Growth and Development

Dewa Ayu Nadia Taradhita (8C/16)

2011
The summary of Growth and Development unit for 8th grade.

SMPN 1 Denpasar Jl. Surapati no. 2, Denpasar

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1. A. GROWTH Growth is defined as increase due to increase in cell number and size in an organism. Growth is an irreversible process and can be measured quantitavely. Growth happens due to: Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Meiosis is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction. In animals, meiosis produces gametes (sperm and egg cells), whilst in other organisms, such as fungi, it generates spores. The factors due to the process of growth are: Internal factors, such as: Gene is a unit of heredity in a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of proteinor for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living things depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains. Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring, although someorganelles (e.g. mitochondria) are self-replicating and are not coded for by the organism's DNA. All organisms have many genes corresponding to various different biological traits, some of which are immediately visible, such as eye color or number of limbs, and some of which are not, such as blood type or increased risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life. Hormones are chemicals that transfer informations and instructions between cells in animals and plants. Often described as the bodys chemical messengers, hormones regulate growth and development, control the function of various tissues, support reproductive functions, and regulate metabolism. Unlike information sent by the nervous system, which is transmitted via electronic impulses that travel quickly and have an almost immediate and short-term effect, hormones act more slowly, and their effects typically are maintained over a longer periodof time. a. Plant hormones Plant hormones Roles in the plant growth and development Auxin 1. Promotes the cell elongation and differentiation of vascular tissue 2. Promotes the formation of adventitious roots 3. Inhibits growth in main system 4. Retards the abscission (dropping off) of flowers, fruits, and leaves. Gibberellin 1. Control the elongation of stems 2. Causes the germination of some grass seeds by initiating the production of enzymes that break down starch into sugars to nourish the plant embryo 3. Controls flowering

2.

1.

2.

o o o

o o

1. Promote the growth of lateral buds (acting in opposition to auxin) 2. Controls cell division 3. Controls flowering Ethylene 1. Regulates fruit maturation and abscission 2. Promotes seed germination 3. Accelerate fruit ripening Absisic acid (ABA) 1. Accelerate senescence in old tissues 2. Accelerate senescence in leaves 3. Inhabits germination b. Human growth hormones (somatostatin) c. Growth hormone in Invertebrates (ecdysone and juvenile hormone) External factors, such as: Temperature affects the action of enzyme that affects the plants body metabolism. Light Intensity pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.[1] Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25 C (77 F). Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. pH measurements are important in medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, food science,environmental science, oceanography, civil engineering and many other applications. Humidity Nutrient/foods

Cytokinine

B. DEVELOPMENT The growth is followed by development. Development is a change in function towards maturity, and therefore its a qualitative phenomenon. In other words, development is the process of growing to maturity. In biological terms, this entails growth from a onecelled zygote to an adult human being. The process of development has three components: growth (size increases), morphogenetic movement ( the shaping of patterns and forms), and differentiation (the change of undifferentiated to specialized structures) Differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation is a common process in adults as well: adult stem cells divide and create fully differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover. Differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape,membrane potential, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to highly controlled modifications in gene expression. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome. Differentiation is followed by organogenesis, that is is the process by which the ectoderm,endoderm, and mesoderm develop into the internal organs of the organism. The observable example of development are: 1. Metagenesis Metagenesis is a living process of rotation is between sexual and asexual phases. Animals and plants that have metagenesis will experience two phases of life, that phase of life that reproduce sexually and phase of life that reproduce asexually. Metagenesis in plants can be observed clearly in seedless plants (spikes and moss). In plants, the male gamete formation takes place in the antheridium and female gametes in arkegonium. If the male gametes fertilize the female gametes, it will form a zygote. Zygotes grow into individuals that produce spores. This generation is called the vegetative phase (asexual) or sporophytes. Spores that fall in the corresponding place will grow into a new individual that produces gametes. Because it produces gametes, then the generation phase is called generative (sexual) or gametophyte. So forth offspring rotation occurs between the phases gametophyte and sporophytes.Moss plants that often you find a gametophyte phase. While the ferns you see everyday is the phase of sporophytes. Descent rotation between sporophytes and gametophyte phase is called metagenesis . Some of the lower animals also experienced metagenesis, eg Obelia and Aurelia. Note metagenesis jellyfish (Aurelia). Jellyfish (Aurelia) has two types of life that is life when attached (polyps) and life moves freely (medusa). 2. Metamorphosis Metamorphosis is a change in body shape events in stages starting from larvae to adults. Metamorphosis occurs in insects and amphibians. There are 2 types of metamorphosis:

a. Perfect metamorphosis metamorphosis is characterized by the presence of a phase called the pupa or chrysalis. Form of insect larvae to adults is much different. Stages in the metamorphosis is as follows. eggs? larvae pupae (cocoons) adult (imago) The eggs hatch into larvae. Larvae do not have wings and wing signs also not there. When the form of larvae, eating insects are very active. The larvae then pupate changing shape. There is a direct larvae make pupa, but there is also a patron of the first to make a folded leaf, soil or fine sand, fine wood cuts, and other materials. The protection is called a cocoon around the pupa or cocoon. In the pupa stage, eating insects are not active, although the metabolic process is ongoing. After passing through the pupa stage, the insects will become an adult (imago). b. Not Perfect Metamorphosis (Hemimetabola) Insects that have incomplete metamorphosis , the newly hatched form of insects (nymphs) are not much different from the adult form (imago). A striking difference is the nymphs have no wings. The wings will grow gradually so as to resemble the adult form. In general, nymphs and adult insects have the same properties. For example in crickets and grasshoppers. The order of the life cycle of insects having incomplete metamorphosis is as follows. eggs (nymphs) adult (imago). Development in human consists of: 1. Prenatal or antenatal development is the process in which a human embryo or fetus (or foetus) gestates during pregnancy, from fertilization until birth. Often, the terms fetal development, foetal development, or embryology are used in a similar sense. After fertilization the embryogenesis starts. In humans, when embryogenesis finishes, by the end of the 10th week of gestational age, the precursors of all the major organs of the body have been created. Therefore, the following period, the fetal period, is described both topically on one hand, i.e. by organ, and strictly chronologically on the other, by a list of major occurrences by weeks of gestational age. Prenatal development includes: o Blastula (from Greek (blastos), meaning "sprout") is a solid sphere of cells formed during an early stage of embryonic development in animals. The blastula is created when the zygote undergoes the cell division process known as cleavage.[1] The blastula is preceded by the morula and is followed by the gastrula in the developmental sequence. o Morula (Latin, morus: mulberry) is an embryo at an early stage of embryonic development, consisting of cells (called blastomeres) in a solid ball contained within the zona pellucida.[1] The morula is produced by embryonic cleavage, the rapid division of the zygote. Once the zygote has divided into 32 cells, it begins to resemble a mulberry, hence the name morula (Latin, morus: mulberry).[2] Within a few days after fertilization, cells on the outer part of the morula become bound tightly together with the formation of desmosomes and gap junctions, becoming nearly indistinguishable. This process is known as compaction.[3][4] The cells of the morula then secrete a viscous liquid[specify], causing a central cavity to be formed, forming a hollow ball of cells known as the blastocyst.[5][6] The

blastocyst's outer cells will become the first embryonic epithelium (thetrophectoderm). Some cells, however, will remain trapped in the interior and will become the inner cell mass(ICM), and are pluripotent. The ICM will ultimately form the "embryo proper", while the trophectoderm will form the placenta and other extra-embryonic tissues o Gastrulation is a phase early in the embryonic development of most animals, during which the single-layered blastula is reorganized into a trilaminar ("three-layered") structure known as the gastrula. These three germ layers are known as theectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.[1][2] Gastrulation takes place after cleavage and the formation of the blastula and primitive streak. Gastrulation is followed byorganogenesis, when individual organs develop within the newly formed germ layers.[3] Each layer gives rise to specific tissuesand organs in the developing embryo. The ectoderm gives rise to epidermis, and to the neural crest and other tissues that will later form the nervous system. The mesoderm is found between the ectoderm and the endoderm and gives rise to somites, which form muscle; the cartilage of the ribs and vertebrae; the dermis, the notochord, blood and blood vessels, bone, and connective tissue. The endoderm gives rise to the epithelium of the digestive system and respiratory system, and organs associated with the digestive system, such as the liver and pancreas.[4] Following gastrulation, cells in the body are either organized into sheets of connected cells (as in epithelia), or as a mesh of isolated cells, such as mesenchyme.[2][5] The molecular mechanism and timing of gastrulation is different in different organisms. However some common features of gastrulation across triploblastic organisms include: (1) A change in the topological structure of the embryo, from a simply connected surface (sphere-like), to a non-simply connected surface (torus-like); (2) the differentiation of cells into one of three types (endodermal, mesodermal, and ectodermal); and (3) the digestive function of a large number of endodermal cells.[6] The terms "gastrula" and "gastrulation" were coined by Ernst Haeckel, in his 1872 work "Biology of Calcareous Sponges".[7 o A Neurula is an embryo at the early stage of development in which neurulation occurs. Neurulation is the development of the nervous system in the vertebrates, at the thickened area above the notochord in ectoderms. The neural plate will fold to produce the neural tube which will develop into the brain. Remaining tissue will develop into the spinal cord. Neurula involves the formation of an internal neural tube from an external sheet of cells. The first signs of neurulation are flattening and thickening of the ectoderm overlying the notochord; this thickened area forms a neural plate. The edges of the neural plate that run an anterior-posterior direction continue to thickening to form ridges or folds. Between these neural folds, a groove forms and deepens as the fold roll over it to converge on the midline.

The fold fuses, forming a cylinder, the neural tube, and a continuous overlying layer of epidermal ectoderm. The neural tube develops bulges at the anterior end, which become (as said above) the major divisions of the brain; the rest of the tube becomes the spinal cord. 2. Postnatal (Latin for 'after birth', from post meaning "after" and natalis meaning "of birth") is the period beginning immediately after the birth of a child and extending for about six weeks. Another term would be postpartum period, as it refers to the mother (whereas postnatal refers to the infant). Less frequently used is puerperium. Postnatal includes: o Infancy is the period from birth to about 2 years of age. The first stage of life is an important time, characterized by physical and emotional growth and development. o Childhood age is the period of growth and development that extends from infancy to adolescence. During this period the child has the ability to reason and solve problems progressively. o Adolescence is the stage of maturation between childhood and adulthood. It usually starts at about age 14 in males and 12 in females. Dramatic changes in physical stature and features are associated with the one set of pubescence caused by the increase secretion of hormone. Hormone is a chemical that produced by endocrine gland that has the function to manage several things that happen in organ system. The work of endocrine gland that increases during the pubescence starts from hypothalamus gland at the base of the brain, produced gonadotropin releasing factor (GnRH) that would stimulate hipofisis gland (pituitary) to release FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone). FSH hormone In male will affect the form of sperm in testis. in female will stimulate ovary in order to produce mature ovum and estrogen hormone. Male The development of Adams apple. The body become more muscular. The growth of the hair at the face, arms, armpits, chest, genitals, and leg. maturation and increasing the size of the male reproductive organs The sexual changes in adolescence period: LH hormone In male will affect the testis to produce androgen hormone/testosterone. In female will stimulate ovary to produce progesterone hormone and a little estrogen and androgen. Female The development of the breast The shape of body change, the hip enlarged The growth of the hair at the armpit and genitals. -

The physical change during the adolescence period:

a. Female The changes during this period is menstruation. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium). It occurs on a regular basis in reproductive-age females of certain mammal species. Overt menstruation (where there is bleeding from the uterus through the vagina) is found primarily in humans and close evolutionary relatives such as chimpanzees. The menstrual cycles are: Basic Biology: the cycle begins Did you know that when a baby girl is born, she has all the eggs her body will ever use, and many more, perhaps as many as 450,000? They are stored in her ovaries, each inside its own sac called a follicle. As she matures into puberty, her body begins producing various hormones that cause the eggs to mature. This is the beginning of her first cycle; it's a cycle that will repeat throughout her life until the end of menopause. Let's start with the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a gland in the brain responsible for regulating the body's thirst, hunger, sleep patterns, libido and endocrine functions. It releases the chemical messenger Follicle Stimulating Hormone Releasing Factor (FSH-RF) to tell the pituitary, another gland in the brain, to do its job. The pituitary then secretes Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and a little Leutenizing Hormone (LH) into the bloodstream which cause the follicles to begin to mature. The maturing follicles then release another hormone, estrogen. As the follicles ripen over a period of about seven days, they secrete more and more estrogen into the bloodstream. Estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to thicken. It causes the cervical mucous to change. When the estrogen level reaches a certain point it causes the hypothalamus to release Leutenizing Hormone Releasing Factor (LH-RF) causing the pituitary to release a large amount of Leutenizing Hormone (LH). This surge of LH triggers the one most mature follicle to burst open and release an egg. This is called ovulation. [Many birth control pills work by blocking this LH surge, thus inhibiting the release of an egg.] Ovulation As ovulation approaches, the blood supply to the ovary increases and the ligaments contract, pulling the ovary closer to the Fallopian tube, allowing the egg, once released, to find its way into the tube. Just before ovulation, a woman's cervix secretes an abundance of clear "fertile mucous" which is characteristically stretchy. Fertile mucous helps facilitate the sperm's movement toward the egg. Some women use daily mucous monitoring to determine when they are most likely to become pregnant. Mid cycle, some women also experience cramping or other sensations. Basal body temperature rises right after ovulation and stays higher by about .4 degrees F until a few days before the next period. Inside the Fallopian tube, the egg is carried along by tiny, hairlike projections, called "cilia" toward the uterus. Fertilization occurs if sperm are present. [A tubal pregnancy, called ectopic pregnancy, is the rare situation when e a fertilized egg implants or gets lodged outside the uterus. It is a dangerous life-threatening situation if the fertilized egg starts developing and growing into

an embryo inside the fallopian tube or elsewhere. The tube will rupture causing internal bleeding and surgery is required. Find more about treatment for Ectopic Pregnancy at http://www.ectopic.org.uk. A woman can use a speculum to monitor her own ovulation and use this information to avoid or encourage a pregnancy. This is the all-natural fertility awareness method (FAM) of family planning. Uterine Changes Between midcycle and menstruation, the follicle from which the egg burst becomes the corpus luteum (yellow body). As it heals, it produces the hormones estrogen and, in larger amounts, progesterone which is necessary for the maintenance of a pregnancy. [RU-486 works by blocking progesterone production.] In the later stages of healing, if the uterus is not pregnant, the follicle turns white and is called the corpus albicans. Estrogen and progesterone are sometimes called "female" hormones, but both men and women have them, just in different concentrations. Progesterone causes the surface of the uterine lining, the endometrium, to become covered with mucous, secreted from glands within the lining itself. If fertilization and implantation do not occur, the spiral arteries of the lining close off, stopping blood flow to the surface of the lining. The blood pools into "venous lakes" which, once full, burst and, with the endometrial lining, form the menstrual flow. Most periods last 4 to 8 days but this length varies over the course of a lifetime. Bleeding - A New Theory Some researchers view menses as the natural monthly cleansing of the uterus and vagina of sperm and bacteria they carried. Cramps and Other Sensations Women can experience a variety of sensations before, during or after their menses. Common complaints include backache, pain in the inner thighs, bloating, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, headaches, breast tenderness, irritability, and other mood changes. Women also experience positive sensations such as relief, release, euphoria, new beginning, invigoration, connection with nature, creative energy, exhilaration, increased sex drive and more intense orgasms. Uterine cramping is one of the most common uncomfortable sensations women may have during menstruation. There are two kinds of cramping. Spasmodic cramping is probably caused by prostaglandins, chemicals that affect muscle tension. Some prostaglandins cause relaxation, and some cause constriction. A diet high in linoleic and liblenic acids, found in vegetables and fish, increases the prostaglandins for aiding muscle relaxation.

Congestive cramping causes the body to retain fluids and salt. To counter congestive cramping, avoid wheat and dairy products, alcohol, caffeine, and refined sugar. Natural options to alleviate cramping:

Increase exercise. This will improve blood and oxygen circulation throughout the body, including the pelvis. Try not using tampons. Many women find tampons increase cramping. Don't select an IUD (intrauterine device) as your birth control method. Avoid red meat, refined sugars, milk, and fatty foods. Eat lots of fresh vegetables, whole grains (especially if you experience constipation or indigestion), nuts, seeds and fruit. Avoid caffeine. It constricts blood vessels and increases tension. Meditate, get a massage. Have an orgasm (alone or with a partner). Drink ginger root tea (especially if you experience fatigue). Put cayenne pepper on food. It is a vasodilator and improves circulation. Breathe deeply, relax, notice where you hold tension in your body and let it go. Ovarian Kung Fu alleviates or even eliminates menstrual cramps and PMS, it also ensures smooth transition through menopause Take time for yourself!

Anecdotal information suggests eliminating Nutra-Sweet from the diet will significantly relieve menstrual cramps. If you drink sugar-free sodas or other forms of Nutra-Sweet, try eliminating them completely for two months and see what happens. Lifestyle The hormones in our bodies are especially sensitive to diet and nutrition. PMS and menstrual cramping are not diseases, but rather, symptoms of poor nutrition. Premenstrual Syndrome or PMS PMS has been known by women for many many years. However, within the past 30 or so years, pharmaceutical companies have targeted and created a market to treat this normal part of a woman's cycle as a disease. These companies then benefit from the sale of drugs and treatments. Premenstrual syndrome refers to the collection of symptoms or sensations women experience as a result of high hormone levels before, and sometimes during, their periods. One type of PMS is characterized by anxiety, irritability and mood swings. These feelings are usually relieved with the onset of bleeding. Most likely, this type relates to the balance between estrogen and progesterone. If estrogen predominates, anxiety occurs. If there's more progesterone, depression may be a complaint.

Sugar craving, fatigue and headaches signify a different type of PMS. In addition to sugar, women may crave chocolate, white bread, white rice, pastries, and noodles. These food cravings may be caused by the increased responsiveness to insulin related to increased hormone levels before menstruation. In this circumstance, women may experience symptoms of low blood sugar; their brains are signaling a need for fuel. A consistent diet that includes complex carbohydrates will provide a steady flow of energy to the brain and counter the ups and downs of blood sugar variations. Menstrual Myths

Every woman's cycle is or should be 28 days long. Every woman will or should bleed every month. Every woman will or should ovulate every cycle. If a woman bleeds, she is not pregnant. A woman cannot ovulate or get pregnant while she is menstruating.

The above statements are myths. Every woman is different. It's true that most women will have cycles that are around 28 days. But, a woman can be healthy and normal and have just 3 or 4 cycles a year. [However, while variations might be healthy and normal, they could also be a sign of a serious underlying problem. For example, a recent news article suggested that irregular menstrual cycles may predict Type 2 Diabetes.] Ovulation occurs about 14-16 days before women have their period (not 14 daysafter the start of their period). The second half of the cycle, ovulation to menstruation, is fairly consistently the same length, but the first part changes from person to person and from cycle to cycle. In rare cases, a women may ovulate twice in a month, once from each ovary. Conception/Fertilization of an egg, can only occur after ovulation. The egg stays alive for about 24 hours once released from the ovary. Sperm can stay alive inside a woman's body for 3-4 days, but possibly as long as 6-7 days. If a couple has intercourse before or after ovulation occurs, they can get pregnant, since the live sperm are already inside the woman's body when ovulation occurs. Thus a woman can become pregnant from intercourse for about 7-10 days in the middle of her cycle. b. Male Testicular size, function, and fertility In boys, testicular enlargement is the first physical manifestation of puberty (and is termed gonadarche).[15] Testes in prepubertal boys change little in size from about 1 year of age to the onset of puberty, averaging about 23 cm in length and about 1.52 cm in width. Testicular size continues to increase throughout puberty, reaching maximal adult size about 6 years after the onset of puberty. After the boy's testicles have enlarged and developed for about one year, the length and then the breadth of the shaft of the penis will increase and the glans

penis and corpora cavernosa will also start to enlarge to adult proportions.[16] While 1820 cm is an average adult size, there is wide variation in testicular size in the normal population.[17] The testes have two primary functions: to produce hormones and to produce sperm. The Leydig cells produce testosterone, which in turn produces most of the male pubertal changes. Most of the increasing bulk of testicular tissue is spermatogenic tissue (primarily Sertoli and Leydig cells). Sperm can be detected in the morning urine of most boys after the first year of pubertal changes, and occasionally earlier[citation needed]. On average, potential fertility in boys is reached at 13 years old, but full fertility will not be gained until 1416 years of age[citation needed]. During puberty, a male's scrotum will become larger and begin to dangle or hang below the body as opposed to being up tight, to accommodate the production of sperm whereby the testicles need a certain temperature to be fertile. o Adulthoods and senescence Adulthood is a state of a person who has attained maturity or legal age. Several general changes take place in the human body as it ages: hearing and vision decline, muscle strength lessens, soft tissues such as skin and blood vessels become less flexible, and theres an overall decline in body tone. Most of the bodys organs perform less efficiently with advancing age. The immune system also changes with age. Most of the glands of the endocrine system the organs that secrete hormones regulating such functions as metabolism, temperature, and blood sugar levels retain their ability to function into advanced age. Also the ovaries and the testes, alter during the aging process. Menopause Technically menopause is the last menstrual flow of a woman's life and the climacteric is period of time preceding and following this event. In general usage, menopause refers to the whole process. For most women, menopause occurs between the ages of forty and sixty and takes place over a period from 6 months to three years. The menstrual cycle usually goes through many changes, some slow and some sudden, before stopping altogether. A woman's periods may become erratic, closer together, or further apart. She may skip a period or two, or have spotting at other times in her cycle. A common experience is loss of large amounts of blood with a period and passage of large clots. When a woman nears the cessation of her periods, she may not ovulate for one cycle or several cycles. In this case, the endometrium doesn't receive the chemical message to stop thickening. It grows and grows until its heavy bulk causes a heavy flow. Signals of menopause include hot flashes or flushes, changes in sleep patterns, headaches or migraines, high energy, high creativity, and/or mood changes. As with PMS, some of these symptoms are hormone imbalances caused by poor nutrition.