Phylum Porifera The Sponges Phylum Porifera exhibits what is known as a cellular level of organization.

. This means that each cell has a considerable degree of independence although there is some differentiation of cells for specific functions and some limited communication between cells. Porifera means pore bearing this refers to the epidermiss porous make up which allows water to pass into flagellated chambers where feeding occurs. Adult sponges are all aquatic and sessile (attached to the bottom substrate) and (except for a few fresh water species) marine. The most primitive of the sponges are radially symmetrical (spherical symmetry), but most exhibit asymmetrical symmetry (meaning none). Sponges vary in size from a few millimeters to several meters in diameter. The body wall of a sponge can be divided into three main components1) Epidermis- the outside layer with incurrent pores 2) Mesohyl- the middle layer (mesenchyme) which is composed of a noncellular, gelatinous protein matrix containing spicules (skeletal elements) and amoebocytes. 3) Inner layer of flagellated collar cells called choanocytes. The mesohyl is composed of spicules made of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide and spongin (protein fibers)- it is these spicules that differentiate at the greatest degree and are the major factor in dividing the phylum into classes. Sponges have three major body/canal types (in ascending order of cellular complexity)1) Asconoid Sponges- consists of a central cavity or spongocoel opening to the exterior by means of the osculum (excurrent opening). Choanocytes line the inner wall of the spongocoel and move water through the body cavity using their flagella. Reference figure 1.1A for diagram 2) Syconoid Sponges- demonstrate the simple folding of the body wall, external folds form the walls of the incurrent canals. Choanocytes line only the radial canals (internal folds). 1.1B for diagram 3) Leuconoid Sponges- Complex folding of the body wall is exhibited and choanocytes are found only on the walls of the flagellated chambers. 1.1C Sponges are filter or suspension feeders- as water is moved through the body of the sponge by the motion of the choanocyte flagella a collar of microvilli of the choanocyte collects particles. Sponges have no digestive cavity, instead digestion is intracellular and the products of digestion are distributed throughout the body by the wandering amoeboocytes. Each cell disposes of its own nitrogenous waste and obtains its own supply of oxygen from the water current supplied by the choanocytes. Reproduction in sponges can be both sexual and asexual.

Some are Dioecious- meaning egg and sperm are produced in separate individuals More commonly they are Monoecious- meaning egg and sperm are produced in one individual. Asexual reproduction comes by means of budding, fragmentation, regeneration or gemmule (cyst like bodies that can withstand freezing and desiccation) formation. There are three classes of Phylum Porifera, distinguished mainly by the composition of their spicules: 1) Class Calcarea- Spicules are composed of calcium carbonate; they are small and vase-like and exhibit all three types of canal systems. All asconoid and syconoid sponges belong to this group. 2) Class Hexactinellida- small deep sea sponges whose spicules are formed from silica. The spicules are woven together in a complex glass-like lattice that can be quite beautiful. All members of this class have leuconoid canal systems. 3) Class Demospongiae- This group includes approximately 80% of all sponges. Virtually all sponges over 10 cm tall belong to this group. All exhibit Leuconoid canal systems. Demospongiae are highly variable in body form and occur in both marine and fresh water habitats. Totipotent- An unspecialized cell that can form any other cell type. Similar to human embryonic stem cells.

Phylum Cnidaria- Hydras, jellyfish, sea anemones and corals This phylum exhibits considerable diversity in size, ranging from Hydra with a diameter of about 1 mm to giant jelly fish that get up to two meters in diameter. Most cnidarians are marine and live in shallow water. At the next stage in evolution from sponges are the cnidarians, which exhibit a tissue level of organization meaning, that among the cells of these animals there is some division of labor. At this point there is little to no degree of organ development. All cnidarians have tentacles and are radially symmetrical, meaning a cross section anywhere on the animal results in two symmetrical halves. Contrary to the porifera though there are two major body types that very greatly within phylum Cnidaria, and are often exhibited in the same lifetime by a specimen in this group. The two body types exhibited are: 1) Polyp- a basically cylindrical tube with its mouth directed upwards. 2) Medusa- a free swimming bell shaped animal with its mouth facing downwards. Some Cnidarians, such as members of the class Anthozoa(Corals and Sea Anemones), exhibit only the polyp form. Others have a dominant medusa stage and an inconspicuous polyp(scyphozoans- jellyfish), and others have an inconspicuous medusa and a dominant polyp form(Hydrozoans- Obelia, Portuguese-man-o-war). Cnidarians, unlike the porifera, have an internal gastrovascular cavity that serves for both digestion and circulatory capacities within the animal. Oftentimes this feature is coupled with a mouth that can open wide and the result is a system of ingestion that can be used for particles much larger than those the porifera could take in. Digestion of food takes place mainly in the gastrovascular cavity rather than intracellularly. Tentacles, which are extensions of the body wall encircle the mouth and function in the capture and ingestion of food. In addition all cnidarians have organelles called nematocysts, these are stinging capsules that are abundant on the tentacles within specialized cells called nematocytes. The nematocysts function for anchorage, defense, and capture of prey. There are three body wall types in cnidarians: 1) Epidermis- outer cellular covering composed of several different cell types. 2) Mesoglea- an inner, non-cellular layer that is particular thick in many medusae earning the name jellyfish 3) Gastrodermis- the inner cellular layer composed of many different cell types. * The condition of having two layers of embryonic tissue cells is diploblastic.

Locomotion is accomplished by cnidarians in two different ways. Polyps can move by means of a gliding motion of their bases, medusae are almost always free swimming. The gastrovascular cavity serves as a hydrostatic skeleton against which the muscle cells of the body wall and the tentacles can contract. Phylum Cnidaria is carnivorous, feeding on small crustaceans and fish that come in contact with the nematocysts on the tentacles. The products of digestion pass to the rest of the body by means of diffusion. There is no anus; waste products are passed through the mouth. Respiration and excretion (removal of nitrogenous waste) take place mainly by diffusion. A primitive, radially arranged nerve net or plexus is present in cnidarians. Reproduction varies by class Classes of Phylum Cnidaria: 1) Class Hydrozoa- most hydrozoa, unlike Hydra, possess both the polyploid and medusoid stages in their life cycles. In most species asexual budding results in the formation of colonies. The majority of the polyps are gastrozooids, which are responsible for the capture and ingestion of prey. The gastrozooids partially digest the nutrients and the pass it down the rest of the colony via the gastrovascular cavity for intracellular digestion. The gonozooids are specialized for reproduction, producing the sexual medusae. Most medusae are released as free swimming , these hydrozoan medusae are generally much smaller than those of scyphozoans. The medusae produce eggs and sperm which unite to create a zygote which results in a larva, termed a planula that will remain free swimming for a time and then settle resulting in a new polyp colony. *Polymorphism- or having many forms is an important feature of colonial hydrozoans. Most are at least dimorphic (two forms), possessing both gastrozooids and gonozooids. The organism Physalia (Portuguese-Man-O-War) is a particularly interesting example of this phenomenon and is actually composed of a colony of gastrozooids for feeding, dactylzooids for defense, gonozooids for reproduction, and pneumatophore for flotation. 2) Class Scyphozoa- jellyfish, the medusoid stage is dominant. The medusae produce gametes which may be fertilized externally or in a brood chamber. The resulting free swimming planula larva eventually attaches to the substrate producing a reduced polyploid stage termed the scyphistoma. The scyphistoma generally undergoes transverse fission in a process called strobilation. The resulting strobila contains many immature medusae (Ephyrae), each of which will break away and develop into a new medusa. 3) Class Staurozoa- These are the unusual cnidarians. The polyp is solitary and has a top that resembles a medusa. It has eight extensions, each with a cluster of tentacles. There is no medusoid stage.

4) Class Cuboza- Members of this class were once considered part of the Scyphozoa. The medusoid form is dominant. The bell of the medusa is square in cross section giving its members a distinctive appearance. Eyes are more developed than in Scyphozoa. Cubozoans are predators of fish and include some of the most dangerous cnidarians to humans. (Australian Sea Wasp) 5) Class Anthozoa- Corals, anemones, sea fans, and sea pansies. No medusoid is present in this class. Superficially the polyps of this group appear very similar to Hyrdozoa, but the inner workings are quite different. The mouth connects with an invaginated pharynx or gullet that extends well into the gastrovascular cavity . The gullet contains ciliated grooves (siphonoglyphs) which lead from the mouth to the gastrovascular cavity. The gastrovascular cavity contains a number of septa that divide it into compartments. Cnidocyte houses the nematocyst. DUMBASS.

Phylum Platyhelminthes- Flatworms Phylum Platyhelminthes exhibits bilateral symmetry. This is of particular interest because it is these animals that are the first to display any symmetry beyond radial, or none. This is due to the advanced cephalization present in this phylum- in scientific terminology cephalization refers to a concentration of sense organs at the anterior end of the animal, or formation of a head and tail end. Platyhelminthes are the first of many phyla we will encounter exhibiting the triploblastic condition- being formed from three embryonic germ layers (germ layers defined as undifferentiated embryonic tissues). The three layers, from outside to inside, are the Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Platyhelminthes have an acoelomate body plan- acoelomate is defined as having no body cavity. The mesenchyme takes up the entire area between the epidermis and the gastrodermis so that there is no body cavity surrounding the gut. Other distinguishing primitive features of this phylum include a single opening to the incomplete digestive tract(when a digestive tract is present). And protonephridium( a system of flame bulbs or cells)- a primitive type of excretory and osmoregulatory structure found in a variety of lower invertebrate phyla. The phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into four classes: 1) Class Turbellaria- most commonly free-living flatworms frequently seen in ponds and slow moving streams. 2) Class Trematoda- (Flukes) parasitic, usually having a vertebrate animal as the primary host, they possess complex life cycles in which intermediate invertebrate hosts often harbor the immature stages. 3) Class Monogenea- The monogenetic flukes are in many ways the intermediate between the Trematoda and Cestoda. Monogenea are parasites of aquatic vertebrates attacking fish gills and the bladders of turtles and frogs. The Monogenea have simple life cycles and seldom cause serious damage to their hosts. 4) Class Cestoda- (Tapeworms), the most specialized of the flatworms. All are endoparasitic (Living inside the host), usually in the intestines of vertebrates.

Phylum Nemotoda and Phylum Rotifera (Roundworms) NematodaOrganisms of literal worldwide distribution. One decomposing apple is known to house over 90,000 specimens. They can be herbivorous, carnivorous, or saprophagous(feeding on decaying material-detritus). Nematodes are bilaterally symmetrical, the exhibit the tube-within-a-tube body plan. The body wall or outer tube consists of the external cuticle, the epidermis, and the muscle layer. Nematodes have only longitudinal muscles that act against both the impermeable cuticle and pseudocoelom which acts as a hydrostatic skeleton, causing their locomotion to be a spastic thrashing as the longitudinal muscles of opposing sides alternate contractions. Some have ridges which allow them to grip the substrate. There is no circulatory system,. The digestive system consists of the mouth, which leads to the buccal capsule(Cavity of the mouth) which then leads into a tubular esophagus. Nematodes do have an anus which allows them to eat continuously. An excretory/osmoregulatory system is comprised of a renette/gland system. Most nematodes are dioecious. The female is bigger and the male has a curved spiked tale. Nematodes have mid-ventral and mid-dorsal nerve tracts. RotiferaThe main differences between Nematoda and Rotifera are: Feeding- Rotifers have a corona(ciliated crown-like structure) that creates a feeding current, which carries food particles into the mouth, The mastax(pharynx) has a complex set of trophi (jaws) which can usually be observed in motion. Reproduction- Some are vivaporous(live young). Others exhibit parthenogenesis, most commonly eggs developing without fertilization and an inherent lack of males is the result. Males will be much simpler and oftentimes dont even develop mouths. Mictic and Amictic cycles- with men and without men

Phylum Annelida- Polychaetes, earthworms, and leeches This Phylum is characterized by its tubular body plan, the presence of metameric segments and true coelem. They have in many cases attained considerable size, a feature that requires the presence of auxiliary organ systems such as: circulation, respiration, excretion, sensory perception, and nervous integration. Metameric segementation- a body plan based on the repetition of more or less similar segments along with the unit of certain organ systems also repeated within each segment. In Annelids there is a pre-oral segment called the prostomium and a terminal segment called a pygidium both of which are not metameres. Coelom is definied as a fluid filled body cavity surrounding the gut that is entirely lined by mesodermally derived tissue. Usually there are no organs strictly inside the coelom(The organs are covered in mesodermal tissue) although in some animals (polychaete annelids) the gametes are shed into the coelom and retained there until transferred to the outside. Nitrogenous waste products are often excreted into the coelomic fluid before being passed to the outside by nephridia. During embryonic development the coelom arises from the mesodermal tissues by one of two modesIn protostomes(Annelids, arthropods, Molluscs) a cavity forms in a mass of mesodermal cells. In deuterostomes (Echinoderms and chordates) the coelom develops from mesodermal outpocketings of the primitive gut. In keeping with its metameric nature the coelom of Annelids does not exist as a single large space but as a series of coelomic chambers, one per segment that are more or less completely separated from each other by septa. The relative development of the coelom in annelids is related to the specific classes mode of locomotion. In polychaetes the separation is incomplete, oligochaetes are complete and the coelom of leeches is filled with loose mesenchyme tissue.

Phylum Arthropoda Youre going to want to kill yourself now Phylogeny- Arthropods are closely linked to the annelids in an evolutionary sense. As Dr. Tschinkel so kindly pointed out on Lecture Exam 1- Annelids and arthropods are linked by several shared derived characters: both have a (1) metameric body in which (2) new segments are added in a posterior budding region in the larva. Both have (3) a double ventral nerve cord, (4) a cuticular body covering secreted by an epidermis, and (5) paired, metameric appendages. None of these characters are found as homologues in any of the other protostomes, thus linking the arthropods and annelids through common ancestry. The great success of the Arthropods, as well as their diagnostic feature, is the hardened exoskeleton. Together with its muscles this hardened outer shell provides efficient means of motility. The exoskeleton is continuous, but jointed together by articular membrane that makes flexible movements possible. Arthropods exhibit an organ level of development. They are triploblastic, eucoelomate, protostomes (Spiral, Determinate Cleavage) and exhibit bilateral symmetry with tagmatization and metamerism. Skeletal support is achieved by muscles and the hardened exoskeleton. This phyla in particular exhibits a very specialized nervous system with a cerebral ganglion(BRAIN!) and metermeric ganglia. They have a ventral nerve cord. Many specialized sensory organscompound eyes, sensory hairs, tympanic membrane (sound recognition, or more specifically vibrations). Arthropods all have a full digestive system(in most- foregut, midgut, hindgut, the fore and hindguts being a formation of the exoskeleton and are subsequently also shed during ecdysis. Excretion is the function of green glands within Crustacea, nephridia are present in more primitive species and Malphigian tubules are the advanced excretion system of insects. Circulation is an open system. Hemocoel is the persistent blastocoel, most possess a dorsal heart. Respiration is achieved by book gills or lungs, and in insects is the job of the entire cuticle of the organism. Reproduction, per usual, is greatly differentiated. Mostly dioecious, pycnogonida(sea spider things) have ovigers, and spermatophore is present in many species- this is a sac in the female that allows her to hold and save sperm for future use. Material up to the midterm included the majority of the Subphyla of Phylum Arthropoda, including: I) Subphylum Trilobitmorpha- Although these animals are long extinct, our extensive fossil records indicate that they are the earliest of the arthropods and have distinct primitive features as such. Tri-lobed (longitudinally) body plan, biramous appendages, and two compound eyes. http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRRxMBNLNJS0sFXnXJpJnUIKtKYw9NE4hcmw8VKd0Zjp1SAo&t=1&usg=__OQkOw5BWzYyYCuJq4HiEfpMAy9Q=

II) Subphylum Chelicerata- This extant subphyla differs from the other subphyla of Arthropoda in the mouth parts, chelicerates replace mandibles, and they lack antennae- Classes within the subphyla include: Class Merostomata- horseshoe crabs. This class is ancient, and is also a crucial part of intravenous medical technology. Their blood is copper based(weird) and they have book gills to breath. The tagma are referred to as the Prosoma(Cephalic region) and the Opisthosoma(hind region and caudal spine). A club-like chelicerae differentiates males from females. 2) Class Pycnogonida- Sea spiders. Odd, daddy long leg creatures. All are marine. They have a long suctorial proboscis for sucking the fluids out of things. Diagnostic feature is the oviger, a reproductive attachment to the animals leg due to the reduced nature of its actual body. Tagma are also the opisthoma and prosoma. 3) Class Arachnida- mites, ticks, spiders, and scorpions. Book lungs are the respiratory organ. Chitinized trachea are the diffusion chambers for circulation. They have a waxy epicuticle to reduce evaporation. Some have external digestion. Ganglia concentration in head(Brain?). Have sensory hairs and compound eyes. Arachnids are dioecious and most exhibit a spermatophore. III) Subphylum Crustacea- mostly marine, some freshwater and a few terrestrial. Crustaceans are segmentally arranged and biramous. The tagma are the Cephalothorax and the abdomen. The head region of the cephalothorax bears the antennae, mandibles and the first and second maxillae. The thorax has three pairs of maxillipeds and five pairs of walking legs. The abdomen differs greatly but is usually six segments, ending with uropods and a telson The exoskeleton of crustaceans is calcified. Five main classes were discussed: 1) Class Branchiopoda- Mostly abundant in freshwater, body is uniformly segmented with a large number of similar appendages used for filter feeding, locomotion and respiration. In lab these were tiny white shrimp in a small vial, with black eyes visible. 2) Class Ostracoda- composed of a body enclosed in a bivalved carapace closed my muscles and opened by an elastic hinge. In lab these appear as a microscopic, pink bundle of legs 3) Class Copepoda- Occur in dense populations in marine and freshwater environments, most are planktonic, they have a single medial eye and long antennules. In lab they were microscopic and appeared as a more discernable form of ostracoda without the carapace. 4) Class Cirripedia- Barnacles. Huge DICK. They can be stalked or stalkless, they have a heavy calcerous shell and modified exoskeleton, free living forms are filter feeders and have cirri(feet) for creating this current. Monoecious but exhibit cross-fertilization. Most common appearance in lab is a stalked, crusty cucumber looking specimen in a vial. 5) Class Malacostraca- roly poly, crabs, shrimp, lobster, crayfish. Represent seventy percent of crustaceans. Highly diversified and successful group. 1)

Most studied specimens within the lab itself. Sex of crabs is determined by the grooves on its underside. Study the anatomy of the crayfish closely(dissection). Claws are called the chelipads, walking legs are pereiopods, swimmerets are pleopods, and external excretion segment is called the uropod. Dorsal heart is highly visible in dissection, the stomach and reproductive organs are cephalic and mainly dorsal, tail is called telson. ************************************************************************************ ALL MATERIAL ABOVE THIS LINE WAS COVERED BEFORE THE MIDTERM Arthropoda II- Insects- If You havent already, now would be the time to pull the trigger Insects represent, by far, the most successful group of animals on this planet. They comprise about 80% of all terrestrial life. General characteristics shared by most insects include: three tagamata- head, thorax, and abdomen. One pair of antennae, and three pairs of mouth appendages on the six segmented head, three pairs of walking legs on the three segmented thorax and a variable number of appendages on the eleven segmented abdomen. In the majority of the insects there are a pair of dorsal wings present on the second and third thoracic segments (The exception residing within subclass Apterygota(meaning wingless). The excretory structures of insects are the Malphigian tubules and respiration takes place throughout the exoskeleton via tracheae. Other basic characteristics are shared with the rest of the arthropods. The life cycle of arthropods usually includes metamorphosis from a nymph(Niaid=water nymph) or larvae to an adult. The juvenile forms, nymph or larvae, grow by ecdysis but the adult form does not grow and instead reproduces. Among the winged insects (all insects with the exception of apterygota), there are two types of metamorphosis1) Hemimetabolous or incomplete- in which the juvenile(nymph) resembles the adult and the wings develop externally, visible as diminutive wings until the adult molt 2) Holometabolous or complete- in which the juvenile(larva) does not resemble the adult and in which the wings develop internally and are everted during metamorphosis. In this type of metamorphosis there is generally a pupal stage between the larval and adult stage. It is by these life cycles that the insects are subclassed, those of a hemimetabolous metamorphosis are Division Exopterygota or outside wings and those of holometabolous metamorphosis are Division Endopterygota(Inside wings). The orders of insects vary greatly even throughout the divisions but the wings remain the same characteristic inside or outside developmentThe orders of Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Hexapoda, Class Insecta, Division Exopterygota are as follows: 1) Order Odonata- Damselflies and Dragonflies

Order Orthoptera- Grasshoppers, roaches , crickets, mantids Order Isoptera- Termites, wings present only in newly born queen Order Hemiptera- True Bugs Order Homoptera- Aphids, cicadas, leaf hoppers. Wings form a house roof over back and they suck plant juices. The orders of Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Hexapoda, Class Insecta, Division Endopterygota are as follows: 1) Coleoptera- Beetles 2) Lepidoptera- Butterflies ad moths 3) Hymenoptera- Ants, wasps, bees 4) Diptera- Flies The Fifth Subphylum of Phylum Arthropoda is Subphylum Myriapoda, under which are two similar classes: 1) Class Diplopoda- millipedes, name meaning two footed, are differentiated from chilopods(centipedes) by the presence of two pairs of walking legs per body segment 2) Class Chilopoda- Centipedes- one pair of walking legs per body segment

2) 3) 4) 5)

Phylum Mollusca- Pretty cool, really confusing. Not cool Phylum Mollusca is the second most diverse group of creatures in existence, over 100,000 species exist. This phylum includes clams, oysters, chitons, snails, squid, and octopus. The evolutionary origin of mollusks is difficult to trace but a link to the annelids is suggested by the presence of spiral cleavage and trocophoric larval stage. Distinctive amongst this class is the presence of a veliger larval stage post trocophore. The characteristics that group all these organisms (although one or more may be lacking in certain classes) are: general non-segmentation, a reduced coelom, a muscular foot, a well defined heart, a regionalized digestive system often including a chitonous radula, and a mantle which secretes the shell and inside which the gills are housed. Molluscans exhibit a triploblastic embryonic origin, are protostomic, eucoelomate, and exhibit spiral cleavage. The ancestral larva is trocophore and continues to a veliger form(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sharks/island/images/veliger.jpeg). In most classes, cephalopods excluded, the mantle is responsible for secreting a calcareous shell to cover the visceral mass as well as house the foot. In squid the only remnant of such a secretion is the long calcareous pen. Presence of one or two kidneys, metanephridia, opening into the pericardial cavity(where the hemocoel is filtered) and usually emptying into the mantly cavity. Locomotion varies by class. No asexual reproduction present, but monoecious as well as dioecious reproduction is exhibited. Fertilization can be internal or external, spermatophore(semen filled sac created by male to shove into female), all except cephalopods develop a trocophoric larva followed by a veliger(cephalopods skip to free swimming veliger form). Sensory and nervous system functions are particularly advanced. Presence of advanced eyes, The osphradia is a chemosensory structure that is located in the mantle cavity. Presence of statocysts which are organs for balance, snails use it to judge position relative to the ground. 2 pairs of nerve cords, one innervates foot and other the organs/visceral mass. Nervous system function is highly derived within cephalopods- presence of skin color changing element, chromatophores to express emotion, function in camouflage. Cephalopods also exhibit an independently evolved eye(or in some cases eyes) that are as advanced and perhaps even more efficient than our own. Respiration takes place via lungs, gills, mantle or body surface. Open circulatory system(Although there is a heart and blood vessels, the circulatory system is still considered open due to the open sinuses it passes through) in most specimens of heart, blood vessels, and sinuses; respiratory pigment in blood. Five Distinct Classes Present, as well as a theorized Ancestral form from which they are all projected to have derived. 1) Ancestral form is called HAM 2) Class Gastropoda- presence of a non compartmentalized shell, torsion takes place within this class. Torsion is the twisting of the shell to offer more protection as well as taking advantage of the surface area to volume ratio. Coiling can be planospiral meaning it is coiled in a single plane or conispiral giving it a cone shape. Sinistral is left shelled dextral is right shelled. The

3)

4)

5)

6)

apex or protoconch refers to the top or oldest portion of shell. All have a radula which is modified for its feeding method(includes drilling, harpooning, grating, etc). There are three distinct subclassesA) Subclass Prosobranchia- Conches, whelks, limpets. All are shelled and marine B) Subclass Opisthobranchia- Nudibranchs and sea hares. These specimens leave their shell after hatching. Several specimens exhibit a very strange phenomenon- kelptoplasty and kleptocnidae during which the chloroplasts are stolen from algae or the tentacles are stolen from a Man-o-War. Incredible feeding adaptation. All specimens are marine. C) Subclass Pulmonata- Slugs and terrestrial snails. Formation of lungs present in terrestrial specimens. Very fleshy head-foot. Class Bivalvia- clams, oysters, etc.. Laterally compressed species with two shells that open with a hinge lingament and are held closed by adductor muscles. Loss of head. Umbo is the oldest part of the shell, the u shaped portion at top of shell, opposite of opening portion. Are filter feeders, the siphon forces water onto the gills which function in both respiration and feeding. Exhibit various modes of locomotion including burrowing clams, sessile oysters and swimming scallops. Class Cephalopoda- includes nautiloids. Squid, octopus, cuttlefish. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by a prominent head, and a set of arms or tentacles (muscular hydrostats) modified from the primitive molluscan foot. In all specimens except the nautiloids the shell has been internalized or is absent altogether. They exhibit a closed circulatory system, which is uncharaceristice of this phylum (three chambered heart). Siphon is used as a means of jet propulsion in squid and octopus. Class Polyplacophora- Name meaning many plates. These are the closest to the ancestral form and exhibit most of the primitive features. They are dorsoventrally flattened and inhabit the rocky intertidal areas where waves crash at the base of cliffs, etc Exhibit a home scar or tendency to return to a burrowed hole at a specific place on a rock for their entire life span. Class Scaphopoda- cone shaped, odd specimens of the group. Mantle is wrapped around body and fused into a tube. Foot buries in the sand and the posterior end pokes out into the water and is ciliated. The movements of the foot and cilia pump water through to filter feed.

Phylum Echinodermata- Starfish! The echinoderms along with phylum Chordata represent the deuterostomes. As opposed to protostomic(mouth first) formation the development of the anus comes first in the embryo. Another characteristic difference is in the development of the coelom, within protostomes it is accomplished by means of schizocoely, or a split coelom originitating as outpocketings of the archentron. Within deuterostomes the development of the coelom is enterocoelous or within the intestine. Deuterostomes also exhibit indeterminate, radial cleavage. All species of phylum Echinodermata are marine, exhibit pentamerous radial symmetry. All echinoderms hace a dermal endoskeleton composed of calcareous ossicles that often bear spines or projections. Unique to the echinoderms is the water vascular system that plays a role in nitrogenous waste excretion, circulation, respiration, locomotion and feeding., and is derived from the coelom. Reproduction is mainly dioecious with external fertilization, but can also be clonal due to regenerative ablities(as long as a portion of the central disk remains intact. There are five main classes that are studied within lab and several of them vary greatly in characteristics as well as physical appearance: Class Asteroidea- starfish and sea stars. Possess a two part stomach, the eversible cardiac stomach(oral) and the pyloric stomach(aboral or top of starfish) from which actual digestion takes place. At the tip of each arm is a red pigmented photoreceptor called an eyespot. The ambulacral groove runs through the center of each arm and adjacent to it on either side are where the tube feet of the Water Vascular system protrude. On the aboral or top side of the starfish is the madreporite, a sieve-like opening to the water vascular system that opens into the stone canal and into the ring canal. From the mouth, digestable material makes its way to the pyloric stomach and then out to one of ten pyloric caeca. The radial canals run down the center of each of the ambulacral grooves and branch out into lateral canals that terminate as tube feet. Ampulla are bulbous projections located above the tube foot, this mechanism works like an eye dropper to aid in locomotion using the water around the organism. Class Ophiuroidea- Brittle stars and Basket Stars- the central disk of these stars differs greatly from the asteroids in that there is no anus of intestine and the madreporite is located orally. They have no tube feet and no ambulacral grooves or hepatic(pyloric) ceaca. Class Echinoidea- Sand dollars, sea urchins- these species are characterized by fused ossified plates called a test. Also diagnostic to these species is the 8 piece, each separated into five parts, jaw mechanism called Aristotles lantern. Class Crinoidea- Sea lilies, crinoids, feather stars- mainly sessile specimens that filter feed. The main function of the tube feet is feeding in this class. Also have cirri which function as grapple hooks for attachment to the substrate. They have

cilia used for creating the current for filter feeding and their mouth faces upwards. Class Holothuroidea- Sea cucumbers- Has respiratory tree in its anus, uses evisceration(Throws up its innards) as a defense mechanism. Considered the most specialized in the phylum. Phylum Bryozoa- Look just like Porifera. Literally almost indistinguishable. Are organized into colonies of zooids. Resemble hard corals or hydroids. Mostly marine. Have free swimming larva, they are eucoelomate, have a u shaped gut, have protonephridia and flame bulbs to function in excretion, respires by diffusion, and is mainly monoecious and broods its eggs within the coelom or zooecium.

Phylum Chordata- Finally some real animals! Well Some. Chordates are characterized by four features present either throughout or at some point within their life history, these characteristics are: a dorsal hollow nerve cord, a notochord, gill slits, and a post anal tail. Within phylum Chordata there are two subphyla that exhibit the four features but never develop a vertebrae, they are called the protochordates and are classified as follows: Subphylum Urochordata: tunicates or ascidians- the four features are present within the tadpole larva but all are lost early on in metamorphosis besides the gills slits. These species end up abandoning their planktonic stage by burying their cephalic region into the substrate and attaching to metamorphosis into a filter feeding basket thing. Subphylum Cephalochordata- these specimens exhibit all four characteristics throughout their lifespan, are always very small and suspension feeders. (Amphioxus) These specimens are considered to be the introduction to the vertebrates. The rest of the specimens within phylum Chordata are under the Subphylum Vertebrata. This enormously successful group shares dominance of the land and the sea only with the arthropods. The salient features of the vertebrate body plan are an internal skeleton consisting of a segmented axial and appendicular portion, with the anterior end of the axial skeleton being cephalized, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and an efficient closed circulatory system with a chambered heart. The internal jointed skeleton together with the muscles allows for complex, efficient locomotion. The highly developed nervous system brings about great integration of the sensory and motor functions. The efficient circulatory system allows for greater capacity for body size and higher levels of activity. Subphylum VertebrataClass Agnatha- Hag fish- jawless, but have sucker with keratinized teeth, they lack paired appendages, have a two chambered heart. Class Chondrichthyes- Sharks, rays, ratfish- Cartilaginous endoskeleton, paired appendages, skin with scales(denticles) from which the teeth were modified. Highly developed jaws, two chambered heart, separate and exposed gill slits, lack a swim bladder, have a large oily liver, and have two claspers for sperm transfer. Class Osteichthyes- fish- Have a bony exoskeleton, embedded dermal scales, a two chambered heart, gills supported by bony gill arches and covered by a common operculum, a swim bladder that functions as lung or buoyancy

organ(proof that the lung is a separately evolved characteristic), and a homocercal tail. Class Amphibia- Amphibians- mostly bony endoskeleton, tetrapods, smooth moist skin, no scales, a three chambered heart(1 ventricle, two atria), gills, lungs and skin to function in respiration, must lay their eggs in water(not truly terrestrial) Class Reptilia- Bony endoskeleton, horny epidermal scales, and few glands. Separated into three distinct cladesClade Lepidosauria- Lizards and snakes Clade Testidunes- turtles and tortoises Clade Archosauria- Crocodilians, dinosaurs and birds(air cavities in bones) Class Mammalia- Hair, integument which has sweat, scent, sebaceous and mammary glands, lungs, warm blooded with internal fertilization. There are three differentiated clades within class mammalia according the the method and length of reproduction of juveniles Monotremata- lay eggs(platypus) Marsupulia- Short internal development, finish within external pouch of mother Placentals- Long internal development phase, presence of a placenta around embryo.