category B is ings on pressure vessels requires de- defined as suburban areas and wooded
C L Vessel

areas with numerous, closely spaced obstructions the size of a single-family house or larger. Surface roughness C is defined as open terrain with scattered obstructions of heights less than 30 ft. This category encompasses flat open country, grasslands and water surface areas in hurricane-prone regions. Surface roughness D is characterized by flat, unobstructed areas outside of the hurricane-prone regions. This includes salt flats, mud flats and unbroken ice. A vessels surface-roughness category is then used to determine its exposure category. Exposure category B is defined by surface roughness B with the wind prevailing in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 2,600 ft, or 20 times the height of the building, whichever is greater. Exposure category C is used for cases where Exposures B or D are not applicable. Exposure D applies when the surface roughness is defined as surface roughness D, where the prevailing wind direction is upwind for a distance of 5,000 ft or greater. Exposure D can also apply to surface roughness B or C for a distance of 600 ft, or 20 times the height of the structure, whichever is greater. If the site under consideration is located in a transition zone between exposure categories, then the largest wind forces apply. Topographical effects only need to be considered for increased wind speed over hills and ridges. Section 6.5.7 of ASCE 7-02 provides detailed procedures for calculating topographical effects. The gust effect factor for rigid structures should be 0.85, per Section 6.5.8.1, or should be calculated. If the vessel is dynamically sensitive, then Section 6.5.8.2 of ASCE 7-05 provides the necessary steps to calculate the gust effect factor. These five constants and categories provide sufficient data for the fabricator to properly design the vessel for wind loadings. The ASME Code requires manufacturers to consider the combination of the vessel design pressure along with the secondary stresses from wind or seismic loads. External piping loads. External nozzle loadings are typically overlooked, especially those loadings imposed by high-temperature piping. It is the users responsibility to notify the
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P V1 VL

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V2

M2

M1

VC

MC

ML

MT MT fabricator if the piping may impose excessive loadings on the nozzles. This includes excessive loadings Nozzel identiduring normal operating conditions fication: and during upset conditions. SecNozzel size: tion 15.7.4 of ASCE 7-05 requires P (Concentrated the analysis of the piping system radial load): lb M1 (External overconnected to the vessel during turning moment): in.lb Nozzel identification: earthquake conditions. M2 (External overNozzel size: The piping system and supports turning moment): in.lb P (Concentrated radial load): lb V (Concentrated 1 ML (External overturning moment): in.lb shall be designed such that there shear load): lb in.lb MC (External overturning moment): is no excessive loading on the vesV2 (Concentrated lb VL (Concentrated shear load): sel wall. The assumption that a shear load): lb lb VC (Concentrated shear load): MT (Concentrated external nozzle is an anchor point for piping MT (Concentrated external torsional moment): in.lb torsional moment): in.lb is poor practice. Stresses need to be considered in the shell/head at the Figure 6. Agitators and mixers are nozzle-to-shell juncture. Therefore Figure 5. It is the vessel users responsibility to notify the fabricator as to sources of external nozzle loading. Users all external loads are considered to whether the piping imposes excessive should obtain the mixer reaction loads be acting simultaneously. All exter- loadings on the nozzles from their maker, and relate that to the nal loads, such as the longitudinal vessel manufacturer and circumferential shear loads and moment loads, have to be considered the vessel head needs to be increased. entirely to cylindrical shell with the radial and torsional loads in Some users have invested significant Type 2 Jacket covering part of the conjunction with the design pressure of expense to replace wrecked agitators cylindrical shell and one head the vessel. due to flexing nozzles. Calculating the Type 3 Jacket covering any portion These loads can be analyzed per the stress on the vessel shell and nozzle is of the head Welding Research Council (WRC) Bul- the same as those calculations for pip- Type 4 Jacketed with an added letin 107 and its supplement (Bulletin ing nozzles using the WRC 107 / WRC stay or equalizer rings to the cy297 for cases where the stress is 297 procedures. lindrical shell portion to reduce evaluated in the shell only) [4,5]. Calthe effective length culating loads with WRC 107 and 297 JaCketed veSSelS Type 5 Jacket covering the cylinis time-consuming if performed manu- Jacketed vessels are addressed in Apdrical shell and any portion of eially, because numerous non-dimen- pendix 9 of the ASME Code. Appendix ther head sional geometric parameters have to 9 applies to the jacketed portion of the Half-pipe jackets are covered in a nonbe interpolated from multiple charts. vessel, which includes the wall of the mandatory appendix of the code, ApComputer software programs are avail- inner vessel, the wall of the jacket, pendix EE. The calculation procedure able to aid calculations. and the closure between the inner ves- in the code is for the conditions where sel and the jacket. The manufacturer there is positive pressure in the vesshall consider the combined loading sel shell or head and positive pressure External equipment loads Agitators and mixers are another of the vacuum/pressure on the jacket in the half pipe jacket. The code fursource of external nozzle loadings. Ob- wall along with the pressure/vacuum ther provides restrictions to half pipe tain the mixer reaction loads from the within the inner vessel wall and deter- jacket sizes of NPS 2, 3 and 4 with equipment manufacturer and relate mine which of these is greater than the vessel diameters ranging from 30 to 170 in. The code does permit jackets of these loads to the vessel manufac- individual loading (Table 3). The code categorizes jacketed ves- other geometries, such as circular segturer. The mixer reaction loads have an impact on the cost of the vessel if sels, which provides a convenient ments, channels or angles. The vessel manufacturer should a reinforcement pad, or gussets are method to assign closures. required, or if the plate thickness on Type 1 Jacket (any length) confined consider other combinations of pres-

References
1. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division I, 2007 Edition, Addenda, 2007. 2. ASTM International. Designation: A380-06, Standard Practice for Cleaning, Descaling, and Passivation of Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment, and Systems. 3. American Society of Civil Engineers. ASCE 7-05: Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.

4. Wichman, K.R., Hopper, A.G., Mershon, J.L., WRC Bulletin 107 / August 1965: Local Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells due to External Loadings, Welding Research Council, 1965. 5. Mershon, J. L. and others. WRC Revised Bulletin 297: Local Stresses in Cylindrical Shells due to External Loadings on Nozzles Supplement to WRC Bulletin No. 107 (Revision 1), Welding Research Council, 1987. 6. Tuthill, A. H. and Avery, R. E. Specifying Stainless Steel Surface Treatments. Nickel

Institute, http://www.nickelinstitute.org. 7. Farr, J.R. and Jawad, M.H., Guidebook for the Design of ASME Section VIII Pressure Vessels, ASME. 1998. 8. Chuse, R., and others Pressure Vessels: the ASME code simplified, 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993. 9. Powell, C. and Jordan, D. Fabricating Stainless Steels for the Water Industry, Nickel Institute, Reference Book Series No. 11 026, October 2005.

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