Karnopp, B. Dynamics of Particles: Kinematics and Kinetics The Engineering Handbook. Ed. Richard C.

Dorf Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

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12
Dynamics of Particles: Kinematics and Kinetics
12.1 Dynamics of Particles
Cartesian Coordinates Natural (Path) Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates Kinematics of Relative Motion

12.2 Newton's Second Law 12.3 Moment of Momentum Relations 12.4 Momentum Integrals of Newton's Second Law
Impulse-Momentum and Angular Impulse-Moment of Momentum Relations

12.5 Work-Energy Integral of Newton's Second Law

The Work-Energy Relation for a Conservative Force

12.6 Conclusion

Bruce Karnopp
University of Michigan

12.1 Dynamics of Particles

The dynamics of particles consists of five main parts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Kinematics of a point (the geometry of a point moving through space) Newton's second law Moment of momentum equation Momentum integrals of Newton's second law Work-energy integral of Newton's second law

The concept of a particle is an abstraction or model of the actual physical situation. The moon in motion about the earth might be modeled as a mass point. In fact, the motion of any finite body in which the rotation effects are not important can properly be described as a particle or point mass. Although it is possible to derive all the fundamental equations in a purely vector format, in order to describe any particular problem in dynamics, it is crucial that a specific coordinate system be employed. The coordinate systems which will be considered in this chapter are the following: (a) Cartesian coordinates, (b) natural (path) coordinates, (c) cylindrical coordinates, (d) spherical coordinates, (e) relative motion.

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The fundamental equation that is encountered in dynamics is Newton's second law, F = ma , where F is the total force acting on a particle and a is the resulting acceleration. Thus the geometric problem of dynamics consists of finding the position, r, the velocity, v, and the acceleration, a, of a point mass. In order to use any coordinate system, the equations for the position r, the velocity v, and the acceleration a as expressed in that coordinate system must be known. In order to achieve these results, the derivatives of the unit vectors of the coordinate system must be determined.

Cartesian Coordinates
Consider the path of point P with respect to the Cartesian coordinate system shown in Fig. 12.1. The position, velocity, and acceleration are expressed in Table 12.1. Figure 12.1 Cartesian coordinates. Table 12.1 Equations of Cartesian Coordinates
r = xi + y j + z k _i + y _j + z _k v=x i + y j + zk a=x

Natural (Path) Coordinates

Natural or path coordinates are useful to understand the intrinsic nature of the velocity and acceleration vectors. Natural coordinates are defined by the actual trajectory of the point P as it moves through space. Consider the trajectory as shown in Fig. 12.2. Figure 12.2 Natural coordinates.

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The distance or arc length along the path (from some convenient starting position) is denoted by s. The velocity and acceleration of P are defined in terms of the path characteristics: the unit vector et tangent to the path, the unit vector en normal to the path, the radius of curvature, R, and the _ and s . The quantity R is the radius of curvature, derivatives of the arc length with respect to time, s and is the torsion of the curve. Table 12.2 lists the natural coordinate equations. Struik [1961] contains a proof of the derivatives of the unit vectors. Table 12.2 Equations of Natural Coordinates
Velocity and Acceleration Derivatives of Unit Vectors

v=s _ et a=s et + s _2 en R

s _ det = en dt R s _ den = et + s _ eb dt R deb = s _ en dt

Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates are used when there is some symmetry about a line. If this line is taken to be the z axis, the coordinates appear as in Fig. 12.3. The parameters of cylindrical coordinates are introduced by dropping a line from the point P to the xy plane. The distance from the origin O to the intersection in the xy plane is denoted by the scalar r. Finally, the angle between the x axis and the line from O to the intersection is #. Thus the parameters that define cylindrical coordinates are fr; #; z g , and the unit vectors are fer ; e# ; kg. See Table 12.3. Figure 12.3 Cylindrical coordinates.

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Table 12.3 Equations of Cylindrical Coordinates

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Derivatives of Unit Vectors

r = r er + z k _ e# + z _k v=r _ er + r# + 2r _ )e# + z _ 2 )er + (r # _# k a = ( r r#

_ e# e _r = # _ er e _ # = # _ =0 k

Spherical Coordinates
Spherical coordinates are particularly useful in problems with symmetry about a point. The coordinates are defined by the three parameters ; ; and # and the corresponding unit vectors e ; e, and e# . Refer to Fig. 12.4 and Table 12.4. Figure 12.4 Spherical coordinates.

Table 12.4 Equations of Spherical Coordinates

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Derivatives of Unit Vectors

r = e _ e + # _ sin e# v = _ e + _ 2 # _ 2 sin 2 )e a =(

_ e + # _ sin e# e _ = _ e + # _ cos e# e _ =

_ + # _ 2 sin cos )e + (2 _ _ sin + 2 _# _ cos + # sin )e# + (2 _#

_ sin e # _ cos e e _# = #

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Kinematics of Relative Motion

The equations of relative motion are used when it is convenient to refer the motion to a coordinate system that is in motion. In general, such a coordinate system cannot be used to write the equations of dynamics since it will not be an inertial reference frame. The crucial concept in this regard is the angular velocity vector, ! . Consider Fig. 12.5. Figure 12.5 Angular velocity. Figure 12.6 Relative motion.

The angular velocity vector ! is introduced through the equation

v=!r

(12:1)

for any point P that is embedded in the moving frame fx1 ; y1 ; z1 g. Then

dx dy dz d = i+ j k + x! i + y! j + z! k dt dt dt dt
or

dx dy dz d = i+ j + k + ! (xi + yj + z k) dt dt dt dt
The first block of terms is the velocity as seen from the moving framethat is, the velocity as it would appear to an observer whose feet are firmly planted in the moving frame fx; y; z g. It is convenient to denote this as =t. The second block of terms is just ! . Thus,

d = +! dt t

(12:2)

Equation (12.2) gives an operator equation for computing time derivatives with respect to a fixed or moving frame:

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Equation (12.2) gives an operator equation for computing time derivatives with respect to a fixed or moving frame: d = +! (12:3) dt t Now suppose the origin of the moving frame has a motion. Then if vo is the velocity of the moving origin (see Fig. 12.6),

v = vo +

+! t

(12:4)

In order to interpret this, it is instructive to rearrange the terms:

v=

(vo + ! ) Convective velocity

t Relative velocity

The relative velocity is that which is seen by an observer fixed to the moving frame. The convective velocity is the velocity of a fixed point that instantaneously shares the position of the moving point. This process is repeated to determine the acceleration. That is, the operator of Eq. (12.3) is applied to Eq. (12.4) to get a = dv=dt. The result is arranged as follows: 2 a = [ao + ! (! ) + ! _ ] + + 2! 2 t t

(12:5) Convective acceleration Relative acceleration Coriolis acceleration

Again, the relative acceleration is that which a moving observer in fx; y; z g would see. The convective acceleration is the acceleration of the fixed point of fx; y; z g that shares the instantaneous position of the moving point under consideration. The equations of position, velocity, and acceleration are summarized in Table 12.5. Table 12.5 Equations of Relative Motion
r = ro +
t 2 a = [ao + ! (! ) + ! _ ] + 2 + 2 ! t t

v = (vo + ! ) +

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12.2 Newton's Second Law

In order to write Newton's second law for a particle, m,

F = ma
the terms of the equation must be evaluated:

(12:6)

1. The force, F, is obtained from a free-body diagram of the particle. 2. The mass, m, can be obtained from the weight of the particle:

Weight = mg

(12:7)

3. The acceleration is written in some convenient coordinate system (from the equations in section 12.1). Any equation must ultimately be expressed in some unit system. The fundamental units of dynamics are force, mass, length, and time. The units for these quantities are shown in Table 12.6. Conversion of units is shown in Table 12.7. Table 12.6 Unit Systems Used in Dynamics
Unit System English (large) English (small) MKSmetric CGSmetric Metriclarge Metricsmall Type Gravitational Gravitational Absolute Absolute Gravitational Gravitational Force Pound (lb) Pound (lb) Newton (N) Dyne (dyn) Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Mass Slug lb s2 =ft
lb s2 =in:

Length Foot (ft) Inch (in.) Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Meter (m) Centimeter (cm)

Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s) Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)

Kilogram (kg) gram (g)

kg s2 =m g s2 =cm

Table 12.7 Conversion of Units

Force units: 1.0 lb 1.0 lb 1.0 lb 1.0 lb 1.0 in. 1.0 in. 1.0 in. 1.0 ft 1.0 ft 1.0 ft 1:0 lb s2 =in: 1:0 lb s2 =in: 1:0 lb s2 =in: 1:0 lb s2 =ft 1:0 lb s2 =ft 1:0 lb s2 =ft
= 4:448 N = 4:448 105 dyn = 0:4536 (kgf) = 4:536 102 (g force) = 0:083 33ft = 2:54 2.54 cm = 0:0254 m = 12 in. = 30:48 cm = 0:3048 m = 12 lb s2 /ft = 1:2162 kg = 1:2162 103 g = 0:083 33 lb s2 =in . = 14:594 kg = 1:4594 104 g

Length units:

Mass units:

1:0 slug =

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12.3 Moment of Momentum Relations

The moment of a force is determined by the (vector) cross product:

Mo = r F
See Fig. 12.7.

(12:8)

Figure 12.7 Moment of momentum and moment of force.

The linear momentum of m is

p = mv

(12:9)

and the moment of momentum (sometimes called the angular momentum) is

ho = r p = r mv
Computing the time derivative of h gives

(12:10)

dr dho = mv + r ma dt dt
The first term is v mv . This is the cross product of two vectors in the same direction. Thus this term is zero. From Eqs. (12.6) and (12.8), the remaining term is the moment of the force, F, about the point O. Thus:

Mo =

dho dt

(12:11)

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12.4 Momentum Integrals of Newton's Second Law

Newton's second law, Eq. (12.6), can be integrated over time or space. When the former is done, the result is called an impulse or an angular impulse. When the integration is performed over space, the result is the work. This will be demonstrated later.

Impulse-Momentum and Angular Impulse-Moment of Momentum Relations

Recall Newton's second law, F = ma . Suppose we write a = dv=dt. Then

t1 to

F dt = m

t1 to

dv dt = m[v(t1 ) v(to )] dt

(12:12)

Equation (12.12) is called the impulse change of linear momentum theorem. Similarly, taking Eq. (12.11) as the basis of the time integration gives

t1 to

Mo dt =

t1 to

dho dt = ho (t1 ) ho (to ) dt

(12:13)

Equation (12.13) is called the angular impulse change of angular momentum theorem. Equations (12.12) and (12.13) are particularly interesting when the left-hand side is zero. Then we say that linear momentum is conserved or that the moment of momentum (angular momentum) is conserved. Two important examples that utilize these conservation laws are collision problems [Karnopp, 1974] and central force motion problems [Goldstein, 1959].

12.5 Work-Energy Integral of Newton's Second Law

In deriving the momentum laws, Newton's second law is integrated over time. In the work-energy relation, the integration takes place over space. Recall Newton's second law, F = ma = m(dv=dt) . An instantaneous quantity is the power of the force F:

P =Fv

(12:14)

The power, P, is a scalar quantity. The units of power are listed in Table 12.8. Table 12.8 Units of Power
English:
ft lb=s in: lb=s 1:0 horsepower = 550 ft lb=s N m=s 1:0 watt = 1:0 N m=s 1:0 N m=s = 0:7376 ft lb=s 1:0 ft lb=s = 1:3557 N m=s 1:0 horsepower = 746 watts 1:0 watt = 1:340 48 103 hp

Metric: Conversion:

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The work of a force is the time integral of the power of the force. Work is also a scalar quantity:

W =

t1

P dt
to

(12:15)

With Eq. (12.14), and recalling that v = dr=dt the work W (see Fig. 12.8) becomes Z r1 W = F dr (12:16)
ro

Figure 12.8 Work of a force.

Equation (12.16) is what is called a path or line integral. That is, the value of the work is dependent, in general, on the particular path that is traversed between positions ro and r1 . Recall from Eqs. (12.6) and (12.14) that F = ma = m(dv=dt) and P = F v . Inserting Eq. (12.13) into Eq. (12.14) gives

P =m
Now consider that

dv v dt

(12:16a)

1 dv dv dv 1 d (mv v) = m v + mv =m v 2 dt 2 dt dt dt
Defining the kinetic energy of a particle to be

(12:16b)

T =
Eqs. (12.16a) and (12.16b) give

1 1 mv v = mv 2 2 2

(12:17)

P =

d T dt

(12:18)

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That is, the power of the force F equals the time rate of change of the kinetic energy T. Finally, from Eq. (12.18), the work of F in moving the particle from ro to r1 equals the change in kinetic energy between ro and r1 . The work-energy theorem is derived in Table 12.9. Table 12.9 The Work-Energy Theorem
The work of a force F is
W = Z
r1 ro

F dr

The kinetic energy of a particle is

T =

1 1 mv v = mv2 2 2

And the work-energy relation is

Wrro1 = T (r1 ) T (ro )

While Eq. (12.16) gives a way to compute the work of a force, there is a very special and important class of forces that give a very simple way of computing work. These are called conservative forces. A force is conservative if it can be derived from a potential energy function through differentiation.

F = rV

(12:19)

where V is the potential energy function for F and r is the del operator. In Cartesian coordinates, Eq. (12.18) becomes

F=

@V @V @V i j k @x @y @z

The general form for conservative forces, Eq. (12.19), is usually overly complex. Conservative forces are listed in Table 12.10. Table 12.10 Conservative Forces
Force Gravity Universal gravitation* Spring force
*

Potential Energy

F = mg k M m F = 2 er r F = k

V = mg z M m V = r 1 2 V = k 2

For motion about the earth Me = 1:255 103 mi3 =h2 = 5:2277 103 km 3 =h2

The Work-Energy Relation for a Conservative Force

Recall the equation for the work of a force, W =

R r1
ro

F dr . Suppose F is conservative. Then, by

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Eq. (12.19), F = rV . And, finally, recall the equations of natural coordinates to write the expression for dr : v = (dr=ds)(ds=dt) = (ds=dt)et . Thus,

dr =
Finally, the work, by Eq. (12.16), becomes Z W =

dr ds = et ds ds

r1 ro

(rV et ) ds

The term inside the parentheses is just the directional derivative dV =dsthat is, the derivative that is taken tangent to the path. Thus the work becomes Z r1 Z r1 dV ds = W = dV = V (r1 ) + V (ro ) (12:20) ds ro ro The crucial thing to note in Eq. (12.20) is that the work of a conservative force depends only on the end positions of the path. Thus the work-energy relation derived in Table 12.9 becomes, in the case of conservative forces:

T (r1 ) + V (r1 ) = T (ro ) + V (ro ) = constant

For conservative and nonconservative forces:

[T (ro ) + V (ro )] + Wrro1 = [T (r1 ) + V (r1 )]

where Wrr01 is the work of the nonconservative forces. Units of energy are shown in Table 12.11. Table 12.11 Units of Energy
English: Metric:
ft lb in: lb Nm dyn cm 1:0 1:0 1:0 1:0 1:0 1:0 1:0 1:0 1:0 Nm Nm Nm dyn cm dyn cm ft lb ft lb in: lb in: lb

= joule = erg

1.0 joule = 1.0 joule = 1.0 joule = 1.0 erg = 1.0 erg =

Conversion = 107 dyn cm = 107 erg = 0:073 76 ft lb = 0:885 12 in: lb = 7:376 109 ft lb = 8:8512 108 in: lb = 1:3557 N m = 1:3557 107 dyn cm = 0:112 98 N m = 0:112 98 10 7 dyn cm

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The work-energy theorem is used when what is sought is the speed of a particle as a function of position in space. The impulse momentum theorems, on the other hand, will give the velocity as a function of time. Both relations are derived from Newton's second law and are called first integrals.

12.6 Conclusion
The notion of a mass point or particle forms the basis of Newtonian mechanics. Although many systems can be modeled as a point mass, others cannot. Rigid configurations of systems, deformable systems, and so forth all require more elaborate geometrical (kinematic) description. The kinetic equations (Newton's law, momentum, moment of momentum, etc.) must be expanded in these cases. Still, the equations for particle dynamics form the basis of these discussions.

Defining Terms
Acceleration: The (vector) rate of change of velocity. Angular velocity: The rate of change of orientation of a coordinate system. Kinematics: The geometry of motion. Particle: A point mass. Position: The location of a point in space. Power: The dot product of the force and the velocity. Velocity: The (vector) rate of change of position.

References
Beer, F. P. and Johnston, E. R. 1984. Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. Goldstein, H. 1959. Classical Mechanics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Hibbler, R. C. C. 1983. Engineering Mechanics, Dynamics, 3rd ed. Macmillan, New York. Karnopp, B. H. 1974. Introduction to Dynamics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Meriam, J. L. and Kraige, L. G. 1986. Engineering Mechanics, Dynamics, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Struik, D. J. 1961. Differential Geometry. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.

Further Information
Synge, J. L. and Griffith, B. A. 1959. Principles of Mechanics. McGraw-Hill, New York.

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