Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 135

..

Ancient Histo1y Stage 6 Syllabus


10.3 Part Ill: Personalities in Their Times
Principal Focus: Students gain an understanding of the personality in the context of their time.
Percentage of course time: 25%
Outcomes
Students:
H 1.1 describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions,
societies and sites within their historical context
H2.1 explain factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity in
the ancient world
H3.1 locate, select and organise relevant infonnation from a variety of sources
H3.2 discuss relevant problems of sources for reconstructing the past
H3.3 analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability
H3.4 explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the past
H3.6 plan and present the findings of historical investigations, analysing and synthesising
information from a range of sources
H4. I use historical terms and concepts appropriately
H4.2 communicate a knowledge and understanding of historical features and issues using
appropriate oral and written forms
ONE personality is to be studied from the following:
Egypt
A Hatshepsut
B Akhenaten
C Ramesses II
Near East
D Sennacherib
E Xerxes
F Hannibal
Greece
G Pericles
H Alexander the Great
I. Cleopatra VII
Rome
J Tiberius Gracchus
K Julius Caesar
L Agrippina the Younger
Ancient History Stage 6 Syllabus
Students learn to:
use appropriate terms and concepts in communicating about the personality
locate, select and organise information in relation to the chosen personality
identify key issues and features about the personality
make deductions and draw conclusions about the personality
weigh up the relative reliability of the available sources and assess their usefulness for a
study of the personality
identify and analyse the varying images ofthe personality
o explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the personality in
ancient and modem sources
o present the findings of historical investigations of issues and features of the personality
~ communicate coherently in oral and written forms to explain and evaluate significant
events and achievements in the personality's life
synthesise information to construct an evaluation of the personality's significance and
legacy.
-
~ - ~ --- - ----
Ancient History Stage 6 Syllabus
Option K Rome: Julius Caesar
Principal Focus: Students gain an understanding of Julius Caesar in the context of his time.
Students learn about:
1 Historical context
geography, topography and resources of Rome and provinces
overview of Roman political and social structures
overview of significant political and military developments
2 Background and rise to prominence
his family background and position
his education, early life and ambitions
paths to power: priesthoods; Marian connections; political alliances and malTiages
early political career to 60 BC
3 Career
role in First Triumvirate
Gallic Wars: campaigns and tactics, siege of Alesia
relationship with his army
relationship with the Senate
role in the Civil War
political supporters and enemies
personal relationships: Julia, Cleopatra VII, Brutus, Mark Antony, Cicero
impact of personality on career; significance of his writings
dictatorship: policies and reforms
assassination: motives, manner and impact of his death
4 Evaluation
impact and influence on his time
assessment of his life and career
legacy
ancient and modern images and interpretations of Julius Caesar.
57
1
-
Ancient Histo1y Stage 6 Syllabus
10.4 Part IV: Historical Periods
Percentage of course time: 25%
Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written sources of ONE
historical period, students learn about significant developments and issues that shaped the
historical period as well as relevant hi storiographical issues.
Outcomes
Students:
H 1.1 describe and assess the significance .of key people, groups, events, institutions,
societies and sites within their historical context
H 2.1 explain hi stori cal factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and
continuity in the ancient world
H 3.1 locate, selecl and organi se rel.evant information from a variety of sources
H 3.2 discuss relevant problems of sources for reconstructing the past
H 3.3 analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability
H 3.4 explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the past
H 3.6 plan and present the findings ofhistorical investigations analysing and synthesising
information from a range of sources
H 4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriately
H 4.2 communicate a knowledge and understanding of historical features and issues using
appropriate oral and written forms.
Students learn to:
ask relevant historical questions
locate, select and organise relevant information form a variety of sources to investigate
key developments, forces and issues ofthe historical period
describe and assess significant developments, forces and issues that shaped the historical
period
explain and asse s the signifi cance of hi storical factors in contributing to change and
continuity within the hi stori cal period
explain t he impli cations of relevant probl ems of evidence for reconstructing the history of
the period
analyse and evaluate relevant sources for their usefulness and reliability
explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the historical period
present findings of investigations, analysing and synthesising information from a range of
sources
communicate a knowledge and understanding of relevant developments and issues that
shape the historical period, using appropriate oral and written forms.
r:;q
Ancient HistOIJ! Stage 6 Syllabus
Option M Rome: The fall of the Republic 78- 31 BC
Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written sources for the
fall of the Republic 78 - 31 BC, students learn about significant deveiopments, forces and
relevant historiographical issues that shaped the historical period.
Students learn about:
1 Political developments in the late Republic
legacy of Sulla
- Pompey: significance of military and political career
significance of the consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC
role and significance of Cicero
First Triumvirate: aims, roles and responsibilities of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus
activities and breakdown of the First Triumvirate
political crises: role of the Senate; use of the anny for political purposes; urban
violence
role of optimates, popufares
Caesar and Pompey: political competition and responsibility for outbreak of the Civil
War49-45 BC
significance of Caesar's dictatorship
2 Wars and expansion
Pompey's extraordinary commands and the Eastem Settlement
Caesar's military activities in Gaul, Gennany and Britain
significance of the Mithridatic and Parthian wars
3 Fall of the Republic
impact of Caesar's assassination
formation, activities and breakdown of the Second Triumvirate
- rivalry and Civil War between Mark Antony and Octavian: role of Cleopatra VII:
Battle of Actium
73
Gains Julius Caesar
Fact
Burn- 13
11
' day (July) lOOBC
... only son of; -1 Traced back to l
Father- Gaius Julius Caesar Romulus- the
-Julian clan form the patrician nobility founder of Rome
-became praetor in 92BC --
-Died in 85BC im Pisa while on military service, Caesar 15yrs
Mother- Aurelia
-from the plebeian nobility
-many consul-s in family
-close relationship with Caesar.
born and grew up in the Subura District of Rome in midst o:fthe Populus
Romanus which became a great asset to him in hls political career, allowing
him to move with ease-among all layers of society.
suffered from epilepsy
In the absence ofhls :father his upbringing would most likely have been placed in
the hands of his uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta
also ..
Gaius Marius, husband of Caesar's fathers Julia

- at time of Caesar's birth- most powerful man in Rome
Use of army
influenced
J.C.
- risen to prominence through alliances with the Metelli clan and later through his
marriage to Julia.
- Marius was popularis, (achieved status, like Caesar through the power of the
people) a>n anti conservative group who were viewed by the optimates as
revolutionaries who did not believe in Senatorial rule.
-In 91BC Marcus Livius Drusus sought to grant Roman citizenship to all Italy, and
was assassinated, thus the ames of Southern and Central Italy rebelled against
Roman rule (the Sociail War),out of which emerged optimates new leader
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a fanner lieutenant ofMarius.' Sulla'8 military suceesses
and new legislation granting citizenship to most Italians put an ena to the rebellion
by 88 and as a reward, Sulla was elected c:onsul for 88, and the command against
Mif.hridates V Eupator, who had ov-errun the Roman province of M.ia. The
command was however, by Sulpicius questionably transferred to Marius which Jed
Anci:ent sources
'During his quaestorship he made tltc
customary funeral spee:hes from dte
Rostra in honom of his mmt Julia and his
wife Comelia: mtd while eulogising
Julia's rnatemal and patcmal ancestry. did
the same for the: Caesars too. "her
tuother'. he said. "was a descendant of
kings. namely the Royal Marciaits, a
Hunily fbwtded by the Roman King Ancuc
Marcius: and her fatlter. of gods- sincx: the
Julia.ns (ofwhic:h we Caesars are a branch)
teckon descent rrom tlu: Goddess Venus.
Thus Julia's stock can daim both the
saucily of kings, who n:ign supreme
among mortals, and tltc: reverence due to
gods. who hold even kings in their
power." (Suetonius)
'His hc<Jith was sowtd, apart fonn sudden
comas and a to nighnnares
which troubled him towards tlte end of his
life; but he twice had epileptic fits while
on campaign'
( Suentonius)
.,
-brought up in luxury
(-. Crassus also), and.
educated in the way:;
to increase the family
dignita.,s
Modern Sources
'Julius Caesar's background met the
criteria for success in Roman politics
(Hennessy)
Both V!arius and Citma had n strong
influence on dte young Julius Caesar
Although both were fiom the senatorial
class they strongly opposed tltc dictaLor
Sulla. who Lrif:d to reassert the Scnal; as
an unquestionable for:e in the: stale -
(Heruwssy)
'However. ''Marius. thinking it an cas'
and very lucrative war. wanted the
command (against the Mithridates)
for himself. He was. according to
Plutarc:h. "under the influence of thmc
ncver-!;ging passions. love of distinclion
and a mania for fame and wns bitter nt
being overlooked for many years
(Hennessy)
Fact
to Sulla's marching on Rome to easily defeat the disorganized forces of citizens,
hired slaves, and gladiators assembled by Marius and Sulpicius. As such,
Sulpicius was beheaded and Marius fled to Afiica. After restoring order, Sulla
sailed for Asia, where he defeated Mithridates in the First Mithridatic War (88-
84).
- In 87BC , Lucius Cornelius Cinna attempted to strip Sullla of his consulship yet
the senate resisted and Cinna was forced to flee from Rome, this however gave
him the incentive to ally himself with Marius. Together they returned with an
army of slaves and recaptured Rome, purging it oftheir opponents and enemies
alike. Cinna and Marius appointed themselves consuls for 86BC and Caesar was
appointed as the Priest of Jupiter.
- Marius Died a few days after the election due either form a stroke or pneumonia.
In 84, Caesar broke ms engagement with Cossutia to marry Cornelia, daughter of
Cinna. .
-Cinna was assassinated during a mutiny latter that year.
-In 83BC, Sulla returned to Rome, initiating a civil war, which would span two
years, the optimates emerging triumphant over popularis
- Marcus Licinius Crassus joins Sulla during civil war, seeking revenge for father
and brother's deaths
- Gnaeus Pompeius recruits forces to help Sulla
-82BC Pompey leads military command against Marian troops i11 Sicily
' Sulla demands Caesar divorce his wife, Caesar refuses despite threat on his life.
Sulla;strips Caesar of his office and seizes Cornelia's dowry. Caesar's friends and
uncle Cotta offer to compromise however, Sulla refuses and Caesar is forced to
leave Rome.
-Sulla appoints himself Dictator, his reforn1s which were reinforced by
his arn1y strengthened the rights of the patrician clans and hinde1ed those of the
Peoples Assembly. In the process of this he proscribed thousands of enemies and
strove to defame the name and memory ofMarius. This was done by destroying
memorial statues and scalttering Marius's ashes in the Tiber.
In 80BC Caesar served under Marcus Thern1us. He was sent to Bithynia to bring
back a squadron of ships, however his stay so long that it was mmoured that the
King, Nikomedes was his lover, he also after retrieving the ships returned to
Ancient sources
as seen to be
following Sulla
.. . your father. yottt friends. and your
relations who have been put to death
wid10ut law or justice and whose!murders
I am going to punrsh (Plutarch)
'There are many Mariuses in this fellow
Caesar ... he will latter be the ruin of
Rome' (Suentonius)
' His dress was. it seems. nnusual: he had
added '"Tists length sleeves with fringes to
his purple-striped senatorial tunic, and the
belt which he wore over it was never
tightly fastened- hence Sulla's waring to
the aristocratic party: "Beware ofthat b o ~
with loose clothes!" (Suentonius)
Modern Sources
After the death of his father and brother
in the war against Marius. Crassus married
his brother's widow. tcrtulla. and fled to
Spain. No doubt he saw Spain as a refuge
(Hcmlcssy)
After the deall1 of Cinna . Crassus raised
a small force and eventually joined Sulla
against Marius in Italy
sulla s altcmpt to restore the senate to \he
position of power it had prior to the
Gracchian tribunates was a f..1itwc
(Bradley)
2
Fact
Bithynia, thus the cause for the politically harmful stories of Caesar's fervently
derued, homosexuality.
-Pompey in military command against Marians in Africa/ celebrates triumph
Caesar served also under Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia and during the siege of
Mytilene won the coroHa ciJica, (a crown of oak leaves which was awarded to
those who saved the lives if fellow soldiers)
- In 80BC Sulla
- In 79BC Sui! a suffers haemorrhage and dies, at news of this ..
Caesar returns to Rome.
77BC Caesar enters the political arena- prosecutes Gnaeus Cornelius Dollabella, a
consular and fanner lieutenant of Sulla, the case dearly signalled Caesar's position
in the popularis camp.
76 BC Caesar p!rosecuted Gaius Antonius Hybrida who was forced to bribe his
way out of the charges by buying the veto-powers of the tribunes of the plebs.
During these speeches Caesar's reputation as an :orator was born
75BC Caesar sent to Rhodes to polish his rhetorical skills. Studies under
Apollonius Molon.
-On the way he was captured by pirates, who kept him captive for thirty-eight
days which he spent writing poetry and telling the pirates he would return and take
his revenge. After payment of his rattsom of20 talents which he demanded to be
Ancient sources
' He was something of a dandy. always
keeping his head carefully trinuued and
shaved: and has been accused of having
certain otlter hairy parts of his body
depilated with tweezers His baldness was
a disfigurement which his enemies harped
upon. much to his exasperation; but he
used to comb the thin strands r:Jf hair
fonvard from his poll. and of all the
honours voted by the Senate ami people.
none pleased him so much as the privilege
of wearing a laurel wreath on all
occasions- he constantly took advantage
of it (Suentonius)
.. because he was. weary of war. weary
of power. weary of Ron\ e.
(Apian) .
Epitaph inscribed on Sullas tomb:
"No friend ever outstripped me in doing
good. no enemy in doing ham1."
raised to 50. He raised a fleet and carried out his promise. - --------+--
-Third Mithridatlc war- Caesar travelled to Asia, collects an army and defeats the
a man of his word.
-1. C admired these
pirates, thus he
hastened their
deaths by slitting
their throats.
King's front .
Both these acts were illegal as Caesar was a private citizen however no charges
were made against him.
73 becomes a member of the college of Pontifs
72 delivers a speech in the extortion court on behalf of the Bithynians
71 becomes a military tribune.
During his quaestorship he m11de the
customary funeral speeches from the
Rostra in honour of his aunt Julia and his
wife Cornelia; and while eulogising
Julia's tnatemal and patemal ancestry. did
the same for the Caesars too.
(Suentonius)
Modern Sources
' Sulla achieved little beside adding to the
swn of human misei). His system
aggrieved the cquitcs. llte urban populace_
the dispossessed peasants and the ne\\
citizens and made no provisiolt for
veterans in ll1c future Social discontents
continued. as the senate remained
indifferent to the distress of the poor'
(Brunt)
' The Senate had indeed become of
Caesar. Since they had given him support
in his election to the pontificate in 73BC
Caesar had show11 populist tendencies_
courting the favour of1.hc people
whenever possible (Hciulcssy)
-,
_:)
Fact
- 70BC Pompey and Crassus are consul's
- 69BC Caesar's aunt Julia dies
Caesar holds a loudatio (public funerary eulogy) for her (an honour like this was
never.given to women). During his speech he, to the distaste ofthe optimates but
in the favour of the plebs, praises both Marws and Cinna. In doing this he marked
out as the new Marius; the common peoples champion, and tJms secured
himself the f!J.ffice ef Quaestor.
-Caesar's wife CoJlllelia dies
Caesar holds a /audatio in her honour
Caesar leaves Rome to serve with Antistius V etius the Governor of Hispania
Ulterior, at this pointm time he is financially and emotionally insecure, but
fortunately Vetius was sympathetic to his condition permitting his to leave Spain
prematurely. Caesar took this opportunity to travel through Cisalpine Gaul, where
he found the inhabitants wanted citizenship, something that senate was never to
grant ithem. He would have encouraged rebellion if the consuls fDr the year had
not held back the legions enrolled for the wars in Cilicia due to the threat of
unrest, and tior his actions he was charged with high treason, but nothing
eventuated of it.
I new alliance with the senate faction. I
In 67 BC, Caesar married Pompeia, a dista!il.t relative ofPompey. This is perhaps
the first signal of Caesar entering into ;an alliance whh Pompey.
In 65 BC, Caesar is elected Curule Aedile with Marcus Ca/purnius Eibulus, an
Optimate, as his co/leagne. During his term he held a lavish public gmmes, as
usual paid for with borrowed money. He was by this time the most controversial
political personality o{his day, _., C I
rassus pavs LOr.
-As consuls Pompey and Crassus rest0red most of the rights of the peoples
assembly which allowed
Caesar tore-erect the statues ofMarius that Sulla had ordered to be removed
63BC, Caesar's debts were by now enormous, and his creditors loosing patience
' Men of all c.lasses sue . b to his chatm as did their wives (Suetonius)
Ancient sources
In lact they differed on practically every
point that came up: they were constantly
quarelling. each trying to get the better of
the other. and, as a result, they made
themselves as consuls politically
ineffective and achieved nothing.'
(Plutarch)
' In the senate Crassus was the mote
influential of the two. but Pompey had the
great power with the people.' (Plutarch)
.. in Spain, when he was at leisure and
was reading fonn the history of
Alexander, he was lost in thought for a
long time. and tlten burst into tears. His
friends were surprised. and asked him the
reason of it "Do you think" said he. "I
have not just cause to weep. when I
consider tltat Alexander at my age was
already king of so many I have
yet achieved no bn1liant success?'
(Plutarch)
the first disaster and the worst had been.
not the quarrel and split between Caesar
an Pompey, but tlte friendship and
harmony that had existed between tltem
(Plutarch)
'found a different power base.
Caesar ignored the aristocrates
and went for the uban poor.'
' splendor about his way of liofe
made him politically more
important'
Modern Sources
'During his quaestorship his mmt (Julia)
died. and he used the occasion of the
public funeral to express his anti-
conservative attit11dc. He carried effigies
ofMarius and his son in the fwtcml
procession even though this had been
expressly forbidden by an earlier order or
Sulla. and he traced his pedigree back to
the legendary kings of Rome. When
Cemelia died not long after. Caesar
e"-ploited tl1e occasion to refer to her
father. Cinna. and his association with
Marius. '
(Bradley)
'As quaestor Caesar went to Spain. nnd on
his way home through Cisalpine Gaul he
exploited Ute mrrcst felt by the people on
the far side of the Po River because or
tlteir lack of full Roman c.itizenship
The optimates were suspi cious or
him.
(Bradley)

'Campaigned in the
slums ofRome' (Syme)
-popularity with the
people.
'Caesar H"ent even jim her when. in o5BC .
he had statues and monuments of hi.1 uncle
Marius and his victories displayed around
thE' slreets of Rome, even though the
Senare had.fiJrbidden Sitch m1 action
These acrivilies paid oj]: as people cleclecl
Caesar pontifex maximus in
63BC '(Hennessy)
4
Fact
Elected as Pontifex Maximus
62 BC eledted as a post which is normally accompanied by a
governorship, which assisted in soothing his :creditors somewhat.
Caesar and Crassus were accused of >involvement Catiline's conspiracy,
although no charges were laid against them. Cicero however made a request to the
Senate that the conspirators be executed.
Caesar was suspended fonn his post toward the end along with the
tribune Caecilius Metellus Nepos. Caesar however continued exercising his office
until it was made clear that he would be removed by force, and he retired to his
house. When an angry crowd gathered outside his house to promise support, he
calmed it down, and was :subsequently reinstated by a appreciative group of senior
senators. Consequently a legal attack was against Caesar on the grounds
that he had been implicated in the Catiline conspiracy, this was however, easily
evaded when Caesar got Cicero to attest that he had received valuable information
about the conspirators from Caesar. Caesar's accuser was seized and thrown in
prison.
-Pompey returned to Rome and dispelled his army upon doing so, and divorced his
wife Mucia, the half-sister ofNepos.
Caesar divorced hls wife after iPublius Clodius entered Caesar's house while a
celebFation was being held in honour of the Bona Dea, a deity of fiuitfulness both
for the Earth and for women, from which all males were barred.
Caesar wa.s awarded, as his governorship the province ofHispania Ulterior,
however due to the scandal caused by Clodillls the list had been delayed so that
Caesars imperium had expired. As such Caesar was open to prosecution by his
creditors, and despite Crassus standing bail by paying off a quarter of Caesar's
debts, Caesar was forced to flee the city before his :appointment he'd been
finalised.
Caesar led a successful military expedition to the Northwest frontier of his
province, from which he acquired sufficient wealth to demand a Triumph, and to
settle lhis delDts.
Ancient sources
"Today you will sec me either High Priest
or an exile."
(Caesar)
"This sentence of his carried so much
appearance of humanity, and he gave it
such advantage by tl1e eloquence witl1
which he urged it, that not only those who
spoke after him closed witll it, but even
tl1ey who had before given a contrary
opinion now came over to his. till it came
about to Catulus's and Cato's tum to
speak They wannly opposed it and Cato
intimated irt his speech tl1e suspicion of
Caesar himself. and pressed the matter so
strongly tl1at tl1e were given up
to suffer execution. As Caesar was going
out of the senate, many of the yow1g men
who at that time acted as guards to Cicero
ran in witl1 tl1eir naked swords to assault
him. But Curio. it is said. tluew his gown
over him, and conveyed him away. and
Cicero himself. when the ymmg men
looked up to see his wishes. gave a sign
not to kill him. either for fear of tl1e people
or because he thought tl1e murder wljust
and illegal. (Plutarch)
"Caesar's wife must be above suspicion.
(Caesar)
'He relieved himself of the creditors who
tried to keep him in Rome wltil he had
paid his debts. by providing sureties for
tlleit eventual settlement. (Suetonius)
Modern Sources
'Caesar came under the scm tiny of the
senate when his recommendations on the
punishment of tllc conspirators set him
apart from many of his peers (Henness:-)
'Some senators were convinced that
Caesar was a part of the conspimc) __ The
people. on the other had. rallied 1o his
support ..
(Hennessy)
5
r
Fact
I Wanted the senate to approve of his r ll:i in Mlthridates j
59 BC Caesar left his province before the arrival of his successor in orde'r to
stand for Consul, however Cato and the Optimate's forced him to choose between
celebrating his Triumph or stand for Consul, he of course chose the latter.
-Pompey's request to the Senate for land for his veterans, after his successes in the
east, at the same time, Crassus was in need of several concessions to the Asian tax
farmers, which were also opposed by the Senate.
The first Triumvirate is formed- Caesars popularity, Pompey's prestige and
Crassus' wealth, equating to an irresistible combination. This bondwas.further
strengthened by the marriage Pompey to Caesar's daughter, Julia.
Caesar marries Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Piso, who was to be elected Consul
in 58.
r----- -.
Caesar is elected as consul despite the somewhat futile opposition from Cato
Primary
reason;
The senate
wouldn't
give them
what they
.. , ..
and the Optimate's who did everything in their power to prevent him acquiring
the military command he sought, and even managed to get supervision of forest
and cattle trails in Italy as the proconsular task for the following year. They did
however secure the election of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, to the other
Consulship. Caesar and Bibulus took up the office as Consul on the first of
January 59.
Consulship of 59BC- Caesar 'sfirst decree was to ensure that the Senate's
debates and proceedings were to be officially recorded and published, its business
made accessible to the citizen body. Caesar was however also concerned with
restoring the dignity of the Consulship by displaying a proper respect for the mos
maiorum, as such in the alternate month when his colleague was Senior Consul,
he ordered that his /ictors should follow, rather than precede him, and he assured
the Senate that he would not bring in any legislation against thdr interests.
His main reforms include:
-Land reform- the securing of landfor Pompey's veterans, and to carry through
the land reforms blocked earlier in 63 and 60. These would respectively elevate
unemployment pressures in the city and bring desolate areas of Italy back into
cultivation. The money to do this was available, due to Pompey's conquest of the
east. Caesar's work was thorough and impartial; to prove it he went through the
text clause by clause in the Senate, inviting criticism and offering to delete
Ancient sources
... the day of the consular elections had
already been announced. Hs candidacy
could therefore not be admitted w1less he
entered the coity as a civilian: and when
the general outcry arose against his
intrigues to be exempted fom1 the
regulations goveming candidatures. he
was faced with the altemative of forgoing
the triwnph of forgoing the consulship'
(Suetonius)
'its results were 10 bring ntin to the city.
the world, and even. at different times. to
each of the three men '(Parerculus/l)
'Pompey. Caesar and Crassus now fonnc
a triple pact jointly swe(\Ting to oppose all
legislation of which anyone of them might
disapprove. '
(Suentonius)
'Pompey was indignant and made fiends
with Caesar and promised under oath to
support him for the consulship. The latter
thereupon brought Crasusinto friendly
relations with Pompey. So these three
most powerful men pooled their
interests. (Appian)
' Caesar and Bibulus were elected
consul. .. ' (Suentonius)
.. Caesar did nul want anything of the
Senate then, but was employing the people
on(v' (Appian)
Modern Sources
'There were two aspecrs o(tht.l one.
however, which made it di[!im.:nt rhr:
combined power o(lhe three men- who
between them had prestiKe. wealrh.
popularity with the people, the supporr of
the equites and armedji1rce if necessm:r
(veterans)- and the dramatic
repercussions oft heir failure to s//stal/1
the alliance
(Hennes.1yi
'If the fonnation of the coalition in (,() 11 as
the cause of the civil war in 49, then C' ato
must bear much of t11c blame. for he and
t11e optimatcs "drove Pompcius into
Caesars anns ., _ (Bradley and Seager)
'Caesar set ro work as consul. lwno11nng
!he promises of his col/eaJ;ues (his) pfun
was clear: his promises must he kept.
own jiaure must be secures: hi.1 other
legislative work must be carried ow He
would not lolerate and individual or em,\
institution standinR in his way ( 'aesar \
consulship was going to he an evem(id
one (Hennes.ly)
6
r+--
Violence of urban rriob- pelted him with dt.uJg
Fact
anything that the Senate did notli/ce. His opponents had no response, bar Cato
who opposed the la111 on principle. As the Senate was not to be moved Caesar took
his request to the Peoples k ;sembly. Cato, Bibub1s, and several Optimate tribunes
attempted to obstruct the bill, but there was nothing they could do and at their
doing this a riot broke out. The bill was voted into law. Bihulus' credibility was
destroyed, and lte re.tired to Jus lzome to watch the skies for omens, hoping to
decllU'e Caesar's laws illegal on religious grounds. From this time on Caesar no
longer took his proposals to the senate and Pompey 's settlements of the Easl and
Crassus problems were both solved by laws passed in the People's Assembly.
Caesar methods were illegal and when he became a public citizen he would be
open to prosecution.
-He also tightened the laws to punish misconduct by provincial governors.
With the support ofPiso and Pompey, tbe tribune Vatinius arranged for Caesar to
get a five-year command of Cisalpine Gaul (which he used as mil itary recruiti ng
ground) and lllyricum. Caesar was also assigned to Transalpine Gaul when t he
present governor suddenly died, this giving him the opportunity of military
conquest.
Caesar arranged for Clodius to be elected to the tribunate in 58 as a sqfe guard
to prevent Cicero and Cato coming to power during his absence.
58 Caesar leaves for Gaul
I
Urban mob- supporters riot against those who
oooose Caesar
-Clodius implements a number of policies to gain favour with the masses and
produces a bill to prosecute Cicero, motivated largely by his refusal to join the
triumvirate, after several proposals.
I
The Helvetii were planning to invade Rome's Transalpine pr ovince. But Caesar
reacted swiftly, recruiting two new legions and taking the army north to meet the
Hel vetii. The Helvetii then entered at the Jura mountains invading the territory of
the Roman allies, the Aedui and Sequani . They were defeated and returned to their
homeland.
When Caesar' s negotiations with Ariovistus, the Suebi chieftai n, who
was recognised as a friend ofRome, began to break down Caesar saw another
opportunity for a spectacular campaign. This was due to the refusal of the Suebi to
retreat from the territory of the Aedui and Sequani after assisting the Sequani with
Minor boarders which he expands
Ancient sources
a conflict with the Aedui . Caesar
thus drove the Dacian tribes back
across the
Pompey had fenced so far with tl1c
important questions. When asked. he said
that he agreed with Caesar's laws. But
what about his metl10d? "Caesar must
answer that for himself'. he replied.
(Cicero)
'He gave spectacles and combats of wild
beasts beyond his means.t borrowing
money on all sides. and surpassing all
fanner exhibitions in lavish display and
splendid gifts. in a consequence of which
he was appointed govemor of both
Cisalpine ad Transalpine Gaul for five
years. with tl1e command of five legions.
(Appian)
Prior to the 78BC the Roman
male did his duty for Rome and
his dignitas was a reflection of
this. It has now become custom
that the aim was to increase your
dignitas and if it helped Rome
in the process then so be it.
Modern Sources
'When the ,\'enate reji1sed Jo agree 10 hn
agrarian bill he Wok it /tl tht
people through the plebewn assembly and
did not use the Senate agam ' (H I!n/111S-\\')
'He adopted a concilimory alfitude at .firs!
by treating the Bibi/us with
and consulting the Senate. A moderate hill
lo provide }or Pompey's veterans \1 '11.1'
presen!ed to the senate. and ( aesar
indicated !hat he was wiling /o accept
amendments 1jthe oNections were
reasonable The .'ienate spurned l11s o[Jer of
compromtse. he \t'as met 1n/h pmlonged
and sysl ematfc ob.lfrucrirm. so he
presenJed land bt/1 w rhe assemh/,1
Bibulus vetoed the bill anc/ lf'hen ( 'aesar
asked him I o withdrm1 the ve!o.
he re}itsed. Caesar then realised that he
would only be able 10 can:v the hill in
open defiance ofthe law, and would resor/
to !he threal offiJrce (Bradley)
'C/odius continued to ll'in favour with ;he
people. He gave !hem .free corn and
controlled Rome lA!fth his armed gang.
conslant(v intimidaling /'ompe_1
(Hennes.\y)
'There was no reason why !hey should
have insisled upon Cicem 's elimination
Caesar had his jive year command in
Gaul. Pompey's eas/ern acta had he en
confirmed. and his troops presumably
reseu/ed: nor did Crass us show any s1g111
o(discontent. lfCicero uere to cause any
trouble it would have heen trouh/ef(n
C/odius. (Gmen)
7
'I
Caesar wanted a triumph and
gave him the oooortunitv.
Fact
Rhine and stationed three of his four legions there for security.
With his victory against the Germans, Caesar firmly cemented his position as
Marius' heir, bringing to mind Marius's victories over the Germanic Cimbri and
Teutones. Caesar had had, by now, realized the potential of Roman control in
Gaul and sent his legates out to recruit two more legions.
-Cicero banished into exile to Greece by Clodius, who then preceded to set
himself up as the peoples champion in Cicero's place.
In 57 BC Caesar subdued the Belgic tribes in the north, while his lieutenant
Publius Licinius Crassus pacified Normandy and Brittany. In just two years of
campaigning, the whole of Gaul from the Rhine to the Ocean had submitted to
Rome, in the name of Caesar.
Caesar divorces his Pompeia
-Grain shortage in Rome which led to several outbreaks of violence.
-Pompey secures Cicero 's position and he is allowed to return.
-Cicero supports a proposal to assist Pompey in procuring grain distribution
rights (cura annonae) for .five years, to assist in dealing with the food crisis.
Caesar's despatches to Rome were greeted with great enthusiasm; after a
proposal by Cicero, the Senate voted him afifteen-day thanksgiving (Pompey had
only got ten). However this encouraged jealousy in the triumvirate.
-Egyptian king driven into exile at Rome.
-Crassus and Pompey had soon returned to their former enmity, falling out over
the question of the Egyptian succession Clodius saw this as an opportunity to
aggravate the sihtation and at the trial of Titius Annius Milo, where Pompey and
Crasszts were both present to speak for Milo, Clodius had his supporters heckle
Pompey and praise Crassus. It is thought that Crasstts may hm'e been financing
Clodius' in his attacks on Pompey.
-Pompey was becoming increasingly unpopular due to the continued grain
shortage
-Pompey was embarrassed by Caesars methods
In April 56, Caesar invited Pompey and Crassus to a meeting at Lucca just inside
the borders of Cisalpine Gaul, where he succeeded in patching up the alliance.
Ancient sources
After these events Caesar had every
reason to suppose that Gaul was at peace
again, for the Belgae tribes were defeated.
the Germans driven out. and the Sedwti in
the Alpine region conquered; therefore
after the beginning of the winter he had set
out for Illyricum. desiring to visit the
tribes there also and to become acquainted
witlt the country.' (Caesar)
Caesar juged his men by their
fighting record-+ how they served
him in the field
-if it was well the were generously
rewarded if not they were
punished.
-+ he was taught by Pompey and
Marius
'made Pompey once again virtually the
master of all Roman possessions by sea
and land'(Plutarch)
'Therefore when he crossed dte Alps and
spent the winter in Luca. a great crowd of
ordinary men and women gathered there
in eager haste to see him. while two
hundred and twenty men of senatorial
rank, among whom were Pompey and
Crassus. and a hundred and twenty fasces
of proconsuls and praetors were seen at
Caesars door. Accordingly he filled all the
rest with hopes and loaded them witlt
money. and sent them away: but between
himself. Pompey and Crassus the
following compact was made .. ..
(Plutarch)
Modern Sources
... Ciodius was accused of invading the
precincts of a sacred religious ceremony
open only to women. The observances.
held at lite home of Caesar. were
considered to have been defiled. Caesar
divorced his "Wife without even consulting
her.
(Hennessy)
'Ciodius continued to win favour with tllC
people. He gave them free com and
controlled Rome with his anncd gang.
constantly intimidating Pompey . A rival
gang had been created, led by a new
tribune Milo, and Rome was often in open
conflict. Cicero was recalled to Rome and
the friendship between him and
was renewed. The great grain shortage
prompted a law to be passed in lite senate.
giving Pompey complete control of the
com-supply for five years. and providing
him witlt a fleet and an anny.
.. . witlt good fonune assisting his own
daring and energy. he filled the sea with
ships and the markets with grain. In fact
he provided so much of it that there was a
surplus left over for tl1e usc ofthc people
outside Italy. '(ibid)
Reports of Caesar' s victories in Gaul
and the booty sent home created jealous I;.
and alam1. '(Bradle)')
'In Rome. Caesar' s successes and name
were publicised widely. ' (Hennessy)
.. it appeared tltat Caesar had been
from Rome for too long. Attacks upon him
were being raised in the Senate. A new
meeting between himself and his partners
was called. (Herutcssy)
8
Fact
Almost 200 senators came north to speak with Caesar, including governors from
Sardinia and Spain.
-Cicero, despite his initial gratitude at getting recalled was soon joining Clodius,
Cato and Bibulus in attacking Caesar's legislation of 59, and one ofthe consular
candidates Domitius Ahenobarbus threatens that if he is elected to the in 55 he
would work to withdraw Caesar from Gaul.
Caesar marched his army into Brittany responding to the Veneti revolt to Roman
rule. They were supported by the Morini and Menapii from the Lower Rhine
region. The Veneti were destroyed
55 During the winter of 55 Caesar conquered the Morini and Menapii and
virtually exterminated_two German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, who had
crossed the Rhine to help the Tebels. He then bridged the Rhine and raided
Germany before crossing the Channel to punish the Britons, who had sent help to
their Gallic kin, he then returned and to demonstrate the power of Rome destroyed
the bridge. Caesar received a twenty-day thanksgiving,
-Second consulship of Pompey and Crassus
Caesars command in Gaul is extended for further five years
-Pompey received a five-year term in Spain, and when,
-Crassus leaves Rome for Syria.
-Pompey is left as sole-consul. At the end of the year, Pompey had difficulties
controlling the Consular elections for 54 despite Cicero and Clodius being out of
the picture.
54 Caesar launched his second expedition to Britain, 800 ships and five Legions
were invested in the second Channel crossing. On his return, he read of the death
of daughter, Julia and his mother Aurelia. The short-term effects of his personal
loss are visible in the careless nature of his armies for winter quarters. His
carelessness cost the lives of 15 cohorts, or at least 10000 men and he drowned his
sorrow in the blood ofthe Gaul's, waging a war ofextewination against the
rebellious Eburones and bridging the Rhine for a second raid in 53.
Ancient sources
'Pompey and Crassus. his par1ncrs in the
triumvirate. carne also. In their conference
it was decided that Pompey and Crassus
should be elected consuls again and that
Caesar's governorship over his provinces
should be c.xtended for five years more'
(Appian)
'When Caesar came south from Gaul to
the city of Luca a great many Romans
went there to meet him. Among these
were Pompey and Crassus. At tl1e private
conferences which the three men held
together they decided to tighten their grip
on public affairs and to toke over the
entire control of tlle state. Caesar was to
retain his anuy and Pompey and Crassus
were to have other proviltces and annies.
The only way to carry out this plan was to
stand for a second consulship. Pompey
and Crassus were to put themselves
forward as candidates. and Caesar was to
cooperate by writing to his friends and
sending back large numbers of soldiers to
support tllem at tlle elections.' (Plutarch)
'Gnaeus Pompeius and Marcus Crassus.
who had once before been consuls
togetller, now entered upon their second
consulship. which office tl1ey not only
won by tmfair means. but also
administered without popular approval. In
a law which Pompey proposed in the
assembly of the people. Caesar' s tenure of
office in his provinces was continued for
another five years. and Syria was decreed
to Crassus, who was now plruming to
make war upon Partllia. (Velleius
Paterculus)
Modern Sources
A meeting between the three- and a
of senators- occurred at Lucn (Lawless)
'Caesar moved to Luca. the town in his
province nearest to Rome. where the three
men arc supposed to have discussed the
future of the triumvirate ... the decisions
made at Luca provided for a public
reconciliation between Crassus and
Pompey and strengthened the position of
all U1ree. (Bradley)
'In tl1c winter of 55 the Gennan tribes
crossed the Rhine into Gaul. Caesar
arrested the Gem1an peace envoys and
extenninated tl1e two tribes. including the
women and children. He then carried out a
spectacular bridging of the Rhine
(Bradley)
Pompey and Crassus were elected to their
second consulship in SSBC.
the violent behaviour of their supporters
kept political opposition at bay
(Hennessy)
'The two triwnvirs were elected. but onh
after considerable violence ... The .
elections for praetors and aediles were
also accompanied by massive bribery and
violence.' (Bradley)
In the second half of 54 Julia. s
wife(Caesar' s Daughter). died in
childbirtl1 and although this did not
immediately affect U1e coalition. it alTered
an opportunity for Pompey to link himself
wiU1 another powerful senatorial family if
he wished to draw himself away from
Caesar. (Bradley)
9
Fact
-All candidates for the consulship of 53 were awaiting prosecution for corruption
thus elections were delayed and there were rumours of a dictatorship.
53 Caesar's treatment of the Gaul's during this year's campaigning (the leader of
the rebellious Senones had been flogged to death) lies in stark contrast to his prior
policies
-Despite the increasing estrangement between Pompey and Caesar, Pompey
complied with Caesar's request to help him raise 3 legions for his campaigns.
-Caesar's enemies had resumed the attacks on his laws, though for the moment,
Cicero performed good service in defending Caesar.
Politically, the death of Julia meant that the bonds between Pompey and Caesar
were weakened, Caesar offered to divorce his wife and marry Pompey's
daughter from an earlier marriage, to strengthen the alliance, and similarly
Pompey would marry Caesar's niece Octavia.
-Crassus was killed at Carrhae. which signalled the end of the triumvirate.
- 52 In January, Clodius was murdered by the followers of Milo and in the riots
that followed, the Senate house burnt down (as a pyre for Clodius's body).
Pompey wished for the Senate to appoint him dictator. Calpurnius Bibulus and
Cato proposed a compromise whereby Pompey would be sole-consul.
His legislation;
- a law against public violence
- a law stipulating a five year interval between urban magistrates and provincial
commands
- a law(jorm which Caesar was exempt, as Pompey wished to continue good
favour) demanding that candidates must appear in person at election.
-Pompey marries Cornelia, daughter of the Optimate Quintus Metellus Scipio
The troubles in Rome kept Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul during early 52 while he
tried repair his relationship with Pompey. However the Gaul's were obviously
aware of these troubles, Vercingetorix, took the opportunity to raise the peoples of
Central Gaul in revolt and have himself crowned King of the Gaul's. However
Vecingetroix was, by Caesar, defeated and captured.
Ancient sources
Caesars ability, prestigue and
money was what made him a
success in Roman politics
In Gaul
Caesar was
omnipotent.
' Vercingetroix, a very powerful
A.rvemian. whose father. Celtillius. had
held suzeraintv over all Gaul ... had no
difficulty in their (his fathers
retainers) passions, and the news of what
was afoot was soon brought others out in
anus .. . He was proclaimed king by his
adherents, and sent embassies in every
direction adjuring the tribes to keep
faith. . . Himself a man of boundless
energy. he terrorised waivers with the
rigours of an iron discipline. Serious cases
of disaffection were punished by torture
and death at the stake. or even for a minor
fault he would cut off a man' s ears of
gouge out one of his eyes and send him
home to serve as a waring to others of the
severe chastisement meted out to
offenders. (Caesar)
Modern Sources
'lie had even freely lcnlmnney In inllucntiai
people in Rome, such us Cicero: the Ji>rtunc
Caesar had mudc in Oaul wns mm g<nng tn
work lor him in Rome! (Bradley l
'Crassus' death did not mcunthut Ci\'11 11ar
between Pompey ond Cucsur wus nm1
inevitable, us Plutarch suggests, hut thL'
danger ofo serious split wns more likeh
(Bradley)
Inc situation worried Cucsur. uno he hoped
to bind Pompey Jo him by another llUIITiagc
alliance Jle o!Tercd his great-niece t lctnl 'i<o
to Pompey. und even suggested divorcing l11s
own wife in order to marry Pompcv s
daughter. Pompey refused the niTer. pnss1hh
to keep his options open so th<o l Inlier he
could mo\'C towards the oplimntcs: in ltcl 111
52 he married the daughter Caccilius
Metellus Pius Scipio Nusicu (13radlc) )
' One ofCrassus sons hud been killetl 111th
his lather at Currahue and he \ell u young
Cornelio. She becmnc s lilih
wife, ensuring the support of mum ol
Crnssus connections Comdiu br<lughl to
the marriage considerable wcnltl1. but more
importantly , the support ot' the
Metelli. (Cameron)
'In 52 Pompey maintained a posil/on
somewhere between Caesar and the
optimates. Caesar had hem made awm, rhar
his political survival depemled on l'ompn \
supporr and the senate was all'are rlwr ir
needed Pompey to preserve law and nrda
This position of power which l'ompe
enjoyed, hut it was no/to lasr Caesar \
enemies would no/ he deterredj()/'/1/ rlre1r
efforts to have him recalled as soon as
possible, which would upset the hahmce and
force Pompey to commit himself open(\' fo
one side or another. '(limdley!
10
Fact
-The Senate voted a public thanksgiving oftwenty days.
Caesar continued his campaigns in Gaul against the
Bituriges, Camutes and Bellovacci. As Caesar's tenn was soon
to be over and he desperately needed to complete his
pacification, hi s approach was again somewhat strange yet
they could never be seen as ineffective. The final scene of
Gallic resistance was played at Uxellodunum, where Caesar
had the hands of every man who had borne anns cut off.
50 Caesar attempts to negotiate with enemies in Rome and
in particular Pompey, but without much success.
- Gaius Claudius Marcellus and Lucius Cornelius Lentulus,
both firm anti-Caesareans were elected as consuls.
Supported by Pompey the optimates then launched their
attack, they succeeded in obtaining a senatorial resolution
forcing Caesar to lay down his command at its tenninal date.
Curio then pushed through a resolution (by 370 votes to 22)
that both Caesar and Pompey should lay down their
commands simultaneously on December 1, 50. The next day
Marcellus (acting without authorization from the Senate or the
People) illegally offered the command over all troops in Italy
to Pompey, together with the power to raise more, and
Pompey accepted. It was clear that Pompey and the optimates
did not wish for peace.
-the senate decided to send two legions to deal with the trouble
in Parthia- one from Pompey, the other from Caesar. Pompey
requested Caesar to send the legion he had sent him in 53BC,
thus Caesar lost two legions.
49 Caesar was told to disband his army or he would be voted
an outlaw. As the consular elections were to be held in the
middle of the year this would leave his open to prosecution.
Two tribunes, including Mark Antony, attempt to veto this
Ancient sources
'He reduced to the fonn of a province the whole of Gaul
enclosed by the Pyrenees. the Alps. the Ceve1mes. the
Rhine. and the Rhone- about 640 000 square miles except
for certain allied states wh.ich had all giYen him useful
support; and exacted an annual tribute of 400 000 gold
pieces. Caesar was the first Roman to build a military
bridge across the Rhine and cause the Germans n the
farther bank hea"y losses. He also invaded Britain. a
hitherto unknow11 cowlt:l)'. and defeated the natives. fonn
whom he exacted a large stml of money as well as
hostages for future good behaviour. He met with onl)'
three serious reverses : in Britain when his fleet was all
but destroyed by a gale; in Gaul , when one of his legions
was routed at Gergovia among tl1e Am'ergne mowttains;
and on tlte Genuan frontier. when his generals Titurius
and Aunmcleius were ambushed and killed.' (Snet;>nius)
'Pompey had this notion and at least of all in tl1e present
cause. Absolute power is what he and Caesar haYc
sought; their aim has not been to secure the happiness and
honour of the conmtwtity. Pompey has not abandoned
Rome. because it was impossible to defend. nor Italy on
forced compulsion; but it was his idea fom1 the first to
plunge the world into war ... A sought of Sulla s reign has
long been his object, and is the desire of many of his
companions. Or do you think that no agreement. no
compromise between him and Caesar was possible? Why.
it is possible today: but neither of them looks to our
happiness. Botl1 oftl1em want to be Kings.' (Cicero)
' When this was known Caesar addresses his troops. He
relates all the wrongs that his enemies had ever done him.
and complains tltat Pompeius had been led astray and
corrupted by them through jealously and a desire to
detract form his credit. though he had himself always
supported and aided his honour and dignity. He
complains that a new precedent had been introduced i.nto
the f:tate whereby tl1e right of tribwtical intervention.
which in earlier years had been restored by anns. was
now being branded witl1 ignominy and crushed by
anns . . ' (Caesar)
Modern Sources
' By the end of 51 BC. Caesar's conquest or Gaul \\as
over. In nine years he had achieved a grent
deal. (Hemcssy)
'Caesar repeatedly o/fered to make concessions.
including, finall y. the dismissal of all but two legions
if the Senate would adhere to the law allowing him to
stand for the consulship. As tribune. Curio had
worked tirelesly for Caesar but he had only delayed
the inevitable In January of 49BC. the senate met
again and voted that Caesar had to disband his arm:-.,
or be declared a public enemy ' (Hennessy)
'Although Caesar was ambitious. and like all Homan
nobles wanted personal supremacy, there is no
evidence lhal he ever aimed at o king or
that he initiated a civil war to gain a crmm. Caesar
crossed the Rllbicon on the pretext o(prorecting the
sacrosanctity ofthe tribunes. but his real reason was
to defend his own hono!lr and repwation rHrad/ey)
'he believed that his political enemies would hm c
impeached him for breaking the law duripg his first
consulship and that he would have been condemned.
despite everything that he had achieved. and sent into
exile. (Bradley)
I I
Fact
Severly disrupts
1111oj Rome -+ Caesar had to return to
..... , Rome on several occasion to settle the
bill, but a state of emergency was declared and Caesar refusing was declared an outlaw.
The tribunes and any senatorial supporters of Caesar left Rome to join him.
violence of the urban mob
-elections could not take place
Empire-+ raged throughout the
empire, disrupting
Caesar crosses the Rubicon- ci:vil war declared reasons:
-protection oftribunes? - I
-financial difficulties? IIIIo
'The die is cast' (Caesar)
going back
-trade
-agriculture
-fear ofimpeadunent?
-a bid for the monarchy?
-to defend his honour.
-as a gamblimg term; the die is in
the air and nobody knows which
way it will turn, in Pompeys
favour or Caesars?
-+ financial implications on the state
-+ Pax Romana impeded in civil war
Ancient Sources
' ... He was resolved to invade Italy if force were used against the tribw1es of the people
who had vetoed the senate!s decree disbanding his army by a given date. Force was, in
effect, used, and the tribunes fled towards Cisalpine Gaul, which became Caesar's pretext
for launching the Civil War.' (Suetonius)
When the consul Lentulus drove the tribunes out of Rome in disgrace, it gave Caesar
the best possible excuse for taking action and supplied him with excellent material for
propaganda among his troops.' (Plutarch)
'Pompey's conunent was that because Caesar had insufficient capital to cany out his
grandiose schemes or give the people all that they had been encouraged to expect on his
return, he choose to create an atmosphere of political confusion.' (Suetonius)
'in a most lavish way making available to public figures in Rome the wealth which he
had won in Gaul. He paid the enormous debts of the tribune Curio, and he gave the
consul Paull us with which he added to the beauty of the forun1 by building the famous
basilica .. ' (Plutarch)
' Another view is that he dreaded having to account for the irregularities of his first
consulship ... (and) he said in these very words: "They would have condemned me
regardless of all my victories- me, Gaius Caesar- had I not appealed to my army for
help.' (Suetonius)
'Prestige had always been of prime inlportance to me, even outweighing life itself; it
pained me to see the privilege conferred on me by the Roman people being insultingly
wrested form me by my enemies.' (Caesar)
'It has also been suggested that constant exercise of power gave Caesar a love of it;
and that, after weighing his enemies' strength against his own. he took the chance of
fulfilling his dreams of making a bid for the monarchy ... ' (Suetonius)
Modern Sources
"Some modem scholars maintain that the flight of the Lriunes was "staged'
Caesar because he was befng systematically outmanoeuvred by his political opponents
Cicero maintained tl1at tl1e tribunes were not driven out. and that it was a pretence
(Bradley)
'Caesar had been sending back to Rome vast quantities or gold and silver and other spoi Is
of war. which had been used to build up support for himself while he was He was
very generous witl1 his troops. When Pompey asked for the retum of the legion he had
lent Caesar. he sent the soldiers back with a present of250 drachmas each .. also doubled
every soldiers pay ... When he occupied Rome in 49 he broke into tl1e treasury. as he wns
in desperate need of funds.' (Bradley)
. it was not the penalty that Caesar feared. but the indignity of it. He was conccmcd
witl1 his honour and reputation ... ' (Bradley)
.. his real reason was to defended his ovm honour and reputation.' (Bradley)
n1ere is no doubt that by crossing the Rubicon .. . Caesar comiuittcd treason and was
legally responsible for the civil war. However, the evidence seems to suggest tlmt he did
not want to fight such a war, but rather hoped for a quick political capitulation by hi s
enemies followed by his election to the consulship o f 48 (Bradley)
12
Fact
...
First period of dictatorship- eleven days -..
'Out of respect and fear the senate made him dictator'
-fear of his clients and followers .
Pompey took
his supporters
and fled Rome
48 Caesar is consul
-he did not request it, it was granted to him
-Caesar is a product of his social and political context
Ancient Sources
'What a disgrace- and, CO!lliequently, what a misery ... Pompey cherished Caesar,
bet:ame afraid of him, refused nll peac-e terms, failed to prepare for war.
evacuated Rome, culpably Picenwn, went off to Greece without getting in touch with
us or letting us know anything about Iris unprecedented plan upon which so much
depended.' (Cicero)
' When MeteUus, Trilrune, tried to prevent Caesar from taking money from the slate
reserve and began to cite various laws, Caesar told him that there was a time for laws
and n time for aons .. " As for you," he said," if you don' t like what is being done, get out
of the way for the presenL War ahs no use for free speech. But when r have laid dmm
my anus and come lo tenns.. then you can come bac.k again and make your speech to the
people. And let me point out that in saying this I wn giving out my own just rights, In fact
you are my prisoner, you and aU the rest of the party acting against me whom I have in
my hands." After saying tills to Metellus, Caesar went towards tllie doors of the treasury
and, as the keys could not be found, sent for smiths and ordered them to break the doors
dov.n. Metellus once again began to object and the.re were some who applauded him for
doing so. Caesar then raised his voice and threatened to kill him if he didn't stop
interfering.
4
And, young man," he said," you know well enough that I dislike saying this
more than I would dislike doing it" These words had there effect. Mete! Lus wen& off in
fright and for the futur'< all Caesar's demands for material for the war '"-ere readily
obeyed.' (Plutarch)
'He now maJrched into Spain eh had decided first of all to drive out of that country
Pompey' s commanders ... and to gailt possession of their armies and provinces. He
would then march against Pompey withoum having to leave any enemy forces behind hts
back ... When he returned to Rome, his father in-1'"". Pisc>, urged him to send a deputation
to Pompey to discuss terms of peace; but fsauricus, with the idea of pleasing Caesar.
spoke against this proposal. The senate then appointed Caesar dictator. In tllis capacit1 he
recalled his exiles. gave back their civil rights to the children of those who had suffered
under Sulla, relieved the burdens of debtors by remitting some of the interest on their
debts. and. after dealing with a few other public measmes of the same kind. within
eleven
days resigned fonn his position of supreme power. He had himself dechued consul with
Servilius Isauricus as his colleague, and then set out for the war.' (Plutarch)
Modern Sources
In 49. he was appointed dictator by the praetor Lepidus, but this he resigned aller eleven
days when he was elected to the consulship for 48: this appears to be an attempt to
reconstruct nonnal gove11nment.' (Bradley)
'Pompey and his supporters sailed to the East. leaving Caesar in Italy. Caesar faced 11 .,..._
hostile senate but still made sound arrangemems for the security of Italy. Before he len
for Spain. Caesar had set.up strong defensive points on both land and sea He lefi Rome
in April and sailed directly for Mass ilia. In Spain his army was successful against some
of the strongest Pompeian forces. He rcntrned to Rome in September after detouring to
Placentia Cisalpine Gauls to put down a mutiny of his own soldiers. In other arcns or the
Empire. however. he did not achieve success: in Africa. Curio and his troops were killed
Caesar remained in Rome for eleven days and was elected consul lor 48BC (having
previously been appointed dictator) and worked on producing a solution to the debt
problem. (He1messy)
Pompey and the oplimates were taken by swprise b) the speed of Caesars movcmems
once he had crossed t11e Rubicon. They evacuated Rome. since Pompey s IIIllly was 1101
yet ready to face Caesar. Pompey's plans were further upset when lltc proconSlll L
Domitius Aheuolbarbus failed in an attempt to intercept Caesar at CorliJlium. and
surrendere-d with three legions. Pompey then made the decision to evacuate 1\aly and
headed for the port of Brumdisium. Before he left for Greece his an11y and the
rruijority of the senators. Caesar made several auempls to an angc a personal intcnie\\
with him, but this Pompey refused.
Caesar did not follow Pompey immediately. bu't rctumed to Rome. In order to get the
fll!llds he needed for war he broke into the treasury.' (Bradley) +-
JJ
Fact
Defeats Pompey at Pharsalus
-Pompey fletes to Egypt where his death is arranged by
Egyptian king and he is murdered by the enueh Porrthinus8
Civil war continues, battle is te.ken to Egypt and Greece
' appointed dictator for a year, beginning in October
Ancient Sources
-.........-..............

'When Pompey, form the othn wing, saw hi!o Calvary routed artd scattered, he was no
longer the same person as before, aruf no longer remembered that he was Pompey tile
great Looking more like a mt11 whom some has deprivt:d wits, he went off,
withowt saying a word, to his tent artd there sat dowt: and waited fm wJlat was to come,
until his whole army artd the enemy had begun to attack the fortifications of
his can1p artd were fighting wt.th the c!.etachnnnts who were it At this point he
seemed to come to his senses. The only words he uttered we>-e, so tbey say. "What, into
the carttp too?'' artd, with thei;e word; he took his gmerals clothes 1md, changing into
other clothes more suitable for a fugitive, stole away ... artd how he put himself in the
hartds of the artd wns murdered.' eiutarch)
'CaesaY, when he came up to !Pompey's camp and saw the df:ad bodies lying on the
ground artd others sti11 being cut down, growtd aloud artd said, "They made this happen:
they drove me into it i!fl had dismissE:d my rumy, I Caius Caesar, after all my victories.
would l'tave be,en condemned in their law courts". (P utarch)
'He arrived in Alexandria just after Pampey'3 death. When Theodotus crune to him with
Pompey's head, Caesall' refused to look at him, but took Pompey s signet ring and shed
tears he did so. He Clffered hep artd his owa friendship to all who had be1:n friends rutd
companions of Pompey rutd who, witi10ut art:rwhere go to. had been arre1:ted by lhe
Klltg of Egypt. And h(: wrote to his friends ir Rome to say that, of a<II the r(sttlts of has
victory. what gave him the most plea!:ure wru; that h<: was sc often able to save the lives
of the fellow who had fought against him. '(Plutarch)
'As for the war in Egypt, some say th-lt it net:d never have taken place, that it was brought
on by Caesar' for Cleopatra and that it did ilim little credit while involving him
in great danger. Othem blrune tbe party for it, rutd pruticularly the eunuch
Ponthinuss, who was the most influential person in the court. He had also recently killed
Pompey, had dnven out Cleopatra, and was now secretly plotting tc kill Caesar.
(Plutarch)
Caesar was bo;:h
horrified and
relieved.

Caesars troops were out numbered 2
-15000 off'ompeys men killed thus
Pompey flees
Caesu proven the more skillful
general
Modern Solllrces
cae-sar left Italy in Jartuary fomt Brundisiunt and sailed lo the Cf:st. lrutding in E:pirus
From here two major battles were fought: tlte first in MIII':h at Dyrrachium n which
Pompey wa:; successful and the sec:ond in April at Pharsalus where according to Caesar
Pompey facoo a great dealofinterr1ational squabbling. The Pompeirut forces nt
the Caesarean, but tluough ll ght dis;ipline nnd Caesars quick reading of
Pompey's tz.ctics, Caesafadtieved an overwhelming victory. Pompey escaped. but was
not to fight mother day.
Pompey sailed to Egypt via Lesbos who!re he met up with his .vile and his so11.
Sextus. Cae;ar followed rutd on hi!: arrival in Alexandria (Octobc:r) he was presented with
Pompey' s h:::ad. Before ling Caesar foWld himself blockaded in Alexandria (No1 ember-
February).' (Henne!;sy)
Cae!:ar eventually crossed the Adriatic in c:arly 48 after being ele<:ted consul for hat year
Neal" Dyrrhachiwn, Pompe:;'s base for naval opem.tions, Caesar nttemptc:d a bb;kadc ol'
the but failed mainuin it rutd moved inland to Titcssaly. the two Roma.1
forces met in the battle plain ofPharsalus.' (Bradley)
'Cae-sar had followc:d Pompey to Egypt to prevent him from gathering new forces and
renewing war. but once there h:! beCBire involved in the dynastic intngues or the
court ofPto.iemy rutd his si!;ter/wifi!, Cleopalra his prolonged stay wa!; not due to her
(Bradley)
After tl1e bnttle in Pharsa\ns he was appo!IIted dictator for one year. to deal
witl1 the emergency situaticn (Bradley)
!4
. -
. '
hct
---------------------------------------
Civil war continues against republican forces in Africa and
47 war in Alexandria; defeats Pharnaces, King ofPontus
46 Caesar is consul; wins Battle of Thapus in Africa
Ancient SQ!!!.es Modern Sources
'While he [Scorpio] was engaged on this operation, Caesar, marching with incredible
speed, made: his way through thick woods wh.ich disguised Iris approach. outflan.ked one
division of the enemy, and attacked another from the front. .. At the first attack he
captured the camp of Afrellius, and at the :first attnck he overran lllld sacked the ,;amp or
rhe Numidians, from which Juba ran away. So in a small part of a single day he made
himself master of these camps and killed nearly 51) 000 of the en1:my without losing as
marzy as fifty of his own men ... Others say that Caesar was not personally at the action:
he began to suffer form an attack of his unusual illness just as he was drnwing up his
troo[ils and ordering them into position, and being aware that his illness Nas coming 011.
and finding that he was already using the nse oflris faculties, he was canied .. . to a t0\\11
nearby, where he rested while the battle was going on. ' (Plutarch)
' CalO was i111 command of the city ofUtica and for that reason had taken no part in the
battlle. Being extremely anx.ious to capture him alive, Caesar hunied to Utica, but found
that he had ,comm.itred suicide. The news had a d.isturbiug effect 011 Caesar. though it is
difli:cult to say exactly why. Cenainly he exclaimed: "Cato, I must grudge your death. a!;
you grudged me the opporttmity of giving you your life.'' But the essay which h! \\TOle
latter attacking Cato after his death does not bear the traces of kindly or forgiving
temper.' (Plutarch)
' Aft:er defeating Scipio, Caesar celebrated four triumphs in one month wit11 a few days
interval between them; and after defeating the sons of Pompey a fifth. These triumphs
were the Gallic- the first and most magnificent- The Alexandrian. tl1e Pontic. the African.
and lastly the Spanisll... Ill the Pontic triumph one of the decorated wagons, instead of a
stag<e-set representing scenes from the war, like the rest. carried a simple three-word
inscription:
I CAME, I SAW, I CONQURED!
This referred not to the events of the war ... but to the speed with which it had been
won.
(Suetonius)
caesar met the young co-regen: of Egypt. C!e(lpatra. while nwaitmg lhe arrmJI ol' a
relieving force. During his stay in Egypt he confim1ed the joint arrival of Clcopatrn and
her brother-husband bu' the lar:er was killed in the battle to rescue Caesar and h1s men
Alexandria finally surrendered to Caesar. and thai swnmer Cloopatra ga\'C birth 10
Caesar's son. Caesar then returned to Rome vin the East On the way he settled S)na ond
Tarsus ru1d other troubled spots. and defeated King Phamaces of the Bophorous nt
the Battle: of Zein. On his arrival in Rmue. Caesar bce<ulJC dictator he was 'llCl \\ith
chaos V1olence in Rome had to be quelled with nrmcd force. resulting in gm1tloss c.r
life. Also. Caesar's veterans had had enough of military servi ce ru1d had gone on n
rampage in Campania Before leaving Italy again. Caesar restored peace and lilcd va:ant
with his suppcrters. ' 0-leJmessy)
'He had !:pem orJy shon periods in Rome between the campaigns of the civil war. but
during these brief stays he carried out a nwnber of refonns. initiated the conslmction or
.lllany great buildings. was appointed dictator lor various periods and accepted honours
and pow(:rs.' (Bradley)
caesar entered the last stage of war in Africa. He was succes!:ful at Ruspma and ag&.in at
Uzila. but the de:isive victory came at Thap_sm .. where his soldiers tumed the bailie into a
massacre. So great had been the loss of life tha! Caesar and his army I) walked in
and look the last site of Pompeian resis!ancc. without any bloodshed. (Hennessy!
AttlJc cud of 4 7 Caesar sailed to Africa. wJ1er! the Pompei an s had gathered LJ.ndcr
Mctcllus Scipio, . .t\franius. Labienusand.Pompey's two sons. Their forces were
augmented by futrr legions offered by the King Juba ofNumidia. Cac!lar faced the
P-:m1peian's at Tnapsus. During the pwsuil of the enemy. Ius troops got out of hand. and
the death toll was higher than at Pharsalus. All the Pompeian leaders- except Labicnus
and Pompey's wns. who escaped to Spain- los! their Jhes Cato committed SJIGidc nt
Utica. (Bradley)
15
Fact
Appointed Dictator for ten years
45 Consul
Wins Battle ofMunda in Spain; end of civil
Caesar celebrates the bigest triumph of his life for his
success' in Gaul, however there is some discrepancy
amoungst Pompeys supporters, as they pressume he
accepts it for the civil war.
declared Dictator perpetuus
-there is at this point a growing hostility towards Caesar caused by his autocratic behaviour
Ancient Sources
'Not only did he accept excessive honours, such as life-consulship, a life-
dictatorship, a perpetual Censorship, the title "lmperator" put before his name and
the title of"Father ofhis Country' appended to it. .. but took other honours, which
as a mere mortal, he should have refused.' (Suetonius)
'He showed equal scorn of traditional precedent by choosing magistrates several
years ahead, decorating4ten former praetors with the emblems oftlte consular
rank and admitting to the Senate men offoreign bitth.' (Suetonius)
' .. . public statements which reveal a similar presumption: that the Republic was
nothing- a mere name without form or substance; ... and that, now his own word
was law, people ought to be more careful how they approached him. (Suetonius)
'What made the Romans hate him so bitterly was that when, one day, the entire
senate, armed with an imposing list of honours that they had just voted him, came
to where he sat in front ofthe Temple ofMother Venus. he did not rise to greet
them. ' (Suetonius)
'This open insult to the senate was emphasised by an even worse example of his
arrogance. As he turned to Rome .. . a member of the crowd set a laurel \neath,
bound with royal white fillet, on the head ofhis statue. Two tribwtes oftlte
people ... ordered the filet to be removed at once and the offender intprisoned. But
Caesar reprimanded and swnmarily deposed tltem botlt.' (Suetonius)
Modern Sources
'In 46, after his victories command in Africa. his appoinUnent as dictator for ten years indicated that
he was looking at a more permanent form of autocracy: however he held the consulship in 41i and 45
as well, which may have been intendeA to disguise his rise to power.
During this time he accepted offices and honours from a subservient senate. throwing a veil or
legality over his position.
Af/er the republicans' defeat at Munda, Caesar was in camp/ere conrrol ofrhe Roman world and rhe
nobility were hoping jar normalisation of government. Up to this poinl they may have clung to the
belief that Caesar did not intend to hold power forever and so felt able to tolerate his dictalorship as"
temporary necessity. After the civil war, however, it became obvious that he had no intention
up his position and going back to the old republican form ofgovernmenl, which to them meanr rhe
oligarchic rule of their own clique.' (Bradley)
'Caesar was awarded the dictatorship on four separate occasions: 49 BC for eleven days: late 48 BC
for one year; mid 46BC for ten years (but the position had to renewed each year): and at the end of 45
BC for life.' (Hennessy)
during his fijlh consulship (sole-consulship), he took the title of dictator 'for life. wh1ch
revealed his intention to retain absolute authority ... At this time his head began to appear on Roman
coins, several bearing /he inscription Diet. Perpetuo. Since portraits of great men only appeared on
coins after !heir death, the depiction ofa live Caesar must have indicated that he regarded him.w:i f'as
being like no other man. This may have lead to the belief that he intended going even jitrther and
assuming the Iitle of rex. However although he be/ived that/he senate controlled republic H'Os
finished, and thought that some form of autocratic control was needed. there is no real
evidence that he intended establishing a monarchy . Caesar already had the powers o(a king wit how
having assumed the title which all Romans hated' (Bradley)
"Caesar had only one tmshakeable principle- he would not let go of the power he had won (Gczlcr)
16
I For Rome the Empire and Stability
Fact
During his dictatorship Caesar implemented the following reforms for the
benefit of Rome:
rranchise - he granted franchise toTranspadane Gaul
-granted full Roman citizenship to certain provincial towns
Colonisation -promoted overseas colonies for his veterans and the urban poor
-founded the colonies ofHispalis, Tarraco, Sinope, Cirta
[- his colonies had either Latin or Roman status]
i.e. Caesar initiated the effective Romanisation of the empire.
Italians -lex Julia Municipalis- which provided franchised towns with a
uniformed system of local government, including a local senate and
magistrates.
Finance -replenished the public treasury from;
a. penalties extracted form rebels after the battle at Munda
b. benevolences from vassal kinks
-struck the first gold coins
Provinces -replaced the tax system in Sicily and Asia
-enrolled Gauls and Spaniards in the Senate
Army -paid his soldiers bounties and pensions
-increased soldiers wage
Masses -he reduced the number of recipiants ofthe com dole by half, and the
surplus he drafted to his new colonies
Ancient Sources
'Caesar was bom to do great things and to seek constantly for distinction. His many
successes, so far form encournging his to resl and enjoy the ftujts of his labours. only served
to kindle him in fresh confidence fur the future. filling his mind with projects of still greater
actions and with a passion for new glory, as rho ugh he bad run through his stock of the gold.
His feelings can best be described by saying that he was competing with himself as though
he were someone else and was stnJggling to make the future excel the past. (Plutarch)
Puh/ic: works -began to extend and pave the Julian forum

-implemented plans to
a. add a library to the Basilica Julia
b. drain the Pontine marshes
c. improve the cities drainage
d. deepen the harbour at Ostia
e build a new road over the Apennine mountains
f. cut a canal at the Isthmus of Corinth.
Some of which
were paid for with
personal funds
Calendar- employed a Greek mathematician from Alexandria to reform the
Roman calendar (this alsobenifited the wider community
- for greater stability)
LmvUudiciary- excluded the trihuni aerarii who had served since 70 from the
courts, evening the numbers of senators and equites
-penalties for criminal offences increased
Magistrates -increased seaate numbers to 900
Miscellaneous -suppressed all private clubs and collegia, except guilds of
craftsmen and Jewish synagogues
-implemented measures to relieve debt relief and to protect creditors
from incurring heavy losses
-instituted laws against luxury
Modern Sources
'He had an eye for efficiency. and when he saw obvious abuses in the system he did not
hesitate to remove tl1em as quickly as possible. (Bradley)
'Some legislation was simply a tidying-up process. while otlter rcfonns had more far reaching
effects. Much of what he started and planned was left for others to complete or implement
(Bradley)
His most important initiative- the founding of colonies outside Italy and the extension or
Roman citizenship to provincials- was linked to his need to provide for the vast number of
veterans. Since the runow1t ofland in Italy was limited. he was forced to established colonies
(some new settlements and some incorporating pre-existing towns) in Spain. Gaul North
Africa rutd the east. Most of these colonies included vast nwnbers of the wtemployed and
poor from Rome as well as his veterans. so in tlus way Caesar began the process of breaking
down the distinction between Romans and provincials (the Romanisation of the Empire).
He even added new members to the senate from among the most influential of the Romani sed
Gauls. (Bradley)
17
Fact
drew up his will, this is probably due to the increasing number of epileptic attacks he had been suffering.
44 Dictator for life; Assassinated 15 March (Ides of March)
Caesar was assinated not for who he was but for what he represented-+ his spirit was what was so offensive, although Suentonius would argue differently NO
man had achieved so much using the preecedents set by others. Although the people themselves had created this by granting him
'the honours and marks of distinction nonnally reserved for the gods.' (Cowell)
-The rule of Caesar
-deprived the people of their freedom/ undennined the concept of liberty
-the essence of the Republican government was sharing and thus through his Die/. Perpertuo this no longer applied
- he had placed himself above the law
-frightened the people, they were unsure of what he may become or in parallel they were jealous of what he had become and in the knowledge they
would never attain such power they killed him (in cold blood) in the name of saving the republic. It is strange to not however that the conspirators did
not remain in ~ o r n e , or Italy for that matter, to reinstate the Republican government they sacrificed him for .
Ancient Sources
'More than sixty conspirators banded together against hi, led by Gaius Cassius and
Marcus and Decimus Bnitus. A suggested plan was to wait until the consular elections .
An a/Jernalive was to attack hi in the sacred way or at the entrance to the Theatre. The
conspirators wavered between these plans until Caesar called a meeting of the Senate in
the Pompeian Assembly Room for the Ides ofMarch; they then decided at once that this
would be a convenient time and place .. . Unmistakable signs forewarned Caesar of his
assassination... These warnings and ill-health, made him hesitate for some time wether
or not to go ahead with his plans, or wether to postpone the meeting. Finally Decimus
Brutus persuaded him not to disappoint the senate, who had been in fill/ session for some
time waiting for him to arrive. It was about /Oo 'clock when he set of for the House As he
went someone handed him a note containing details of the plot against his life, but he
merely added it to the bundle of petitions in his left hand, which he intended to read
latter .. and despite considerably unfavourable omens he entered the house ... "This is
violence!" Caesar cried, and at that moment, as he turned away, one of the Casca
brothers with a sweep of his dagger stabbed him just below the throat.. he was leaping
away when another dagger blow stopped him. Confronted by a ring of drawn daggers, he
drew the top of his gown over his face and at the same time ungirded the lower part,
letting it fall to his feet so that when he would die both legs would be decently covered.
Twenty-three dagger thmsts went home as he stood there ... '(Suetonius)
' .. those who were not in the conspiracy were so horror-stmck and amazed at what was
being done that they were afraid to nm away and afraid to come to caesar's help; they
were too afraid even to utter a word. But those who had come prepared for the murder
all bared their daggers and hemmed Caesar in on every side ... So he was driven this way

Modern Sources
n1ere were many Romans who found Caesar's disposition unacceptable. (Brodie))
'Caesar's reforms did no/ impress his opponents. No mauer how moderate they II'<' I'<' or
how much they may have benefited the people oj'Rome, Italy and the province.1. I he
conservatives resented his actions. Even his reform of the calendar o.f]i!l1ded !hose who
were jealous of his power. '(Bradley)
'A perpetual dictator wasfrightjill enough. It was strange that C'aesar.jin a/l/11,
insight, did not trouble to discern that a perpetual dictator ruling by remote con fro/ H 0 .1
so frightful that it could not he endured. And as the period of remote control drell'lll'Orer
the plotting began and intens({ied. (Gran!)
To what extent Caesar was aware of the offence caused by his growing autocrac;. is
w1la10wn. He certainly treated TU111ours of attempts against his life as pronouncements or
ml.favourable omens with disdain, by dismissing his Spanish bodyguard. He may have
hoped that an oath sworn by !he senators to protect his life- and also his !ribunican
inviolability- were enough to safeguard him against violence. (Bradley)
'Blll the leaders of the conspirac:v were idealists, men who not only resented. as"
persona/thing, the imperial arrogance of Caesar, but who recognised thai, ll'llh Canar
alive, autocracy would take a more and more stifling grip on Rome. 71wy believed. in/he
nobilit}' o.ftheir simple hearts. that republicanism could still be saved. (Balsdon J
18
and that, w1d /Ike a wild beast in the toils he had to suffir jiom all the hands of each one
of/hem ... Either by chance or because he was pushed by his murders. he jell down
againsc the pedestal on which the scarue of Pompey stood, and the pedestal was drenched
in his blood. so tlu:ll one might have thought that Pompey himself was presiding over this
acrofvengeance against his enemy ... So Caesar was done to death and. when it was
over. Brutus stepped forward with the intention of making a speech to explam whac had
beef! do11e. The senators, however, would not wait to hear him. They rushed out through
che door o_(the building and fled to their homes, thus produci'ng a st.ace of confusion,
terror, and bewilderment, amongst the people. ' (Plutarch)
'The conspirators believed they were right and rhat rhey were actingjiJr rhe good of
Rome and I he Empire. They believed that their aclion would nor he viell'ed as a C/'111/e hw
as a means ofsaving the Republic. ' (Hennessy)
on 15 March. a date know to us as the Ides of March. he wns brutally assassinnted. The
conspiracy was widespread. >\'ith some sixty people involved. Some of these had fought
with Pompey during the civil war but had been accepted back into the goveming circles
of Rome; others had fought alongside Caesar. Most notable among their ranks were
Marcus Brutus. Gaius Cassius. Decimus Brutus and Gaius Trebonius- men who held
prominent positions in Rome.' (Hennessey)
If indeed Caesar was aiming for the kingship as is suggested he was his will show no evidence of this.
' ... republic had in effect
been suspended, even his
allies turned against
him'
]q
.
..
:. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler
B
Gaius Julius Cresar
A Necessary Ruler
by
Edward Guerrant Read Bennett, Junior
February 9,
2003
Ninth Grade Ancient & Mediaeval History
2001-2002
Dr. Charles H. M" Arver
25/5/05 10:02
y 46 B.C., the Roman Republic existed as a disgraceful imposter of the ideal government that had originated in opposition to the very corruption it no1
embodied. As senators vied for power, using any means necessary to further their own agendas, the Roman state struggled to rule the empire. After years c
civil and political strife, it seemed logical that the man who had done so much to create and maintain that empire, Gaius Julius Caesar, would emerge 1
supreme leader and would undertake to rebuild the Roman State. Unfortunately, his effort contributed to the final collapse of the Republic and initiated
series of events which led to the creation of the Empire.
The conquering lmperato,Jll. Caesar who rode victoriously into Rome was a far cry from Julius Caesar the young curule aedile ,!ill mocked by man
for his enormous ambition and ridiculous schemes,.Li.i.il Born into the distinguished patrician Julian clan, Caesar claimed descent from Venus.fu.l As a yow:
man Caesar drew attention to himself by refusing to divorce his wife Cornelia at the orders of Lucius Cornelius Sulla who became dictator in 82 B.C. Whe
Sulla threatened to have him killed, Caesar fled from Rome, but eventually the two reconciled.
After returning to Rome, the young patrician spent late nights partying, being more likely found in the company of ladies than statesmen. In 7
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page 1 o
:. a Ruit:r 25/5/05 1 0.:02
B. C., the reveler horrified the College of Pontiffs by managing to have himself elected to their number:lYl In his new position he fmally began to show som
responsibility. He rose through the cursus honorum, pursuing the possibilities which a political career offered. At that time, the people had no leader; the
Senate, despite Sulla's reforms, seemed ineffective and outdated. The Twelve Tables of Roman Law and the Mos lvfaiorum were powerless against the
"consulship" of the denarius and the aureus;bdl virtue could easily be forgotten with a few more coins in one's purse.
The Rom an PoHticaJ System
In order to understand why Caesar felt his talents were needed, a brief examination of the Roman political system is necessary. At the center o
government was the Senate. Composed of patricians and
ex-magistrates, its purpose was to advise the consuls who were two democratically elected magistrates who acted as generals and heads of state for
year. In reality, the Senate exercised substantially more power than its "advisory" role would suggest. While legislative power nominally lay in the hands ol
the Popular Assemblies, in practice, the Senate held control. The Senate's decisions, decrees, and legislation were submitted to a magistrate under the title o
"Senatus Consultam" (The Advice of the Senate). The magistrate then either put this "advice" into action or gave it to the Assembly to be mad
official.Wil
As the highest executives, the two consuls wielded enormous power. Nominated by the Senate and elected by the Centuriate Assembly, consul!
possessed imperium, or power over the armies. The two consuls balanced the Senate, whose "advice" usually had a high priority.bdiil
Legally, the Tribal Assembly elected nearly all of the government positions, except those offices with imperium, which were chosen by th
Centuriate Assembly. All Roman Citizens, even those of the lowest classes, voted in this body and nominally enacted legislation. However, they were littl
more than tools, clients of the upperclass knights&l and senators who got their way by "suggesting" their clients vote one way or the other. The Plebeia
Tribunate, a group of ten elected plebeian tribunes, held the power of veto (I forbid) over all legislation or actions affecting lower-class interests as well a
the power to prosecute other magistrates. By Caesar's time, the Tribunes of the Plebs came largely from the wealthier Plebeian families.lxl Because
senators recognized that only one tribune had to be bribed to exercise his veto, this body often acted as another tool the principal purpose of which 1
prevent the passage of bills opposed by the upper classes.
The lower classes led a miserable existence. Nearly one-third of the population in Rome consisted of slaves.ll:dl Wages for free men were extreme I:
low- there was no need to pay high wages when free labor was so readily available. To the average working man, it made no difference who was in pow
and who was not, for such person's primary concern was day-to-day survival.
Attempts At Reform
Some statesmen protested against the pervasive corruption. Some tribunes refused to sacrifice their state on the altar of upper-class decadence. I
the mid second century, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and his brother, Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, tried to introduce reform.
http://www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page 2 c
C. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler 25/5/05 1 0:02
Tiberius, a Tribune, had attempted to implement an agrarian law which redistributed state-held land among the urban poor. Tariffs would be place<
on foreign grain, encouraging Italian agriculture. An idealist, Tiberius tried to pass his land law in the Assembly, which, of course, nominally held sucl
power. But Marcus Octavius, the other Tribune (at this time there were only two), was bribed to veto the law by the squatters who stood to lose "their
land. Confusion ensued. Such a popular law was needed, but the sacred person of a Tribune could not be questioned or challenged. Bending the constitution
Tiberius claimed that it was the office of a Tribune to represent the will of the people; a Tribune who failed to do this could no longer be sacrosanct. Th
mob dragged Octavius from the Rostra, and left Tiberius in charge. Riots occurred during the next elections, spurred on by the Senate, and Tiberius was kille
Several years passed before Gaius stepped up to fill his older brother's shoes. Gaius, also known as C. Gracchus,lliiil however, wanted to go further
He realized that much more than a simple agrarian reform was required. He, like Caesar, wanted to completely rebuild the government. He planned on givin
as much power to the people as he could, and sought elimination of the upper class corruption of the Senate and the knights. To do this, though, he had t
placate each group. He introduced policies which benefitted each class. Most important of these was the com-dole, easily the dawn of welfare. Eacl
month, the state sold grain to the people at half price. But he still had three problems: the conservatives still controlled the Senate, he had no army, and s
therefore he relied on the mobile vulgariPl (fickle crowd) for support. Gaius failed to be re-elected tribune; Drusus, his opposition, seems to have caugl
the ""1gar eye with something shinier than grain. Rome again plunged into violence; the Senate, seeing the chance to get rid of the meddlesome reformer
issued the Senatus Consultum Ultimum, essentially declaring martial law, and giving a carte blanche to the Consuls to restore order.!xUd The upper class!
had to resort to violence to maintain control, and Gaius was killed.!JOO
Social and Economic Chaug:es
The root of Rome's social and economic ills, the corruption of the powerful and the miserable position of the poor, came from Rome's enormou
growth. When created, the Republic administered a small city and the lands surrounding it. Gradually, it acquired vast provinces to govern. "In the bustle 1
life at Rome it is almost impossible to attend to what goes on in the provinces,"IlW.l wrote Marcus Tullius Cicero, a leading Senator who firmly defended d
republican institutions, and opposed Caesar.
t'he influx of wealth created by imperial expansion fueled the corruption. Colonial and provincial trade provided exotic products and vast numbe;
of slaves. The growing wealth further alienated the aristocracy from the commoners, as the senators and knights grew wealthier and the commons becar
poorer.
The failure of the Gracchi resulted in the continued concentration of land ownership. Patrician families set up lalifundia, plantation-like agricultu:
estates. mill These /atifundia displaced the peasants and farmers, and gave the patricians control over both government and agriculture. The displac
yeomen then migrated to the city, where they congregated in slums and wandered the streets of the Subura, where "the vox populi [voice of the peop
ceased to speak the reasoned opinions of a sturdy middle class and began to shout the heated passions of a rootless The time was ripe f
great orators such as Caesar to manipulate the mobile vulgaris.
http://www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page 3
::. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler 25/5/05 1 0:02
The land problem gave Caesar a political opening. The latifundia served to create more poor and magnify Rome's problems. Rome's urban mob dir
nothing constructive. They lived off the empire's growing tribute, which increased with Rome's continuing expansion. Caesar sought to establish farmin
districts and projects which would give the lower classes jobs and thus eliminate the parasitic mob which sucked away state revenues through the corn-dole.
Restructuring the government became an essential part of Caesar's reforms. A select group of people in Rome, who had little in common with thei
subjects, ruled the entire empire as if "the full rights of citizenship were permitted only to the families of the settlers of the original. .. [city], . .. and lm
for all the rest of the nation were made by the successors [of those settlers].''!AW The Republic had originated to rule a small city, yet had never changer
The Senate-appointed governors gained huge profits by plundering their provinces. It was ironic, therefore, that a jury of senators who had planned o:
doing the same were ultimately to hold these governors accountable at the end of their term.!l!xl
As problems emerged, the politicians tended to separate into two groups: the Populares, and the Optimates. Ideally the Populares, were tb
Gracchi-minded, who wanted to reform the Republic and make it more democratic. The Optimates, a select minority, were the conservatives who support1
a strong upper class, and preferred the status quo. The senate usually divided along these lines, and Caesar aligned with the Populares.
The Optimates, were not, as may seem, un-Republican. They wanted the Republic to regain its former strength and function effectively. < ~ n d , in
sense, once again become a government of the people, not a detached oligarchy. They failed to see, however, that such a government did not rit in th
existing reality. A Republic worked in a small city-state, not in an empire. For the existing system to operate as a government of the public, Rome had to l
a small town. Many of the offices still bore vestigial boundaries of power. For example, neither the Tribunes, nor anyone else excepting those wit
imperium, held power outside of the pomeriumbzil, the sacred city limits. As a result, the direct administrative power of Rome was greatly limited, th1
making the provincial governments virtually autonomous. Distance and difficulty of communication weakened centralized control.
Caesar's Political Openin&
In the atmosphere of distrust and corruption, Caesar saw his chance to become a leader by promising reform in Rome. He knew that to achieve thi
he would have to rely on the people, as so many others had done. Rome needed a great leader and he prepared to sieze the opportunity. Ambitious, he
supposed to have wept upon seeing a statue of Alexander the Great in Cadiz, saying" .. . at my age, Alexander had conquered the whole world,
done nothing worth remembering. ,!JW.il He felt that it was his destiny to take over and save Rome, and he wanted to be remembered.
Caesar's first task was to gain a position of power from which he could make changes and reforms. In the Rome of his day, he needed three thing:
rhetoric, imperium, and most of all: money. Caesar was a brilliant orator, having, in addition to his natural ability, studied under the masters on the island,
Rhodes.Wiliil He knew, however, that a record of military conquest and victory would add prestige to his name thereby giving him more clout in t1
Senate. Naturally, however, any exploit would need funding.
Caesar entered politics using flagrant bribery to ensure his election as Pontifex Maximus (the ceremonial High Priest, who automatically became
member of the Senate). On the day of the elections he reportedly told his mother that if he did not win, she would never see him again, so great were ~
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page 4 c
:. Ju:iuli Clli ct y 25/5/05 i 0:02
. .lllliW From that office, he managed to be elected as of Spain (praetorial imperium gave him immunity, so he could not be prosecuted fo
corruption), where he accumulated as much money as possible, either through military victory, or, more often, through old-fashioned extortion an
so as to pay off his old debts. When he was confident he had some credibility, he rushed back to Rome, even without having been relieved, ir
order to stand for
An Uneasy Amance
On his return in 59 B.C., Caesar made his biggest move. Manipulating the personal ambitions of others, he invited Marcus Licinius Crassus an(
Gnaeus Pompeius "Magnus" (Pompey) to form an alliance with him, which came to be known as the Triumvirate (Three Men). Crassus, an extraordinaril3
wealthy man, fmanced Caesar's designs. Pompey, perhaps Rome's leading general, had cleared the Mediterranean of pirates and had recently returned fror
successful campaigns in Asia. He provided the imperium, through his military acclaim and power over his soldiers. Caesar was by far the most popular of th
three;rmiill He possessed great personal charm and charisma. He was especially popular among the commoners, for, as an aedtle and as Pontifex Maximu1
he J 1rganized constant games and festivals. To create a more lasting bond between Pompey and Caesar, Pompey married Caesar's daughter, Julia, makin
him Caesar's son-in-law.
The Triumvirate was an unlikely coalition. Crassus and Pompey had been adversaries since the time of Sulla, and Caesar was something of ru
upstart. All should have been, and were, great rivals. However, Caesar saw that by working together, each would achieve his own personal goals, and Caesw
was a man able to sell this idea to the two competitors. Recently, Pompey had returned from a victorious campaign in Asia at the head of a great
which he had disbanded at the gates of Rome, rather than be another Sulla. The relieved Senate, however, refused to ratify his treaties or grant land to hi
veterans. Caesar offered him a way out of his Similarly, Crassus, the businessman, wanted a reduction of the taxes due from Asia, on beha
of the !:.nights who had interests in the tax-farming there.ww By proposing an alliance, Caesar would solve the problems of all three men, wit.'t his ow
objective being the consulship. It would be an uneasy alliance, held together by ambition, promises, and marriage, if nothing else.
three agreed that Caesar would become consul, and, backed by Pompey's and Crassus' wealth, they could each use this position tt
further their own agendas. Caesar intimidated the other consul, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus (who had been elected by the conservatives to oppose Caesar
early into the year, ridiculing him in the Senate, and eventually having him bodily ejected from the Curia. WWll Eventually, Bibulus fled to his house for tl
balance of his term, leaving Caesar in sole command of the govermnent:Uwiliil
The Triumvirs then removed their two most vocal opponents, M. Porcius Cato and Cicero, from Rome. They engineered Cato's appointment a
governor of Cyprus. They forced Cicero to flee by passing a law which required the exile of anyone who had pronounced a death sentence against a Rom;
without due trial (Cicero had convinced the Senate to pronounce L. Sergius Catilina, who had conspired against the government, an enemy of the people. l
then persuaded the Senate to order the execution of his followers without trial or appeal, a manifestly unconstitutional A patrician, Publi1
Clodius Pulcher, infamous as a rogue, played a crucial part in the exile of Cicero. Years earlier, Clodius had been discovered with Caesar's second wil
http;/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page 5 <
:. Julius Ca!:'sar as a Nl:'cl:'ssary Rui!:'J 25/5/05 1 0:02
l'ompeia, in the women-only religious ceremony of the Bona De Charged with desecration of sacred rites before the Senate, he defended
against Cicero, who abused and badgered him during the trial. Although Clodius was acquitted (the jwy was heavily bribed), Caesar divorced Pompeia and ha
refused to testify, saying "I wished my wife to be not so much as suspected."Ww::il Clodius could never forgive Cicero for this prosecution and now Caesa
was able to capitalize upon this hatred. The story goes that Clodius so hated Cicero that he had himself adopted into a plebeian family so that he migl
become Tribune and promote this
As consul, Caesar finally began to implement his reforms. He focused on agricultural reform and set aside two agricultural districts in Campania f<
poorer citizens to settle and farm, dividing them up among fathers of three or more children.Wwdiil "When Roman tax-farmers asked for relief, b
canceled one-third of their obligations ... [and] he freely granted all other pleas, whatsoever, and either met with no opposition or intimidated anyone wh
dared wrote Suetonius of Caesar's pardons. His approach alleviated the debts of these farmers, but did not wipe out the income of th
knights who profited from this system. Ignoring the treasury, he passed a bill making the com-dole free, which may have cost the state up to twent;
percent of its revenue.lAll
Once his term was over, Crassus and Pompey saw to it that Caesar became of Transalpine Gaul (Narbonensis),.wiil Cisalpine Gaul,!lili
and Illyricum (the Adtiatic Coast).Ufu:l For two years, Caesar campaigned in Gaul, bringing the Gallic tribes under Roman rule. His exploits brought hi:
further renown in Rome, where spoils of war, gold, jewels, slaves and other treasures were displayed in grand parades, all won for the glory of Rome by tl
dashing general, Julius Caesar.
Military Campaips
In Caesar's absence, the Triumvirate, began to deteriorate. Pompey grew jealous of Caesar's reputation, and Crassus, with no such reputation 1
speak of, felt jealous of them both.WYJ Upon his return, therefore, Caesar had to deal with political issues which he had previously ignored. Summoning
conference of the three men at Luca, in Cisalpine Gaul, during April of 56 B.C., he sought to salvage the crumbling alliance. The three agreed that each w1
to receive some new token of power. For Caesar, it was an illegal extended term, five more years, in Gaul..wnl
During this term, Caesar suppressed further revolts, and led two campaigns which gave him enormous prestige. First, he marched into Germany,
little-visited place to the Romans. Wild and mysterious, Germany was a land of barbarians who menaced the Romans and Gauls. His campaign served tv
purposes. One, of course, was publicity; he set out into an unknown land and explored. As part of this, Caesar was writing his Commentarjes,.lxWil 1
account, written in the third-person, of all his actions in Gaul. These "commentaries" were sent back to Rome and the Senate in installments, where the
explained his actions (in his words) to the Senate, while, being masterfully written in the third person, appeared to be objective. As literature, ti
Commentaries were extremely popular, providing a thrilling account of the daring exploits of the popular Julius The other purpose (
Germany) was psychological warfare; he demonstrated to the Germans that a Roman army could cross the Rhine and attack them. In fact, in the eightef
days of marching, there was not a single conflict (the Germans "fled" with great fear into the woods, claims Plutarch) . .WW
http://www.portergaud.edu/ cmcarver /j ctp.html Page 6 c
:. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler 25/5/05 10:02
In triumph, Caesar then led his legions on an expedition to Britain, the mystical isle beyond the sea. Barely known even to the Gallic traders whc
had seen it, the Romans considered Britain to be a land of wonder and mystery. Although he managed to "conquer" Britain on his second attempt, nt
colony was established, no tribute ever reached Rome, and Britain slipped from sight for another hundred years.Lll
Most important of his campaigns, however, was the War with Vercingetorix. Caesar was faced with rebellion, as the lnst of tlte Gallic chieftain
united against him under one Vercingetorix.llil At the siege of Alesia,Caesar, attempting to conquer the last GaUic stronghold under Veroingetorix, faun
hlmself completely surrounded by a Gallic relief force. In one of the greatest military triumphs in Roman history, Caesar defeated the Gauls on both side
and secured Roman domination of Gaul for centuries to come.
Armed with accounts of his own making, Caesar prepared to resume his political career in Rome. However, the Triumvirate tottered on the edge o
disintegration. At Luca, it had been decided that Crassus would be given a command against the Parthians. Crassus, however, driven by jealousy, was a not tl
brilliant military commander like Caesar or Pompey. Upon arrival in Asia, he milked the provinces for all he could, and, declining needed assistance fro
looP' ''ings, proceeded to march into Parthia where his legions suffered a horrible defeat which resulted in his being killed.
The end of the now-crippled Triumvirate came with the death of Caesar's daughter, Julia, who had been Pompey's wife. Julia's death severed ru
remaining ties between the two men thus clearing the way for the two great competitors to imally go head-to-head.
The overall situation in Rome had continued to deteriorate as well. Rival factions resorted to force; riots became commonplace. The upper cla
tried to maintain its wealth and power at all costs. Political violence became the norm, capped by the murder of Clodius by Ti. Annius Milo and his ri
gang, an event which caused such an uproar that the vulgar mobs tore through the streets and set flre to the Curia. The urban mob truly no longer '
anything - - with the free com-dole there was no reason to work. The government was left completely unattended as rivals feuded and feasted.Illil
Petitioning to run for consul in absentia, Caesar hoped to make a quick transition back into the government, where a power vacuum begged t<
illled. But his opponents in the Senate feared his ambitions and were determined to bring him down. The Senate, however, did not fear Pompey, whom t
coul. sily control. Caesar's opponents seized the opportunity to fmally destroy their enemy. It ruled that he could not run; he must resign from
position and come to Rome. If he did not, he would become an Enemy of the State.lliiil
Caesar said he would return, if Pompey, who, though governor of Spain, had been illegally amassing an army in Rome, would also abandon
claims. The Senate refused. Furthermore, the Optimates, who had begun to co-opt Pompey, used this time to make Pompey "sole consul," in esse
dictator. Refusing to be thus degraded, Caesar defied the Senate, which pronounced him an outlaw. The Senate, terrified by what Caesar's next mover
be, turned to Pompey.!IOO
The Optimates made their gravest mistake by trying to play Caesar and Pompey against one another. Indeed, the Optimates engineered the "
dispute. They failed to anticipate that the two men would not simply go their separate ways; the unfettered rivalry would explode into a civil war. By tJ
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page
:. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler 25/5/05 1 0;02
the two most powerful Romans against one another, the Optimates set up an inevitable takeover of the government by the winner, exactly what they ha
hoped to prevent. They virtually assured the collapse of the Republic.
Cgesar as Leader
"The die is cast!"llid proclaimed Caesar, as he crossed the Rubicon into Italy,.ll:lil thus plunging Rome into a civil war which raged for the next tbfe,
years. By ancient Roman law, law which had lost its purpose years before, governors could not bring their provincial armies into Italy, and certainly not in1
Rome. They were required to stay in their respective provinces. For this reason, Caesar's crossing of the tiny Rubicon, the border between Cisalpine Gaulru
Italy, was terribly important. He took Rome relatively easily and consolidated his power in what remained of the Senate, before turning to pursue Pompe:
After a decisive victory at Pharsalus, he pursued Pompey to Egypt, where he discovered Pompey had been assassinated at the orders of Ptolemy XIII. f
resolved a sibling dispute over the throne and installed the exiled Cleopatra VII as queen. In defeating Ptolemy he further ensured Alexandria's subordinatic
to Rome. He subsequently disposed of remnant Pompeian forces at Thaspus and Munda, and entered Rome as the master of an empire.
With Rome at his feet, Caesar could finally carry out his reformslWll unimpeded. He became dictator-for-life, and took on all the powers - - ~ a kin1
He appointed new senators (many had been killed in the war), magistrates, and officials, making the government reflect his wishes. He assumed the power <
all the magistrates, making himself consul, tribune, censor, aedile, etc., all at once.lli:iii.l
Caesar's main concern seems to have been the excessive power of the incompetent Senate. By becoming Dictator,!li.lQ he reduced the Senate to
mere advisory body. All officials answered to him alone and he appointed governors. While his assumption of such power seemed far from his supposf
Populare outlook, it must be remembered that Caesar saw no other options. As the Gracchi demonstrated, the existing constitution totally hindered ar
reform, so, for Caesar to reform, unconstitutional means seemed necessary. He recognized that if everyone cheated, there would be no way to win playin
by the rules. As a consequence, he assumed complete control.
Caesar knew that for Rome to continue as an empire, power over the entire Mediterranean and Europe could not be left in the hands of a body c
men sitting in Rome. Such a government simply could not function. A few hundred politicians could not rule colonies and provinces they had n seen.
democratically elected Assembly, composed of men who probably could not even locate Athens, much less Alesia or Gades, would be even worse.
The solution to Rome's problems, therefore, would be a strong, centralized government. Caesar installed an early form of absolutism in which a
authority was consolidated into one man. Caesar's government would be guided by the will of an powerful ruler who could deal effectively and e:fficienl
with the problems of the state. In such a power structure, there would be no squabbling Senate to hinder the progress of Rome. The entire state would folio
the coherent plan of one man, the Caesar, who' s sole focus was the progression of this plan. No longer would the state swing on the unbalanced hinges c
personal agendas in the Senate, lurching onwards at each isolated conceru of the upperclass. Rome would now be directed by one man who would run t
government on a unified "platform."
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page 8 <
. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler 25/5/05 10:02
In Rome, it was generally agreed that the Senate was growing weaker and weaker. The conflict lay in how to resolve the issue of growing republica:
incompetence. The idea of an overseer who could restore the Senate to its power was not entirely new, in fact, the dictator Sulla had seen himself as sucl
Even the great champion of the Republic, Cicero, spoke of need of a guide for the Republic;lll>l yet none fully realized the extent to which this "guide" woul
have to administrate.
From the pinnacle of government, the guide would control the entire state according to his unified plan. The ruler served as a director, presidin!
over the entire government to ensure that the state operated on a coherent plan. In the hands of an enlightened ruler such as Caesar, the state woul
flourish, as the entire nation would be governed for its own betterment by a unified agenda. It would be impossible, however, to guarantee that the ruler wou
be capable, and in the hands of an incompetent ruler, the descending pyramid of power will correct itself. The clear, almost pervading, sense of forwan
motion of Caesar's government had room for only competence, therefore, Caesar's advisors and administrators came not from the ancient upper clru
families, but from the merchants and officers who had proven their worth in fighting their way to the top. It is because of this meritocracy that Caesar'
government was self-righting. In the absence of a strong, guided ruler, the burden of power would fall to the highest level of competence, whatever it may b
Caesar himself believed that monarchy, in form if not in name, was the only path for Rome. As one man, he could oversee the workings of tht
who._ .;ystem. His decisions, whatever they might be, could be carried out swiftly and effectively, by competent men whom he trusted. As an administrator
he would be able to deal with the problems of the government. As supreme ruler, he would not spend his time trying to improve his position or ki
opponents. His only focus would be the empire.
Caesar began his condensation of the tangled Republic by forcing several constitutional measures in order to bring himself into a posiiion of adequ5
authority. He was elected consul for four future terms.Lhill While such elections gave him the constitutional powers of a consul, they were a bit out
tradition in the repetition of the terms. He was given a prerogative to speak first in all matters in the Senate. He assumed a so-called "prefecture
morals," essentially giving himself the powers of a censorLWll and the authority to govern the membership of the Senate. He went on to officially assw
the powers of nearly all the magistracies, a strategy employed later by Octavian in the creation of the Principiate. However, all these offices and titles w
superfluous and unnecessary: his position as Perpetual Dictator gave him all the power which he required. !Wiil He directed the Senate, and allowed il
continue in its functions under his authority. By appointing magistrates himself, however, he ensured that a structured and coherent administration we
rule t ,mpire, unlike the disjunct and unrelated politicians who had previously clawed their way towards the senatorial purple. Magistrates could no lon:
look forward to plundering provinces; their terms they would be judged not by fellow Senators and magistrates, but by the watchful dictator.!WYl In esse
Caesar wanted to give the headless Republic a central authority from which power emanated.
A Stable Government
Having assumed total control of the government, Caesar outlined his approach to problem-solving. With the stabilization and consolidation .
imperial state as his goal, he presented a four-pronged solution. First, he sought to meet the needs of the Roman people. In order for the stasis which
Rome to be cleared, the poor had to be helped, without placing an unacceptable burden on the state treasury; here Caesar would attempt use his pov
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/ cmcarver /j ctp.html PagE
:. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler 25/5/05 1 0.;0<
meet out social justice. Second, the vast and fractured provinces of Rome had to be brought into unison. Rome should not be a city ruling many natiom
Rome must nation, much like the concept which would drive the founders of the United States centuries later - e pluribus unum. Third, and nios
importantly, the stale Republic must be destroyed and a new, centralized power had to rise in its place.
Viewing colonies as a solution to his ftrst two issues, he sent nearly a hundred thousand to posts all over the empire, settling many of h
disbanded veterans in these colonies. The effects of these moves were twofold. First, the change vastly decreased the welfare-dependant mob, creating jol
and employment for the landless and thereby stimulating the economy. Second, by spreading Roman citizens everywhere, it had the effect of making d
whole empire much more Roman.
His internal reforms were surprisingly restrained. Addressing the economy, he relieved debts, but did not abolish them. Through his reforms
creditors may have lost at most 25% of their entitlement. "His debt laws, though far-reaching, were politically moderate. "!hml This, of course, was his goe
not to upset the social order, but to balance it. Unfortunately, his policies alienated both creditors and debtors. Roman money-lenders, rather than be glf
that he had not abolished debts, as they had feared, began to despise him, and debtors complained that he had not fully relieved them.
He set a limit on the number of people who could receive the com dole and thereby hurt his standing among the plebeians. His intentions, of course
were reduce the strain of the poor on the state treasury and to stimulate the mob to production. The limitation on the com dole would make l. ,e les
attractive to the landless still drifting in from the countryside. While this measure was bound to be unpopular, he merely sought to limit welfare to those wl
truly needed it. His massive and colonial projects had been designed hand-in-hand with the corn dole limitation, for a reduced populace woul1
need less grain.
Recognizing the problems which cheap slavery presented to the common workforce, Caesar passed law which required that "at least a third of th1
cattlemen employed by graziers had to be free-born. ,lllilii] This law would provide employment for the rural population whom he hoped to re-establish
agriculture.
Caesar also passed a set of sumptuary laws aimed at reining in the decadence of the upper class. He passed a law which limited a man's tota
expenditure in one day, along with laws which outlawed certain extravagant dishes, fabrics, and jewelry, and the use of litters. However well intentione
these laws may have been, the prospect of sending armed lictorJW::iill into banquets and parties to seize illegal delicacies was ridiculous, and the s prov
both unenforceable and unpcpular.&W
To further clear the stasis and to unify his empire, Caesar increased the number of senators, without displacing the older "patrician" families, there
attempting to avoid radical upset. These new senators came mostly from the merchant-class, the businessmen whom was Rome coming to represen
However offensive this "dilution" may have been to the patricians, an even greater travesty came when Caesar appointed several Gauls to the Senate leavi
Rome was abuzz with murmurs about this "Gallic conquest. ,.&.os.J This unpopular expansion of the Senate served several of his objectives; by introducing th
merchant class into the government, it helped to balance class power, while the introduction of foreign Senators contributed to the unification of til
empire. In addition, the expansion also ensured that his policies would carry the approval of a like-minded Senate, thereby consolidating the govemme
under his central plan.
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page 10 c
:. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler 25/5/05 10:02
Caesar went so far as to expand citizenship as well as the Senate. "By the enfranchisement of the Gauls . . . the union of Italy
completed, and the extension of the same rights to distant communities like that of Gades gave promise of a new future to millions who had groaned unde
the Roman yoke. ,.LlJWil This, of course, was an integral part of Caesar's plan to create one Empire.
It is also interesting to note that, after the Civil War, Caesar pardoned nearly all of his Pompeian opponents and restored them to their previoul
positions. Even his great nemesis, Cicero, was brought back to Rome and treated as a friend. "Let us try to recover the good-will of all men and so secure
lasting victory,"Ll.lWi.il advised Caesar. The great lmperator understood that to achieve social balance, he must make peace, not try to inflict it wit
proscriptions. In fact, as soon as Pompey's files were seized, Caesar destroyed them, without ever looking to see who had plotted against
The End of a Reg:ime
As his reform programs took root, many Romans resented the changes. The urban mob could no longer live off the state and the upper class founc
itself in a position of either taking responsibility for the problems of the state or becoming irrelevant. Caesar only rewarded competence. He entrustec
power to a pair of knights, L. Cornelius Balbus and C. Oppius Sabinus. These influential advisors were able administrators, but the Senate hated them, fc
neither was of a patrician family. Balbus was not even born a Roman citizen.!lMYl
I o many Romans, the greatest insult was Caesar's apparent disregard for the trappings and traditions of the Republic. The ideal of the Republic wE
Rome's most treasured possession and the idea of monarchy and kingship had been made repulsive to every Roman since the day of his birth. The ancie1
Republican traditions were what distinguished Rome from the despised Hellenistic autocracies of Asia, or from the mob rule, the demos-cracy, of the ole
Greek city-states. Sadly, this dream could no longer be a reality. The Republic had been designed as a tribal council, not an imperial government. Here
Caesar had recognized what the Gracchi could not: Rome was incapable of being fixed from the inside. The Republic in its present form had to be replace.
and that had to be done from the It is for this reason that Caesar deliberately defied the Senate, and took power by force: he had no other optim
The Senate would not rectify the problems of the state. One city by itself, one squabbling council of rich men, could not govern a list of conquered nation
But L.vsar saw that one central authority, one guided man, could use the power of that city to govern a united empire. Rome could not be a city ove
nations, it must be a empire through a city.
It became inevitable that a group of senators would try to kill Caesar. When he announced plans to go on a three year campaign in Parthia, Ieavin
Balbus and Oppius in command, they decided that there was an urgent need to kill him. On the Ides of March, Julius Caesar was assassinated in Pompey'
Theater which was then being used as a Senate-house. Many of the very men he had pardoned and trusted took part in the
Despite warnings and, supposedly, Caesar seems to have felt that his life was Either disregarding or disbelieving sue
wal"ni..'1.gs, Caesar entered the hall. As he made his way to his chair, he was struck down and stabbed t'.venty-three Subsequently, Marcus Antoni
and Caesar's heir; Gaius Octavianus, turned the vulgar mob against the "Republicans." Marc Antony's brilliant funeral oration later immortalized
http://www.portergaud.edu/ em carver /jctp.html Page11c
::. Julius CileSilr iiS il Nec;ess<u y Ruler 25/S/05 1 0.;02
Shakespeare's tragedy, turned a hostile crowd viciously against the conspirators and "WTenched Rome permanently from the Republic .
juliuscaesar_3.html#xref013> [March 24, 2002] Act III, Scene ii, Lines 83-104.
Plutarch recounted that Antony slowly "mingled with his praises language of commiseration"Lllwtil and by the end of the funeral, rioters tore
through the streets searching out the conspirators. Caesar's death sparked chaos. For seventeen yearn,.IWi.lilil a civil war raged, after which Rome would l
changed forever. Caesar's reforms and assassination delivered a coup d'grace to the Roman Republic. In the chaos of the civil war, Caesar's nephe
Octavian took power, and Rome became a monarchy. Caesar's policies encouraged and supported an authoritarian government which could firmly rule th
empire for centuries to come.
Without Julius Caesar, Rome would have collapsed into hopeless anarchy. Caesar stepped in and took power. He reformed the governing apparatu
and social conventions. His reforms, however, were not welcome where it was the job of a politician to make profit. The Senate's natural revulsion to i
loss of power ultimately led to Caesar's assassination. His death allowed Octavian, after a protracted war with Antony, to consolidate the reforms under
new order. Octavian succeeded where Caesar failed, but Caesar paved the way for a consolidated government to be accepted by Rome. The civil war ha
shown that, for all the speeches of Cicero and Cato, there was no Republic left to defend.
In his attempt to strengthen the Roman state and create an Empire, Caesar succeeded in his two goals of alleviating the burden on the poor and o
bringing greater unity to the empire. In his attempts to clear away the Republic and build a new government, however, he was cut short. What Caese
wanted was too new and too radical. It would be up to his heir, Octavian, to complete the Principiate.
It is clear that Caesar's assumption of power was a necessary and justified end to the obviously corrupt and defunct Republic. Although his actiom
contributed to the final destruction of the Republic, he was the catalyst for, and indeed, a primary contributor to the reorganization of the Roman State
which would serve for centuries to come. His colonization projects and his welfare laws effectively addressed the restrictive load of the vulgar mob, while
continuing to bring together the entire Roman empire. His swift consolidation of central power created a strong government capable of ruling a prosperou
empire.
Endnotes
----------- --
LiJThe title of lmperator, whose original meaning was simply "general," had come to be, as is used here, a special title
for distinguished commanders, carrying with it great power. However, Octavian adopted it so as not to be called a rex,
or king. Because of this, it took on a whole new meaning, which would be translated today as "emperor," a term which
itself is derived from "imperator." Alfred Duggan, Julius Caesar (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1969), pp. 186-187.
liilAn aedile was magistrate whose functions included overseeing city maintenance, markets, and certain public games.
Curule was the higher level of aediles. "Aedile," Britannica 2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM [CD-ROM], 2001 ed.
LililEarly on, Caesar had several outlandish plans to take over the government. Among the more violent was a plan to
invade the Curia and try to kill as many senators as possible. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillius, The Twelye Caesars, trans.
Robert Graves, Vita Divi Iuli, (London, 1964), pp. 13-14.
Wdp. Gordon B. Stillman, Roman Rulers and Rebels (White Plains, NY: Longman Publishing Group, 1992), p. 61.
http;//www.portergaud.edu/ cmcarver /jctp.html Page 12 c
:. a:; a Ruler
blllbid., p. 62 .
.b!i!Roman coins, the denarius being silver and the aureus being gold. Milton Friedman, "Varieties of Money,"
Britannica 2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM [CD-ROM], 2001 ed.
Wil"Early Centuries of the Roman Republic," Britannica 2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM[CD-ROM], 2001 ed.
Wiil
Ibid.
!Mrhe term knight is used to refer to members of the equestrian order, wllose prerequisite was tile means to support a
horse and to ride as cavalry in the Roman army. Later, this order came In represent the upper-middle class, directly
below the senatorial order. They corresponded roughly to the later class of knights which would emerge during the
middle ages and into the renaissance, the petty nobles. Altl1ough true knights are a mediaeval concept, the term knight
is traditionally used to refer to the Roman equestrian order. Other terms include equine, eques, equestrian, etc.
tsllbid
Wlstillman, p. 66.
bili.lLatin names consisted of three parts: the praenomen, or fust name, of which there were nbout twenty to choose
from. This name was only used by close friends and family. The Nomen, or family name, would be equivalent to the
Surname, and the Cognomen, which distinguished different parts of a larger famUy. Therefore Gaius Julius Caesar was
Gains, a member of the Caesar line ofthe Julius clan (one of Caesar's ancestors supposedly was the first to be born by
Caesarian section, hence "caesar," from the Latin word for ' 'womb"). There were many Cognomen, which were usually
ndjectives, such as Calvus, bald. There was also tlte less common Agnomen, which was awarded as anltonor to a specific
person, such as (Publius Cornelius) Scipio Africanus, for his victory over CarthQge. A woman simply bore the feminine
of her father's Nomen, for formal purposes, which would be followed by that of her husband's or father's in the
Here, the Praenomen is used to distinguish between the two Gracchi. Each Praeuomen had an abbreviation,
e.g. M for Marcus, Ti. for Tiberius, etc. , and C. is die abbreviation for Gaius; in the early days of the Latin alphabet
there was no Jetter G.
LxiiilThis term, meaning "the fickle crowd" (literally "rabble on the move"), is the root of our modem word "mob."
"mob." Merriam-Webster Online: Collegiate Dictionary. 2000. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary.htm
(March 8, 2002).
1lm1cluistian r.KQi.w:], trans. David McLintock (.New York: HarperCoilins Publishers, Inc., 1982), pp.
38-39.
OO::lstillman, pp. 44-50.
I;W]Jbid, p. 64 .
.ooctiloon Nardo, The Roman Republic (San Diego: Lucent Books, 1994), p. 51.
Wilil
Stillman, p. 34.
lml
Nardo, p. 47
W:>.Jlbid. p. 45.
Will"The Plebeian Tribunate," Britannica 2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM [CD-ROM], 2001 ed.
bWil
Ibid., p. 63.
Wtii.il Plutarch, The Lives of Noble Greqjaus and Romans, trans. John Dryden, Julius Cresar, (New York, date of
publicntion unknown), pp. 855-856.
m.i.Ylsuetonius, p. 15.
praetor was a magistrate who ranked below a consul . A praetor dealt with various judicial cases, and acted io
pJace of an absent consul (who often l.ed the nrmies). Some were appointed to administer in various provmces. Such a
position would huve allowed Caesar to gain some military reputation in Spain. "Praetor," Britannica 2001 Deluxe
Edition CD-ROM [CD-ROM] , 2001 ed. Taking advantage of the immunity associated with praetoriaJ imperium, Caesar
began his term in Spain with great haste. Opon his appointment, but even before confirmation, he rushed off to
prevent his being held in Rome by his creditors and opponents, who had plans to prosecute him for corruvtion and
http://www.portergaud.edu/emcarver/jctp.html
25/5/05 1 0:02
Page
::. Julius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler
bribery as Pontifex Maximus. Through out his career Caesar constantly bent rules to avoid being caught in Rome as a
pcivult: uml Lhus ufbt:ing Suc;wnius, p. 15.
!mdlsuetonius writes that he accumulated most of his money by begging from his allies and sacking Lusitanian towns
(modern-day Portugal, which was not within his legal jurisdiction). Suetonius, p.34 .
.uwill"There is a lnw nmong the Romans, that whoever desires the honour of a triumph [parade] must stay without the
city and expect his answer. And another, that those who stand for the consulship shall appear personally upon the
place." wrote Plutarch of Caesar's return. Caesar was faced wid1 a dilemma: to run for consul and sacrifice the victory,
or to forgo the consulship for the victory? This is another reason the triumvirate was necessary - to avoid red tape. In
contrast to Tribunican geographic restrictions, another vestigial stump of the city-state; military commanders on duty
were not allowed within the city (if tlley chose to enter, they either were outlaws or relinquished tlleir imperium).
Plutarch, p.861.
w.riill
1
Stillman, p. 69.
lxxixloonald R Dudley, The Cjyilizatjon of Rome (New York: Mentor Books, 1960), pp. 92-93.

often promised their soldiers, usually landless peasants, great bonuses and rewards, so, eventually,
soldiers' loyalty was to their general, not tlle state. Don Nardo, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (San Diego: Lucent Books,
1996), pp. 21-22.
!lwiil
Suetonius, p. 18.
"consulship" of Caesar and Bibu1us soon became a joke, As Roman years were named after the two consuls,
people referred to it as "tlle Year of the Consulship of Julius and Caesar." Moses Hadas, A Histozy of Rome (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1956), p.68.

'ibid.
Ww1Plutarch, p. 860

1XlWdil
Hadas, p. 68.
1
Suctomus, p . 9.
I.mrix]lbid .
.
Stillman, p. 69 .
.llili.IA proconsul was a magistrate, usually a consul, whose term had been extended. By Caesar's time, it referred
primarily to provincial governors, os such posts were traditionally assumed by consuls who had had their terms
"extended" to that region. This, of course, did not mean tl1at they retained tlleir previous post (such as counsel), they
simply exercised similar powers over a certain region. ''Proconsul," Britannica 2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM [CD-
ROM], 2001 ed.
llilillThere is some disagreement among historians on tllis subject, with some saying that Caesar was given Narbonensis
(Nardo, p. 25). This tonn seems to be more popular among modem historians, while otl1ers claim it was Transalpine
Gaul (Suetonius, p. 20). Narbonese Gaul roughly occupies the Sante area as modem Provence. Transalpine Gaul,
however, is an older term for Gallia Com at a (Long-Haired Gaul), wlrich was essentially the rest of France and Belgium
("Transalpine Gaul," Britannica 2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM [CD-ROMj, 2001 ed.). Narbonese Gaul may have been
included in this. During Caesar's time, N8rbonese was a colony in Transalpine Gaul (Gaius Julius Caesar, Cqmmentarii
de Bello Ggllfco f.Commentarjes on the Game Wac], trans. S. A. Handford (London,l982), VII.6, p. 157). The use of
the term Transalpine Gaul, bowever, indicates Roman imperialistic thought, giving a proconsulship to a province over
which they had little control, and considerably less knowledge. Due to Caesar's and Suetonius' use of the term,
Transapline GauJ will be used ltere. Note, however, tl1at the only area over which Rome exercised any real authority
would be the Narbouese Gaul (this may be why modem historians seem to favor it).
WililThe area of northern Italy lying between the Alps and the Apennines; the Po Valley. "Cisalpine Gaul," Britannica
2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM [CD-ROM], 2001 ed.
http://www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html
25/5/05 1 0:0
Page 14 <
: . a y Rule=r
Whdsuetonius, pp. 19-20.
IxlYlcrassus had actually been responsible for suppressing the Servile Uprising (led by Spartacus), but Pompey was given
credit. Nardo, p. 72
Will
VI Nardo, Cong.uestofGau], p. 43.
rmillln full, Comentqrji de Bello Gq/ljco, or Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, cited earlier in this paper.
commentaries provide both a detailed account of Caesar's campaigns, as well as insight into his
personality. Meier, pp. 254-264 .
.lxlWPlutarch, p. 869.
LllNardo, ConQ.Ilest of Gaul, pp. 52-55.
llilJulius Caesar, VII.68-90, pp. 189-200.
1lii1
Stillman, p.74.
llilil
Suetonius, p. 23 .
.Lfu:lPlutarch, pp. 873-874
llidlacta alea est!
1Wl
Suetonius, p. 25.
llidi!Although his political reforms arc most important here, Caesar's reform of the calendar is something which
should not be readily brushed aside. The old length of the old Roman calendar, originally a lunar calendar, did not
correspond adequately to the actual sidereal year, so the seasons and feasts no longer fell at the proper times. To
correot this, a special intercalary month of religious feasts could be inserted at random by the College of Po11tiffs. This,
of course, only served to make the problem even worse. Caesar adjusted the calendar to 365 days, with an extra day
every four years. Suetonius, p. 28. He also set the length of each month, aboJished the intercnlnry month (Mercidinus),
and established a fully solar calendar, rnther th.an a lunar one. By inserting two temporary "ex:tra" months into the year
46 B.C. he insured that January of 45 B.C. would begin at the proper time. However, Octavian Augustus, jealous that
the month of July, re-named for Caesar, should have more months than his own, August (previously Quint/lis and
Sexli/is), ordered the number of days per month be re-arranged, and Caesar's regulated numbering was abandoned, much
to the frustration of schoolchildren everywhere. A slight modification of the leap-year system by Pope Gregory Xlli
(the omission of the leap-days in centuries indivisible by 400, to account for a slight miscalculation), and the Julian
Calendar came to its present form, t:lte Gregorian Calendar, still used today. "Calendar" Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910
ed., quoted in Albert Van Heiden, Gregorian Calendar (1995). Available [Online]: <areJZorian cplendar h1ml> [.Tanuw:y
2....2!l.ll3].
Lh'iliJ
Stillman, p. 8l.
llW The office of "Dictator" was an ancient office which was only filled in times of dire emergency. A Dictator held
supreme power for six months. Caesar, however, held this office for life. Michael Grant, The Twelve Caesars, (New
York: Michael Grant Publications Ltd, 1975), pp. 37-38 .
.lllW These were the years 48, 46, 45, and 44 B.C.
lllililTbe office of Censor was another of the Mcien1 magistracies of Rome. The primary function of t!le censor was
the laking of the census, counting the populace and the age and wealth of people for military and lax purposes.
Through the task of classifying the populace, the censor thereby determined membership to the senatorial and
equestrian orders. ln regulating the senators and knights, the censores exercised the regimen morwn, or the authority
over public morals, and had the power to "censor" or even expel senators and knights who acted in a manner
unbefitting their posts. Furthermore, the censores held the authority to remove the public rights of moral offenders.
Such an important office, therefore, was bestowed upon former consuls, as a position of honor. The censorship was
in 22 B.C., when all censorial powers were consolidated in the authority of the emperor. Jonn I .endering
"censor." on Ancient History. J 996-2002 (Date uncertain). http:// www.livius.org/cb-ef/censor/
censor.html (December 26, 2002).
http://www .portergaud.edu/ cmcarver /jctp.html
25/5/05 1 0:02
Page 15
:. Juliu:s Cou::scu iiS a
lliilii.l
Grant, p. 37.
1lml
Haven, p. 528.
L1lm .
Ilnd., pp. 42-43 .
.lllWl Ibid.
llxYiilsuetonius, p. 29.
LllWWBearers of the fasces, the bundle of rods around an ax, symbol of Republican authority (the power to flog and the
power to execute). Fasces were born before magistrates with imperium, and were, in fact, put to use if needed.
1lxW Suetonius, p. 29-30.
lllWsuetonius, throughout his work, preserves the ditties and poems which ran through the streets of Rome, the
lampoons and jokes of the common people. With regards to the "dilution" of the Senate, he gives one particular song:
Caesar led the Gauls in triumph/ Led them uphill, led them down/ To the senate-house he took them/ Once the glory of
our town/ 'Pull those breeches offl' he shouted/ "Change into a purple gown!' Romans prided themselves on wearing
tunics or togas, as trousers were considered a barbarian attribute, and so many of the jokes with regards to the new
Gallic senators involved the supposed trouser/toga contrast. Ibid., p.45.
UxlW As noted before, Gaul was divided into Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul. Cisalpine Gaul was further divided into
Cispadane and Transpadane Gauls, separal'ed by the Po river, the ancient border of Italy. This however, seems to have
been more of a geographic division than a political one. Over hundreds of years, through war and conquest, Roman
citizenship was slowly extended to all the peoples of Italy, fmally culminating here in the inclusion of the Transpadane
Gauls.
llxlWlH.L. Havel!, Republican Rome, (Royston, Hertfordshire, England: Oracle Publishing, Ltd., 1996), pp.528-529.
l1uilil
Stillman, p. 83.
WW"You never forget anything except injuries," wrote the deeply impressed Cicero to Caesar. Caesar's clemency
helped to swiftly restore unity lind peace to the Roman government at the end of the Civil War. Ibid.

Grant, pp. 40-43.
two leaders of this conspiracy were C. Cassius Longinus and M. Junius Brutus, Pompcians whom had both
been pardoned and honored by Caesar. Brutus was almost like a son to Caesar. He was, however, a descendant of lhe
frrst consul, L. Junius Brutus, who had driven the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, Tarquin the Proud, from Rome, and
established the Republic. Suetonius writes that there was perhaps sonte sense that a Brutus must be called upon to rid
Rome of the "tyrant:" "Someone then wrote on the pedestal of Lucius Brutus' statue: 'If only you were alive now/'
and that of Caesar himself: 'Brutus was elected Consul! When he sent the kings away;/ Caesar sent the Consuls
packing,/ Caesar is our King today. "' Suctonius, p. 45. Brutus' internal conflict and his attempts to discern his loyalties
to the disintegrating Republic would later form the theme of Shakespeare's historical tragedy, Julius Caesar.
illwiliJulius Caesar, unlike most Romans, was not superstitious, and placed little value on such beliefs, except for the
fact that the common people clung to them. Suetonius, p. 37.

Ibid., p. 49.
LWs.W
Plutarch, p. 893.
llmlwilliam Shakespeare, Julius Caesar (First Folio 1623) Available [Online]: <http://www.gh.cs.usyd.edu.aul-matty/
Shakespeare/
Lllw.il
Plutarch, Brutus, p. 1113.
I!xxJ:ilil
Nardo, Conguest of Gaul, p. 9.
Works Cited
Dudfey, Donald R., The Cjyilization of Rome, New York: Mentor Books, 1960.
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html
25/5/05 1 Q;02
Page 16 c
:. J!Jlius Caesar as a Necessary Ruler
25/5/05 10:02
Duggan, Alfred, Julius Caesar, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1969.
Grant, Michael, The Twelve Caesars, New York: Michael Grant Publications Ltd., 1975.
Hadas, Moses, A Hjstorv of Rome, Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1956.
Havell, H. L., Republican Rome, Royston, Hertfordshire, England: Oracle Publishing Ltd., 1996.
Hoiberg, Dale H, Britannica 2001 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM [CD-ROM] Edinburgh: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 2001.
Julius Caesar, Gaius, The Conquest of Gaul (Commentarij de Bello Gallico [Commentaries on tbe Gallic Wac]), trans. S. A. Handford. London: Penguin
Books, 1982.
Lendering, Jona, Livius- Aritcles on Ancient History. 1996-2002. < ~
Meier, Cbristian, Caesac f..Kai,w:], trans. David M"Lintock. New York: HarperCollins Publisher, Inc., 1982.
Nardo, Don, Caesac's Congnell1: of Gaul, San Diego: Lucent Books, 1996.
_ _ __ _, The Roman Re,public, San Diego: Lucent Books, 1994.
Noble, Kara,Merriam-Webster OnLine: Collegiate Dictionary. 2000. <
Plutarch, The Ljyes of Noble Grecjans and Romans, trans. John Dryden, New York: The Modem Library, date of publication unknown.
Shakespeare, William Julius Caesar (First Folio 1623) Available [Online]:<http://www.gh.cs.usyd.edu.
aul-matty/Shakespeare/texts/tragedies/juliuscaesar _3 .html#xrefO 13>
Stil 1, P. Gordon B., Roman Rulers and Rebels, White Plains, NY: Longman Publishing Group, 1992.
Suetonius Tranquillius, Gaius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves. London: The Folio Society, 1964.
Van Heiden, Albert, Gregorian Calendar (1995). Available [Online]: <gregorian calendarhtml> fJauuazy 2, 2003)
http:/ /www.portergaud.edu/cmcarver/jctp.html Page
..
,.
/
f
(\1\ C\ rAt c ct CM( --\OV JC - (d)Ee 1QI(C!Lct t .
u --- V\l c 0\..1'0
ctQ_-4e.,VL-t . \
STUDENT NUMBER/NAME: . . ....... . ........ . .. . .. ..
- ---
Marks
Question 24- Option K-Rome: Julius Caesar (25 marks)
(a) Explain the motives for and manner of Caesar's death.
(b) Assess the life and career of Julius Caesar.
tDl)c. vYV]..lA!l
2.-- VOwt tAft V Dl l
vv CUj 0:7 t 0 p 0\1\)'
Question 25- Option L- Rome: Agrippina II (25 marks)
(a) Explain the motives for and manner of Agrippina's death.
10
15
10
(b) Assess the life and career of Agrippina the Younger.
I001C c;d- JC as
{-t -{.Y{Q
b\W\0
15
0J <ufr!A_ 'r Ma .
tVL b)
(JJ0 C t-tVLt L VVLtJ c:UYI!l
\r\;\_ s -tv\1\J ccu 0\P L;(LQ_ l
(_
End of Section III
Page 22
Question 23- Option J- Rome: Tiberius Gracchus (25 marks)
(a) Describe the manner and impact of Tiberius Gracchus' death.
(b) Evaluate the methods Tiberius Gracchus used to achieve his reforms.
-------- -----
Q1,1estion 24- Option K-Rome: Julius Caesar (25 marks)
~
((a) Describe Julius Caesar's reforms.
(5 Evaluate the significance of the Gallic Wars in the career of Julius Caesar.
-
------
Question 25 - Option L - Rome: Agrippina the Younger (25 marks)
Marks
10
15
(a) Why was Agrippina killed? 10
(b) Evaluate the significance of Agrippina's marriages in her rise to prominence. 15
-21-
Question 23- Option J- Rome: Tiberius Gracchus (25 marks)
(a) Describe Tiberius Gracchus' relationship with the senate.
(b) Assess the achievements ofTiberius Gracchus.
----
F
,.,.. Question 24- Option K-Rome: Julius Caesar (25 marks)
/'
(a) Describe Julius Caesar's relationship with the senate.
(b) Assess the military achievements of Julius Caesar. -------
-----
-----
Question 25- Option L- Rome: Agrippina the YoungeF (25 marks)
. Marks
10
15
10
15
(a) Describe Agrippina the Younger's relationship with Seneca, Burrus and 10
imperial freedmen.
(b) Assess the achievements of Agrippina. 15
-21-
4/Cf(08 ., v- Q
'- 1 r.()\.t._ \1
u N\1\ffJtD bnvJf-K 'f'l" zuo ._i}_,
7\ I BA E . rM (L ' \ .:{\N "
_ t\ f tVlQvV t \.I'JASJ
0
c-o J.Y'-if'"
\__ N Q l'e -1-lt\Q. vo tf r CVYl ct J __., c\ v l '-'< o--
0
WA) a pou.,MtOJv't.-
--tk- t p--evpl.t ry\Ure s., o
-+- 'hCvvl fYu- pcA..-trt: { i S +o
om Vu2 {k..i OVlq-ca. ,
. f OJU.lct..YLt-Lj w-e...t't 1-o r t:="'OLLDWi 1\lC. .f.o<fv\ A 1\l I
' U_d J? tr '-' ;riY' _ tie hO\C'I aW!J?iti o
71
which kf' a. L2j v St Vt!] N '"? povvev- MM , c f-l _
N- J\c\ VJ .e_ IV\o.M.
/ AlSO V\. Stud Herealisedthattheoldrepublicanformof l.p V\.clo{ YYIO\. .,f o..., iVk4
_ l..S . but unnl h1s first consulship m 59 h1s career government was finished and made no attempt to S( ol.)..}{. tfC ,
\ r\lt.e.toyt c. "followed the standard military and political hide his opinion, often arrogantly bypassing ij QI'\.Gl Q. uJ.tlL
0\t\ t R v \\ the cursus. He was n:aditional practices. He either failed to realise or W1lWcL
IH \ C\Cc\. populansand did nor veerfrQm thateosltlon dunng did not care that his autocratic power and behaviour t-t oU.l<: QQI y\A.. .
<\_ Nt\ \ Ci-\ 1-\f v'\l\.1vo. t in.f. - gaveoffencetomanyleadingRomans.
- \1\).f\ S NV . l He was an sold1er and leader. He had little interest in religion, although he made 0u.t IGe, hJ- 'v\10-A'\.J.-d.
lv\'Oi.A \ QV })/ ./?_ He actually was a bnlhant tactlctan an efficient pontifex maximus. The only goddess he 0... WQ,.vJ curol:- V\.let.S
-J _ .1 . G.: and was adm1red by h1s men. Although he was with was Venus, from whom he claimed cu<;t-exvL :;t\c <.{}\.C(_ -follo\..lr -l
Vl se-e_ l f _LI/\ VM.S i I ruthless at times, 'he was not ua Jly
75
descended. ' Religious scruples J J
00
. . . . . } ( .
C011\A p-e.-tt;t,QV\. LAf+J.IIQ C M ' / His clemency towards his enemies is never deterred him fora momenr.'7
6
'ftA,I...f}S ,_, kLC tQc) Cl.>:...'\AJV\J
. f) t/- well-documented. -rervlpU. WGt?rM,o..ue 'f....e.W0vv'OlS
1 1/\Jl C').).J_ L-l c ' IOot-VG CVafSftl f.<.. . He wasa highl yintelligentand culturedman. a.stt..- . . . -
His good sense gave him a flair for . Cicero 'confessed he knew no more eloquent C. 0 {U-r)
Ofl/'&-V V O .. CRS, and he made camed than
77
also admired Caesar's
out dec1s1_ons sw1ftly- often to? qUlck!.y m
1
the . wntmg style: h1s memmrs directly and /'O.t .S
. . viewofh1sopponents. OCtCLVJltl'\ INCtb .Stt._(II1..L. gracefullycomposed'.
78
.St!AA pi'-U\.1-ld
CV\.t-'-LM \-\L& .I . alt'Lltty J..<;eQ _VIOliST! cl'lii<J w .urr-J
LClC cu._id He mrr_oduced a num?er statesman- hke He was devoted to his
. Prf ms career, sucn we or Koman affectiOnate to hts fr1ends, but his atta1rs with
rv..rY\ Vj. f :f'u citizenship. However, he had no great 1deals about women are described as numerous and
-t\tul. -, I.J: benefidng his fellow man, and if he had any overall extravagant'.
79
..._,o OCl Pc.U"vt)\..
planforthefutureof the)mpire, itdiedwithhim. (Vtc'A.VLIO-e)UA!\.ct -f!.A.t.

t--e -t + " _
j-e_.Qf\.._,1--0 -fo eoMa..ru Vc.JeS
-- t.-Ve C.Qrv Vlo'LN h.Q. vJO.J
()...A:::t _) /'lO.,
a.kl c-Lkct M 0..111>l CH-
/1\.0- vsru efl s w Lt /l
Jfo.,tws q
CU: S.OU-.KC. -Q j _( 0\tt..SI .Sif.fl t\.;j
LY\
po LL+LC 1 c.{;V\ . -f\;J-1/\.a.f\
1
....o
ov a. .. u't.a.-r aJJ "C)
u ' ex::
\
I
'l
,)l
.lli
Antony's third expedition to t.mdntahs building
progranm1c in R,Hne
Oct3vian bttwccn the consnk seizurt' dlltl rcadwg vf Antony'5 wilL ;nth
of taken hy [talians
Battle c;f Actiom
J11l im C:& :.,' 's ,[ic:1Mu J I a l .1 rc ll ''II rltl H( nt;lll r )11.'1lf\J
tirm he e el t!cti,)u. h 11! ),,:,ll.r:t-11 !J .. :Jd in-
11
} B ;, \,.rluch rnca, 1 h.11 .. ,11 Hc:Ht .. ll
:.nny uuu11:Jr ,J,;;r:. :ltld oJ f 1ci:d .,,rr, 1i1ll l1 d hcn
'.s .tppru . :wclidntcs.
Ul was
OJ'I'liCd dt<: (it 11'1 r 1110! 'm. v rnen '. 11llC: 1 cb:lrs rtl.tll,\{ ' t',j Ill u. him :i a
111 .Ill'S n 1dll .,rn t bigb Tw uf dw rlll\t 'n \Vt. c M.
: lll lllil1s (/ ntmi:) ,lfld lv. A 11\ili 11'i I ,),,11. I oth crrr1' 1 111 L
rtorn .m b r h.uJ hc-r;l( r-eal d Ill Ill ( lllll f.ttr(>IIY
rarl tf'l lJ old '' dr.,i!>IW lS (;', 1,, r ,l!Jd 111 d1r ptr..tl . , r .mJ lnJ j J 1 \,,mkt llpL
Sll-pfilf ho r h:!,l htI'Jl e . .;t ( '"'d r ill''{l HWIIr 111 d.e >rili tan, 1
111 1 i.:t .y. i cp1d1J ': :-:. btt rlir.l 111 t: ,J, .lte hctn:' d< k:w:d h:
Pompei iu '18 H ;. Th '\ . L" ivcl .cdw:k lu l:c1: l' l1u -t!
duoufh t'ood onnor.,rJ lfH, rl' i\tl'ny'!> .st: -,(n 1C
)<f'
I ~
9.30-10.25:
JULIUS CAESAR STUDY DAY
PROGRAM
Dr Kathryn Welch
Caesar and Roman Politics
What made Caesar? What were the hot political issues in the first part of the first
century BC? In this session we shall put into context:
The first civil war between the Sullans and the Marians (87-82 BC_
Optimates and Populares in the First Century BC
Roman political alliances, especially that between Caesar and Pompey
10.25-10.30: Short Break
10.30-11.10: Caesar's Women
Women figure prominently in the life of Caesar. We know of Aurelia, his mother,
Julia, his aunt, his wives Cornelia, Pompeia and Calpurnia, his mistresses,
especially Servilia, and the mother of his only son, Cleopatra. Through an
examination of the different relationships he had with these women we shall
consider aspects of Caesar's personality and style of politics.
11.10-11.30: Morning Tea
11.30- 12.10: Caesar as General and Author
We shall put into context Caesar the General and Caesar's presentation of himself
as a general in his Commentarii (Commentaries). We shall concentrate especially
on:
Caesar's ability as a general
Caesar's presentation of his defeats in the Gallic and Civil Wars
Caesar's presentation of his soldiers and their achievements
The Battle of Alesia and its strategy
12.10-12.15: Short Break
12.15-1.00:
1.00- 1.40: Lunch
1.40- 2.30:
Understanding the Sources for Caesar
Caesar's own Commentarii cast a long shadow over subsequent source traditions.
However, there were many other in.portant sources, including Cicero's letters, the
continuations of Caesar's Commentaries an ~ the Biographies of Suetonius and
Appian. WE shall consider the reliability of some of this evidence and especially
the part played by Caesar's own friends in creating his image after he died.
Caesar's Dictatorship and Caesar's Assassination
From 49BC Caesar had control of the Roman political process. What did he do w
it in the period between 49 and his death in 44? We shall consider his style of
government, his policies and especially why members of his own supporting group
eventually decided he had to be eliminated
};
6
THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF CAESAR
52
1 I I "', I Dotted lim::s show boundaries of provinces where these arc known
IS 30 36
I 481-- 1
. 4'-1 i f !'S:._........ .
401 ) 7 1 nc Y "CJ I
3 sl f':x' -)!< .c:=-:->., r If
32
1 I I I I \ = I (YRENAICA'l-= L""- ) bl I 1
32
m m
Miln
6
0 6 12 18 2L. L.2
;
"'

r-
' J';
Q. Marcius Rex (pue!or J.t4)
I
CAESAR'S FAMILY
L. Aurelius Cotta(coiuulru)
I
'
C. Julius Cwu=fvbrcia M. Aurelius Cotta= Rut ilia I L. Aurelius Com (consul119)
.-----r-'----..... r
C. Cott3 (coruul7.s) M. Cotta {consul74) L. Co:12 (coruul6s)
I
: ?
I
I
: ?
r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
I
Julia (t 69)=-C. Marius (comulto7, etc.) C. Julius Caesar (praetor f8s);..Aurclia (fH)
L. Comclius Cinna (consul 87-8)
I
C. Marius (consul h) C. JULIUS CAESAR (rD>u)ar. Cotnclia (t69)
-----' I
I
julia (fH)Cn. Pon1peius Mapus
Julia= 1. L. Pinuiu'
\
=1. Q. Pc:diw
t
1
Q. Pedius (consul 1)
JuliaoaM, Atius B:dbus (XX vir 11gris Jd11Jis59)
I
Atia=t. C. Ocravius (praetor 61. f.S9)
I
Q. Pompciw Rufus (consul II) L. Cornelius Sulla (consul 88, etc.)
Octavia= I. C. Cl:mdiw Marcellus
(consul so) ~
C. Octavius
(44 C. Cacm,
17 Augus1us)
I I ' I I
=:Z. (from 40) M. Antonius
Q. Pompcius Rufus=cfcmclia
I !!
- . l""' j ---J
.:..z. (to 6z) Pompcia
=z. L. Marcius Philippus (consul 56)
L,
(by his fant wife) Marciac::M. Porcius Cato Uciccnsis
L. Calpumius Piso (corJ .sB)=Rutilia
I I .
.----
.. J. (from 59) C:dpumla
i
w
'
'
~
100
87
84
81
80
77
75
74
73
69
67
66
65
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
49
48
47
46
45
44
4
Caesar's Life: Timeline
B.C. July 13 - Caesar's Birth
Designated Flamen dialis (Priest of Jupiter) by C. Marius and L. Cornelius Cinna
Marries daughter of L. Cornelius Cinna
In danger after Sulla's victory when he refuses to divorce Cornelia, daughter of Cinna
Military service with the governor of Asia: awarded the Corona Civica (Civic Crown)
Prosecutes Cn Cornelius Dolabella
Captured by Pirates
Outbreak (again_ of the war with Mithridates of Pontus. Caesar fights in Asia
Elected Pontifex
Cornelia and Julia die: Caesar quaestor: makes the funeral oration at the death of both
these women
Marries Pompeia; speaks in favour of the Lex Gabinia; curator of the Appian Way
Speaks in favour of the Lex Manilia
Aedile: restores the statues of Marius in Rome
Elected Pontifex Maximus; Catilinarian Conspiracy
Praetor; Divorces Pompeia
Proconsul of Further Spain
Elected Consul in the teeth of heavy opposition, elected with the support of Pompey
and Crassus
Consul; receives the province of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul; Pompey marries
Julia, Caesar marries Calpumia
Defeats Hel vetii and Germans
Campaigns against the Belgae
Conference at Luca (April) where the agreement between Pompey and Crassus is
renewed
Pompey and Crassus consuls for the second time; Caesar crosses the Rhine; Invades
Britain
Caesar's expedition to Britain; His daughter, Pompey's wife, Julia dies; Ambiorix
destroys fifteen cohorts and Q. Cicero besieged; T. Labienus defeats the Treveri
Crassus killed in Parthia; punitive expeditions in Gaul
Clodius murdered; Gallic uprising; Caesar defeats Vercingetorix
Optimates attempt Caesar's recall from Gaul; by this stage the first seven books of the
Gallic War Commentaries are published
Crosses the Rubicon - Civil. War begins; Pompey goes to Greece; Caesar defeats
Pompey's legates and their annies in Spain
Caesar wins the Battle of Pharsalus (September 48); Pompey murdered in Egypt;
Battle of Alexandria; Caesar spends seven months in Egypt with Alexandria
(Sept) Caesar returns to Rome after the defeat of Phamaces at Zela; moves to Africa
Battle ofThapsus: Caesar defeats Q. MeteiJus Scipio and Cato. Cato commits suicide;
Caesar named dictator for 10 years; returns for quadruple triumph in July (Gaul;
E ~ y p t ; Africa; Asia)
4 consulship; Defeats Gnaeus Pompeius at Munda (March 45); returns in October;
plans Parthian expedition
Declared dictator for life (February) Ides of March, assassinated
CAREER CHART
5
GAiUS JULIUS CAESAR
born 100 B.C.
81 LEGATE IN ASIA
,.._
73
[ 73 LEGATE IN ACHAIA
I
p
I
7 : MILITARY TRIBUNE
-]
0
'
-
N
69 69 QUAESTOR Age 31
J T
I
68 PROQUAESTOR IN SPAIN
F
E
I
C55 AEOILE Age 35
'
X
s
I
62 PRAETOR A ~ e 38
I
E
N
A (60 TRIUMVIRATE) 61 PROP RAE TOR IN SPAIN
T
[ 59 0 CONSUL
~ s z e
41
'
R
.
IN GALL.,I A 58. PROCONSUl
CISALPINA,
TRANSALPINA AND
ILLYRICUM
1 49
Olc-t
1
49
I
48 CONSUL
I
1 48
Olct
I
.47.
Aug- 46 CONSUL
I 4 C5
Diet
I ur
45 CONSUL 45 Die-t
44 CONSUL
6
Talk 1: Caesar and Roman Politics
The first civil war between the Sullans and the Marians (87-82 BC)
Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 1
" t;ic:::l-c.-r 01
.ll-"V()\.,d--tN o\- I. At what time Sulla was lord of all, he would have had Caesar divorce his wife
- ' Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna dictator: but when he saw he could neither with any
e_,v--0\..' promise nor threat bring him to it, he took her dowry away from him. The cause of
Caesar's ill will towards Sulla was by means of marriage: for Marius the elder married his
father's sister (Julia), by whom he had Marius the younger, whereby Caesar and he were
cousins. Sulla being troubled in weighty matters, putting to death so many of his enemies,
when he came to be conqueror, took no account of Caesar: and Caesar was not content to
be hidden in safety, but came and campaigned among the people for the priesthood that
was empty, when he was hardly young enough to grow a beard. However he was
repulsed by Sulla's conniving as he was secretly was against him. When Sulla was
detennined to have killed h.im, some of his friends told him, that it was to no purpose to
put so young a boy as he to death. But Sulla toJd them again, that they did not consider
that there were many Mariuses in that young boy. Caesar understanding that, stole out of
Rome, and hid himself a long time in Sabine country, wandering from place to place. But
one day being canied from house to house, he fell into the hands of Sulla's soldiers, who
searched all those places, and took them whom they found hidden. Caesar bribed the
captain, whose name was Cornelius, with two talents.
Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 6
At that time there were two factions in Rome, to wit, the faction of Sulla, which was very
strong and of great power; and the other of Marius, which then was under foot, and dared
not publicise itself. But Caesar, because he wanted to extend it again, even at the time
when, he being Aedile, all the feasts and common sports were in their greatest height,
secretly organised the remaking of the images of Marius and of the victories that merited
triumphs; and he set them up one night on the capitol The next morning, when every man
saw the glistering of these golden and beautifully made images, showing by the
inscriptions that they were the victories which Marius had celebrated against the Cimhri,
every one marvelled much at the boldness of him that dared set them up there, kn\:.
well enough who it was. Hereupon it ran straight throughout the ci ty, and every man
came to the capitol to see them. Then some called upon Caesar, and said, it was a tyranny
which he meant to set up, by renewing those honours as before had been trodden under
foot and hidden by common decree and open proclamation: and that it was no more but a
bait to gauge the people's good wills, which he had set out in the stately shows of his
common plays, to see if he had brought them to his lure, that they would allow such parts
to be played, and a new state of affairs to exist. But those who belonged to Marius'
faction, encouraging one another, showed themselves still to be a great number and
gathered together. They made the hil1 of the Capitol ring again with their cries and
c1apping of hands: insomuch as the tears ran down many of their cheeks, for very joy,
when they saw the images of Marius, and they extolled Caesar to the skies, judging him
7
the worthiest man of all the kindred of"Marius. The Senate being assembled thereupon,
Catulus Lutatius, one of the greatest authority at that time in Rome, rose, and vehemently
complained about Caesar, and outlined the theme which was later much raised about
Caesar: that he did not now plan secretly, but by open force sought to alter the state of the
commonwealth. Nevertheless, Caesar at that time answered, him so, that the Senate was
satisfied. Thereupon they that held him in high esteem grew more confident than before,
and persuaded him that he should not yield his place to any other man, and that through
the goodwill of the people he should be better than all they, and come to be the leading
man of the city.
Suetonius, The Divine Julius, 9
' .. . Caesar soon made a daring attempt on revolution at Rome itself. A few days before
taking up his aedileship (65BC), he was suspected of plotting with Marcus Crassus, an
ex-consul; also with Publius Sulla and Lucius Autronius, who had jointly been elected to
the consulship but found guilty of bribery and corruption. These four had agreed to wait
until the New Year, and then attack the senate house, killing as many senators as
convenient. Crassus would then proclaim himself dictator, and Caesar his Master of
Horse; the government would be reorganised to suit their pleasure; Sulla and Autronius
would be appointed consuls.
Tanusius Geminus mentions the plot in his history; more information is given in Marcus
Bibulus' edicts and in the Orations of Curio the Elder. Another reference to it may be
detected in Cicero's letters to Atticus where Caesar is said to have 'established in his
consulship the monarchy which he had planned while only an aedile. Tanusius adds that
Crassus was prevented, either by scruple or by nervousness, from appearing at the
appointed hour; and Caesar therefore did not give the agreed signal which, according to
Curio, was letting his gown fall and exposing the shoulder.
Optimates and Populares in the First Century BC
Cicero, On the Republic, 1.19.31:
C. Laelius comments on the political situation in 129BC
'For the death of Tiberius Gracchus and prior to that the whole manner of his tribuneship
divided a single people into two parts (in duas partes).'
Cicero, On Behalf of Sestius, 96-97
'There have always in this city been two kinds of men who have been ambitious of being
concerned in affairs of state, and of arriving at distinction by such a course and of these
two kinds one wish to be considered pgpular men (populares) and the others wish both to
be and to be considered of the party of the ~ t men in the state (optimates). Those whose
object it was that whatever they did and whatever they said should be agreeable to the
multitude, were the popular party; but those who conducted themselves in such a way as
to induce all the best men to approve of their counsels were considered of the best party.
8
[97] Who then are they? Every good man. If you ask what are their numbers, they are
innumerable. For if they were not, we could not stand. They are the chief men of the
public council; they are those who follow their school they are the men of the highest
orders of the state to whom the senate house is open; they are the citizens of the
municipal towns and Roman citizens who dwell in the country; they are men engaged in
business; there are even some freedmen of the best party. The number, as I have said, of
this party is widely scattered in various directions; but the entire body (to prevent all
mistakes) can be described and defined in a few words. All men belong to the best party,
who are not guilty of any crime, nor wicked by nature, nor madmen, nor men
embarrassed by domestic difficulties. Let it be laid down, then, that these men (this race,
as you call them) are all those who are honest and in their senses, and who are well off in
their domestic circumstances. Those who are guided by their wishes, who consult their
interests and opinions in the management of the republic, are the partisans of the best
men, and are themselves accounted best men, most wise and most illustrious citizens, and
chief men in the state.'
Sallust, Conspiracy of Catiline, 38
'Tribunes who began to rouse the plebs by exciting feelings against the Senate and then
enflamed (popular) passions even more by handouts and promises- thereby making
themselves famous and powerful- were strenuously opposed by the greater part of the
Nobility, who posed as defenders of the Senate but were really concerned to maintain
their own privileged position. The truth, to put it in a word, is that although all who in
this period stirred up the state put forward specious pretexts, claiming either to be
defending the rights of the people (populus) or to be upholding the authority of the Senate
(senatus auctoritas) in reality, under the pretence of working for the public good,
everyone of them was working for his own aggrandisement (his own power potentia)
Lacking all restraint they stuck at nothing to gain their own ends, and both sides made
ruthless use of any success they won.'
Two images of populares and optimates shown on the coinage of the second century BC
A. Coin of Porcius Laeca: PROVOCO: I apgeal. A tribune stands between a magistrate
and a soldier protecting him from the potestas (power) of the magistrate.
B. Coin of 100 BC: Two quaestors distribute grain. Note the name of the moneyer
CAEPIO on the obverse and the clear EX S.C (ex Senatus consulto by the authority of the
Senate), denoting the conservative claims of the moneyer.
9
Roman political alliances, especially that between Caesar and Pompey
Pliny, Natural History, 7.95-89
[95] But it concerns the glory of the Roman Empire, and not that of one man, to mention
in this place all the records of the victories of Pompey the Great and all his triumphs,
which equal the brilliance of the exploits not only of Alexander Magnus but even almost
of Hercules and Father Liber. [96] We11 then, after the recovery of Sicily, which
inaugurated his emergence as a champion of the Res Publica in the party of Su11a, and
after the conquest of the whole of Africa and its reduction under our sway, and the
gaining as booty therefrom of the title Magnus, he rode back on a Triumphal chariot
though only of equestrian rank, a thing which had never occurred before; and
immediately afterwards he crossed over to the West, and after erecting trophies 'n the
Pyranees he added to the record of his victorious career the reduction under our power of
876 towns from the Alps to the frontiers of Further Spain, and with greater magnanimity
refrained from mentioning Sertorius, [97] and after crushing the civil war which
threatened to stir up all our foreign relations, a second time led into Rome a procession of
triwnphal chariots as a Knight, having twice been Irnperator before ever having served in
the ranks. Subsequently he was dispatched to the whole of the seas and then to the far
East and he brought back titles without limit for his country, after the manner of those
who conquer in the sacred contests - for these are not crowned with wreaths themselves
but crown their native land; consequently he bestowed these: honours on the city in the
shrine of Minerva that he was dedicating out of the proceed1; of the spoils of the war.
Gaius Pompeius Magnus, lmperator, having completed a thirty years' war, routed,
scattered, slain or received the surrender of 12,183,000 people, sunk or taken 846 ships,
received the capitulation of 1538 towns andforts, subdued the lands from the Maeotians
to the Red Sea, du.ly dedicates his offering vowed to Minerva. [98] This is the summary of
his exploits in the East. But the announcement of the triumphal procession that he led on
September 28 in the consulship of Marcos Piso and Marcus Messala was as foUows: After
having rescued the sea coast from pirates and restored to the Roman People the
command of the sea, he celebrated a triumph over Asia, Pontus, Annenia, Paphlagonia,
Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, the Scythians, Jews and Albanians, Iberia, the Island of
Crete, the Basternae and, in addition to these, over King Mithridates and Tigranes. [99)
The crowning pinnacle of this glorious record was (as he himself declared in the
assembly when discoursing on his achievements) to have found Asia the remotest of the
provinces and then to have made it a central dominion of his country. If anybody on the
other side desires to review in similar manner the achievements of Caesar, who showed
10
himself greater than Pompey; he must assuredly roll off the entire world, and this, it will
be agreed, is a task without limit.
(Pompey (Venice)
M. Licinius Crassus?
Coin of Faustus Sulla (Pompey's Son-in-law) from
58 BC showing the three triumphal wreaths of
Pompey's three triumphs, the golden victory wreath
awarded in 61 BC, the Globe of the World
(oikumene), an aplustre (ship's decoration) and an ear
.ofwheat. -
M. Tullius Cicero
Suetonius Julius, 50
11
Talk 2: Caesar's Women
CAESAR'S WOMEN
(Caesar's) affairs with women are commonly described as numerous and extravagant: among those of noble birth
whom be is said to have seduced were Servius Sulpicius' wife Postu:qrla; Aulus Gabinius's wife Lollia; Marcus
Crassus' wife Tertulla and even Gnaeus Pompey's wife Mucia. Be this how it may, both Curio the Elder and Curio
the Younger reproached pompey for having married Caesar's daughter Julia, when it was because of Caesar,
whom he had often despairingly called 'Aegisthus', that he divorced Mucia, mother of his three children. This
Aegisthus bad been the lover of Agamemnon's wife Clytemnestra. But Marcus Brutus' mother Servilia was the
woman whom Caesar loved best, and in his first consulship he brought her a pearl worth 60,000 gold pieces. He
gave her many presents during the civil war as wen as knocking down certain valuable estates to her at public
auction for a song. When surprise was expressed at the low price, Cicero made a neat remark: 1t is even cheaper
than you think, because a third (Tertia) has been discounted.' Servilia, you see, was also suspected at the time of
having prostituted her daughter Tertia to Caesar.
2. Civil War and family politics
Suetonius, Julius, 1
Gaius Julius Caesar lost hi s father at the age of fifteen. During the next consulship, after being nominated to the
priesthood of Jupiter, he broke an engagemem, made for him when he was still a boy, to marry one Cossutia, for,
though rich, she came from only an equestrian family. I nstead he married Cornelia, daughter of that Cinna who
had been consul four times, and later she bore him a daughter named Julia. The dictator Sulla tried to make him
divorce Cornelia; and when he refused J1e stripped him of his priesthood, his wife's dowry, and his own
inheritance, treatrng him as if he were a member of the popular party. Caesar disappeared from public
vi ew ... Finally he won pardon through the intercession of the Vestal Virgins and his near relatives Mamercus and
Aurelius Cotta. It is well known that when the most devoted and eminent members of the aristocratic party
pleaded Caesar's cause and would not let the matter drop, Sulla at last gave way.
3. Character of Aurelia, Caesar's mother:
Plutarch, Caesar, 9.1-2
As it happened, there were no disturbances in his praetorship. There was only a somewhat unfortunate affair vhich
concerned his domestic life. Publius Clodius came from a patrician family and was distinguished both for his
wealth and his powers as an orator but in hi s ca pacity for behaving quite outrage()usly he surpassed al l the most
notorious evil livers of hi s time. This man was in love with Caesar's wife Pompeia, who did not reject his
advances. However the women's part of the house was closely supervised and Caesar's mother, Aurelia, was a
person of strict respectability. She never let the young wife out of her sight and so made it difficu1t and dangerous
for the young lovers to meet.
Suetonius, luHus, 13
Obliged to a andon his ambiti on of governing Egypt, Caesar stood for the office of Pontifex Maximus and used
the most flagrant bribery to secure it. The story goes that. reckoning up the enormous debts thus contracted, he
tol d his mother as she kissed him goodbye on the morning of the poll, that if he did not ntum to her as pontifex
maximus he would not return at all. However he defeated his two prominent rivals ...
4. How did Caesar use/rely on women?
Suetonius, Julius, 6
During his quaestorship he made the customary funeral speeches from the Rostra in honour of his aunt Julia and
his wife Cornelia and while eulogising Julia's maternal and paternal ancestry did the same for the Caesars too. 'Her
mother', he said, 'was a descendant of kings. namely the Marcii Reges, a family founded by the king Ancus
Marcius, and her father of the gods- since the Julians, of which we Caesars are a branch, reckon de&<:ent from the
goddess Venus. Thus Julia's stock can claim both the sanctity of kings who reign supreme among mortals and the
reverence due to lhe gods, who hold even kings in their power.' t ' l'i rJJ AAf'll.ll ~ l ' f ,
'=' ~ - - . d""" '-' ~ ~ ~ '\/'-(__
Suetonius, l uUus, 21
Caesar then married Calpumia, daughter of Lucius Piso, his successor in the consulship; and at the same time
betrothed Juli a to Gnaeus Pompey, thus breaking her previous engagement to Servilius Caepio, who had recently
( pr l"Jb, fV\?-1 c v Brt;. u.S)
12
given him a great deal of support in the struggle against Bibulus. He now always called on Pompey to open
debates in the House, though having hitherto reserved this honour for Crassus.
Valerius Maximus 4.2.7
But even if the way of life of Caelius Rufus was depraved, one must a,pprove the mercy which he extended to
Quintus Pompei us. Pompeius had been destroyed by him in a capital court case, but when his mother Cornelia
would not give over fatms left in trust for him and he had begged for her help by letters, Caelius most tenaciously
assisted him in his absence. He even read aloud her Jetter in the court as an indication of Pompei us' complete
destitution, and in this way the unmotherly greed of Cornelia was overturned. Because of its outstanding kindness,
this deed should not be disregarded even though Caelius perpetrated it.
5. 'Political marriages': using female connections in the 50s
Plutarch, Caesar, 14.4
Caesar went on to gain a still flnner hold over Pompey's power and influence. He had a daughter Julia who was
engaged to Servilius Caepio, and he now engaged her to Pompey, saying that he would arrange for Servilius to
marry Pompey's daughter- though she too was engaged already, having been promised to Faustus, the son of Sulla.
And shortly afterwards Caesar married Calpurnia, a daughter of Piso and got Piso elected as consul for the
following year. At this Cato violently protested ...
Suetonius, Julius, 27
To preserve Pompey's friendship and renew the family ties dissolved by Julia's death he offered him the hand of
his sister's grand daughter Octavia, though she had already married Gaius Marcellus, and in return asked leave to
marry Pompey's daughter who was still betrothed to Faustus Sulla.
6. Servilia: understanding the Roman Matrona
Plutarch, Cato Minor, 1:
Cato's family got its first lustre and fame from his great-grandfather Cato (a man whose virtue gained him the
greatest reputation and influence among the Romans, as has been written in his Life), but the death of both his
parents left him an orphan, together with his brother Caepio and his sister Porcia. Cato also had a half-sister,
Servilia, the daughter of his mother. All these children were brought up in the home of Livius Drusus, their uncle
on the mother's side, who at that time was the leader in the conduct of public affairs.
Plutarch, Caio Mi11or, 24 (abridged):
... the story goes that on this occasion when Caesar was eagerly engaged in a great struggle with Cato and the
attention of the Senate was fixed upon the two men, a little note was brought in from outside to Caesar. Cato tried
to fix suspicion upon the matter and alleged that it had something to do with the conspiracy and bade. him read the
writing aloud. Then Caesar handed the note to Cato who stood near him. But when ('..ato read the note, which was
an unchaste letter from his sister Servilia to Caesar, with whom she was passionately and guiltily in love, he threw
it at Caesar, saying, Take it, sot', and then resumed his speech.
'Materna auctoritas'
Asconius, Pro Scauro, Clark's text p. 19:
Scaurus placed his highest hopes on his father's reputation and great store by his family relationship with Gnaeus
Pompey. His son was the brother of Pompey's children, for he had married Mucia Tertia, the daughter of Scaevola
after Pompey had divorced her. On the other hand, Scaurus had a great fear of Marcus Cato, who, as I said, was to
preside over the case, because of Cato's close friendship with Triarius. For Triarius' mother Fl aminia and Triarius
himself were very close friends of Servilia, Cato's sister, the mother of Brutus. Moreover, she held an almost
maternal influence (materna auctoritas) over Cato. However, when it came to the case, Pompey did not offer the
expected assistance, because Pompey would have believed Scaurus did not take seriously enough the judgement
cast on Mucia when, after he divorced her for shameful misconduct, Scaurus himself had approved of her, he
appears to have caused greater offence to Pompey's feelings than he acquired influence through the right offrunily
relationship, that being that both men had children from the same woman. But neither did Cato abandon in the
least that sense of fairness (aequitas) which was proper to his chosen way of life and his particular magistracy.
13
Matchmaking: Men's Business or Women's Business
To Atticus, 5.4.[97]1 (12 May 51):
I am most grateful for the trouble you are taking about my first and most important commission; but your
departure weakens my hope of success. About my little girl, I am inclined that way (?) not that- but for want of
something better we must make the best of him. As for the other man, whom you say you think not unsuitable, I
doubt whether my girl could be brought to consent, and you say there's,not much to choose. For my part, I have no
wish to be awkward, but you will be away and in your absence the thing will ***. If both of us were on the spot,
something acceptable might be made of Servius through Servilia. As it is; even if I were to approve in principle, I
see no way of going to work.
Servilia and the civil war
Plutarch, Brutus, 4-5 (abridged)
When the Roman state split into two factions with Pompey and Caesar taking up arms against one another, and the
whole empire was thrown into confusion, it was generally expected that Brutus would choose Caesar's side,
especially as his father had been put to death at Pompey's orders some years before. But Brutus believed he ought
to put the public good before his private loyalties and as he was convinced that Pompey had the better reasons for
going to war he attached himself to his party .. . It is said that Pompey was so surprised and delighted at his arrival
that he rose from his seat as Brutus approached and in front of all his officers embraced him as though Brutus were
his superior ... It is also said that Julius Caesar was so much concerned for his safety as to issue orders to his
commanders that Brutus must on no account be killed in the fighting; but his life must be spared. If he gave
himself up, he was to be taken prisoner but if he resisted capture they were not to offer him violence but to let him
go. All this, it is believed, he did for the sake of Brutus' mother. It seems that in Caesar's youth he had an affair
with Servilia, who was madly in Jove with him, and as Brutus had been born at about the time when her passion
was at its height he had always cherished the suspicion that Brutus was his own son. The story goes that when the
great conspiracy of Catiline, which had come near to overturning the state, had been referred for judgement to the
Senate, Cato and Caesar, who were opposing one another in the debate, were standing side by side ...
Profits and Losses: Women on the make in Civil War
Plutarch, Marius, 34.2
For at Baiae near Cape Misenum Marius owned an expensive house which had appointments more luxurious and
more effeminate than became a man who had taken active part in so many campaigns. This house, we are told,
Cornelia bought for seventy five thousand drachmas; and not long afterwards Lucius Lucullus purchased it for two
million five hundred thousand.
To Atticus, 14.21.[375]3 (11 May 44):
There is no doubt in my mind that we are moving towards war. The affair was handled with the courage of men
(animus virilis) and the policy of children (consilium puerile) Anyone could see that an heir to the throne was left
behind. The folly of it! 'Strange this to fear and that to set at naught!' Why even now there is a great deal which
might be thought incongruous. Think of Pontius' house near Naples being occupied by the Tyrannicide's mother. I
ought to reread the 'Cato the Elder' which I dedicated to you. Old age is making me cantankerous, everything
irritates me. But I have had my time. Let the young men worry.
Macrobius, Satires, 2.2.5:
It was then the turn of Symrnachus. When Caesar, he said, was selling by auction the property of certain citizens,
Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, bought a valuable estate quite cheaply and so became the victim of a jest of
Cicero's, who said, 'Of course you will better understand Servilia's bargain if you realise that a third was knocked
off the purchase price of the estate' (tertia deducta)
1
For Servilia had a daughter Junia Tertia (the wife of Gaius
Cassius) whose favours- as well as those of her mother's- the dictator was then enjoying. In fact rumours and jokes
about the profligacy of the elderly adullerer were rife at that time in Rome and gave people some amusement from
their troubles.
Servilia after the Ides
N.B. The pun rests on deducere, which means 'to subtract' and 'to lead off in marriage', here used very
ironically. Tertia's family name was Tertulla (little Tertia).
14
Plutarch, Caesar, 62 (abridged):
It was in these circumstances that people began to tum their thoughts towards Marcus Brutus. He was thought to
be, on his father's side, a descendant of the Brutus who had abolished the monarchy; on his mother's side he carne
from another famous family, the Servilii; and he was the son-in-Jaw and nephew of Cato. But his own zeal for
destroying the new monarchy was blunted by the honours and favours he had received from Caesar. It was not
only that at Pharsalus after Pompey's flight his own life had been spared and the lives of many of his friends at his
request; he was also a person in whom Caesar had a particular trust. He had been given the most important of the
praetorships for this very year and was to be consul three years later. For this post he had been preferred to
Cassius, who had been the rival candidate. Caesar, indeed, is said to have admitted that Cassius had the better
claims of the two for the office. 'But', he said, 'I cannot pass over Brutus'. And once, when the conspiracy was
already formed and some people were actually accusing Brutus to Caesar of being involved in it, Caesar laid his
hands on his body and said to the accusers, 'Brutus will wait for this skin of mine'- implying that Brutus had the
qualities which would entitle him to power, but that he would not, for the sake of power, behave basely and
ungratefuJty. rJr ( oJY) .. t ,
To Atticus, 7 June 44):
(1) I arrived at midday. Brutus was glad to see me. Then before a large company, including
Servilia, Tertulla and Porcia, he as ked me what I thought he ought to do. Favonius too was present I gave the
advice I had prepared on the way, to accept the Asiatic com commission. I said his safety was all that concerned us
now; it was the bulwark of the Republic itself. I was fairly launched on this theme when Cassius walked in. I
repeated what I had already said, whereupon Cassius, looking most valorous I assure you, the picture of a warrior,
announced that he had no intention of going to Sicily. 'Should I have taken an insult as though it had been a
favour?' 'What do you mean to do then?' I enquired. He replied that he would go to Greece. 'How about you,
Brutus?' said I. 'To Rome' he answered, 'if you agree'. 'But I don't agree at all. You won't be safe there.' 'Well
supposing I could be safe, would you approve? 'Of course, and what is more I should be against your leaving for a
province either now or after your Praetorship. But I cannot advise you to risk your life in Rome.' I went on to state
reasons, which no doubt occur to you, why he should not be safe.
(2) A deal of talk then followed, in which they complained, Cassius especially, about the opportunities that had
been let slip, and Decimus came in for severe criticism. To that I said it was no use crying over spilt milk, but I
agreed all the same. And when I began to give my views on what should have been done (nothing original, only
what everyone has been saying all the time) not however touching on the point that someone else ought to have
been dealt with, only that they should have summoned the Senate, urged the popular enthusiasm to action with
greater vigour, assumed the leadership of the whole conunonwealth, your lady friend2 exclaimed 'Well upon my
word! I never heard the like!' I held my tongue. Anyway it looked to me as though Cassius would go (Servilia
undertook to get the com commission removed from the decree), and our friend Brutus was soon persuaded to
drop his empty talk about wanting to be in Rome. He therefore decided that the .games should be held in his
absence under his name. It looked to me as though he wanted to go to Asia direct from Anti urn.
To his Friends, 12.7.[367]1 (7 March 43) Cicero to Cassius:
How zealously I have defended your position both in the Senate and before the people I prefer you to learn from
your domestic correspondents than from myself. My motion in the Senate would have gone through with ease but
for Pansa's strong opposition. After delivering my speech I was presented to a public meeting by Tribune M.
Servilius.3 I said what I could about you loudly enough to be heard all over the Forum, amid unanimous shouts of
approval from the crowd. I have never seen anything like it. I hope you win forgive me for doing so against your
mother-in-law's wishes. She is a nervous lady and was afraid that Pansa might take umbrage. In fact Pan.sa told a
public meeting that your mother and brother too had been against my making my motion. But all this did not affect
me; I had other considerations more at heart. I was for the state, as a1ways, and for your dignity and glory.
To M. Brutus, 21 or 1.13[21] (May or June 43) M. Brutus to Cicero:
The fears of the rest of the world make me apprehensive about M. Lepidus. If he tears himself away from us (and I
hope the general suspicion that he will is hasty and unjust), I beg and implore you Cicero in the name of our
2 Servilia was more Atticus' friend than Cicero.
3 No relation to Servilia. P. Servilius Isauricus, another husband of one of Servilia's daughters.
15
friendship and your good will towards me to forget that my sister's children are Lepidus' sons and to regard me as
having replaced him as their father. If you grant so much, 1 am sure there is nothing you will hesitate to do on their
behalf. Others may stand on different tenns with their kith and kin, but nothing I can do for my sister's children
can satisfy my desire or my duty. And what mark of favour can honest men confer upon me (that is, if I am worthy
of any such), how am I going to help my mother and my sister and these chlldren, if you and the rest of the Senate
will not let their uncle Brutus count against their father Lepidus? AIUf.iety and vexation make it impossible for me
to write to you at length.
Plutarch, Brutus, 53 (abridged):
When Antony found Brutus' body, he ordered it to be wrapped in the most costly of his scarlet cloaks, and
afterwards when he discovered that it had been stolen, he had the thief put to death. The ashes he sent home to
Servilia.
7. Caesar and Calpurnia
Plutarch, Caesar, 63.8-12
After this when he was sleeping as usual by the side of his wife, all the doors and windows of the bedroom flew
open at once; Caesar, startled by the noise and by the Jjght of the moon shining down on him, noticed that
Calpurnia was fast asleep but she was saying something in her sleep which he could not make out and was
groaning in an inarticulate way. In fact she was dreaming at that time that she was holiling his murdered body in
her arms and was weeping over it. Though some say that it was a different dream wh.ich she had. They say that she
dreamed that she saw the gable ornament of the house tom down and for this reason fancied that she was weeping
or lamenting ... In any case when it was day she implored Caesar, if it was possible, not to go out and begged him
to postpone the meeting of the Senate or if, she said, he had no confidence in her dreams then he ought to enquire
about the future by sacrifices and other methods of divination. Caesar, it seems, was affected and by no means
easy in his mind for he had never before noticed any womanish superstition in Calpumia and now he could see
that she was in very great distress.
8. Caesar and Cleopatra
9. Conclusions
Importance of women to social and political connections
Disruption caused by civil war affected these connections, especially for women
Caesar's use of women points to a style of politics where networks were intricate and important
Empowerment of some women (especially Servilia) increased dramatically during Caesar's dictatorship years
especially because personal networks also increased in importance
Possibility of following Caesar's political aspirations and public presentation via his female connections
.
16
Talk 3: Caesar as General and Author
1. Things to consider when assessing Caesar
Caesar is the major source on Caesar as a general
Gallic Wars
Civil Wars
Continuators (Bellum Alexandrinum; Bellum Africum; Bellum Hispaniensum)
Caesar the hero: Aulus Hirtius, Gaius Oppius and L. Cornelius Balbus
Caesar Conqueror of Gaul versus Caesar the Leader in a Civil War
2. Caesar's military career and its connection with his political career
Caesar on the wrong side of civil war
Need for reputation to bolster his political career
Competition with Pompey
Competition with the image of Alexander the Great
Absence from Rome in the 50s
Document: Gallic Wars 1.40: Caesar justifies himself as a superior general to his troops
4. Things to remember about Roman Armies
Professional soldiers since the time of Marius (and probably before)
Gallic Wars 2.20: The Battle of the Sambre
Bellum Africum: Document: African War The Battle of Thapsus
5. Key to Caesar's Generalship
Ability to organise and feed his troops in difficult terrain
Charismatic leadership .. Crvb fL.... be..bk 7
1
@> Knowledge about when to 'let the soldiers get on with it' and when to restrain them
@ Scout system and courier system
Personal friendships in Gaul , _ pr--'u.'.Q/vVt- h."' oJJ 1@
"' Quality of his legates, especially T. Labienus, P. Crassus
Use of Gallic soldiers in the later civil wars
6. How does Caesar present himself in his work
0 Always in control
His own qualities displayed rather than boasted about
Exciting vivid prose capturing excitement rather than boring detail
( +o 1'9 r:,-.J. -1--'D f v 6 \Ji'C.)
17
Constant eye on the current political situation (but one sometimes has to look closely
to see this) NB Contrast treatment ofT. Sabinus and Q. Cicero in Book 5
7. Close Run Battles: When did Caesar nearly lose?
Sambre








Against Ambiorix
Against lndutiomarus
Gergovia (actual defeat)
llerda (tv rt \J'.J eJ,..)(
Dyrrachium (actual defeat) {feV'vvf'- VVC"'- k>vf foUovv vp)
Egypt
Africa (Curio's campaigns in 49; Thapsus campaign in 46)
Munda ( c ( o>e
8. Conclusions
Caesar basically controlled his own publicity and his followers increased the
impression of Caesar the perfect general
Level of expertise of the army
Charismatic control surpassed that of Pompey
Overall ability to control the military situation
Getting into the better position
Ability at siege warfare
Ability to present himself to the soldiers and to his readers as successful
( 1.40)
THE GAlliC WAR
15
danger. Throughout the camp the men were signing and
sea ling their wills.
Thanks to their fearful complaining, gradually even men of
military experience hcgan to be aHected-the legionary
>oltlicrs, centurions, nfficrrs. Some wrrc to
lcH cowardly, and drciHrd th:u it WH not thl:' rnrmy
rhcr feared, hut the rr->trictrd, narrow route of the mnrch,
rhe depths of forest between And Ariovi1tm, nr
the arrangement or satisfactory fnr the corn
Some even went so far as to tell Caes;H that, although he
given the order to strike camp and move our, the soldiers
would not obey him and, because of their fear, would refuse
to lift the standards.
(40) As soon as Caesar was aware of the situation he
called a council, ordered centurions of all ranks to attend,
and severely reprimanded them, primarily for thinking that it
was their business to inquirr or think about either the direction
or the strategy of the march. During his consulship, Caesar
went on, Ariovistus had eagerly sought friendly relations with
the Roman people. Why would anyone: now conclude
he was going to abandon his obligations rashly? In fact, he
convinced that once Ariovistus understood the terms he
was offering, and considered the fairness of the conditions,
he would nor spurn the favour either of Caesar or of the
Roman people.
And even i( Ariovistus did start a war, Caesar continued,
on by some mad fury, what was tbffS.f\?sfear even
then?..W.PY did they despair o( their own cou/age, or of his
ror their well-being? The danger posed >Y
this enemy had alrudy been experienced in tht time of our
fnthers, when the Cimbri and Teutoni were expelled by Gaius
1\luius. On that occasion it was clear that the army h:ul
as much credit as its commander. The same
had also been experienced more recently during the slave
revolt in Italy. In this instance the slaves were helrc:d to
some degree: by the experience 11nd training which they had
received from us.
From all this, said Caesar, ther could see how crucial was
firmness of purpose. After all, for a time they had feared the
:t6 THI! GAlliC WAR (1.40).
slaves, who were then witho11t weapons: yet later they had
defeated those same aFter they were armc:d and had
won haules. Finally, the wc:re
1
the same people who
often clashed with the Hdvr:tii-and the Hdvetii had
frrqurntly heaten thc:m, not only within thc:ir own borders
hut ahn in Germany itscl(-;wd yet the Helvetii had proved
nn for our army.
he went on, somr of present were disturbed
hy the defeat and night of the Gauls. But if they took the
trouble: to inquire they would discovc:r rhar the Gauls had
been worn down by the long duration of rhe campaign, before
Ariovistus (who had for many months been skulking in his
camp in the marshes, giving them no chance to attack him)
suddenly launched his assault upon them, when the Gauls
had given up hope of battle and had already He
had won, rhen, more by tactical phmning than by conspicu
ous bravery. And even if there was a place for these tacti cs
wlien faced with harbarians of no military skill, not even
Ariovistus would pin his hopes on the success of such tactics
a$ a means of beating our army.
As for those: who shifted the blame for their own fear on
tf, a pretended anxiety about corn supplies or the narrowness
n.f the route, they were doing so out of presumption. After
all, they apparently either doubted their commander's com-
mitment or they were dictating it to Caesar. Yet his attc:ntion
was taken up with all these things: the Sequani, the Leuci,
and the Lingoncs were supplying corn, and the crop was
already ripe in the fields-as for the route of their march, in
a short while they would themselves decide it. On the subject
of their declared intention not to follow orders and raise the:
standards, it did not trouble him at all. He was well aware
that whenever an army had disobeyed its commander in the
past, it was either because fortune had deserted him, as proven
by his failure on the field, or because he had been discovered
in
1
some crime 11nd found guilty of rapacity. That he, Caesar,
was himself guilty of no crime was evident from the: whole
course: of his life: that he was a man who enjoyed good
fortune: was evident from his campaign against the: Helvetii.
And so, Caesar concluded, he would do at once what he
(I..p) THI! GALI.IC WAR. 2.7
had intended to put off till a bt er d<1te. The very next night,
during the: fourth watch, they would strike camp. Then he
would know as soon as p< whether thc:ir of
and duty was stronger than their fear. Moreover, C:\'en if nn
one at all foll ow.:d him, then he would still set out, with only
the Tenth legion, for he: had no douhts about its loyalty.
Indeed, it would in future St:IVe as his bodyguard . {Cac:sar
had treated this legion with favour, and had the fulbt
confidence in its .coyrajo!c,)
::f'l)

-
1:3

00
<;


:; (1\-
l"
(jj
,( s::a b
II\
(.A ()
cP
s r
"'U (} 1.1\
r

,. '\
,... g_
-
('I
- n
(\
J
-j)


< ,.. If' C)
:r:
"?
::;- \._.-) t;;:)

s
(v

-f
0

Q
.:h
_g
0

L.9.
Ill

5'
\II
-

(\'
s
V1
<...n
-"""'
..
Wo.A 71- 73
71. nerd wit h an now proccded to
tnln his sncn, not -zs general does vctcr11ns who luve bught
mny SUtUful camp#lgns, but as a lralner doe$
gldlaton: ht told them bow many fed tl!ey should rctlrt, how
they should wflctl tound ag1lnst the enemy, how to rut up a
reslitJitft In a lhnlted qme, how to advmce retire :alttr
r!lldy and .mke fdnt Jllads; he almost went ro br as :o tell
diem i.rhc,-e. and how ID throw their Jtvcllns. For II was rrm;rk
ble to what extent the cntmy light lnfotntry
worry and aMiety among our rnm. Their mrubnt Javelin
ire austd caroallks amon& ihe and 'kept the cavalry from
ef'IB1JITI8
1
while thtlr out the feglonallc:s: for IS
10011 u any o{ the heavy inf1nny, under pursuit, and
dltm. they uslly ran out or dJnger.
71, Cn.ur worried; for whem:ver
tbe "'" '" engagr.menl he round hlmsetr totally unable to
au1lch the. enemy owalry md light Infantry with hts own cavalry,
IITIS\Ipratted by lr:stonarla A further disquieting clrcumscma
thal h.e had uyd no upcrfenec or the .enemy legions: he did
I'IOt - know ho he could wldurand tht tomblned forcu of the
enemy cavalry and thtir truly renutrk1ble light Infantry, onre
by the lf!lom well. And yet ;mother !Duree
of !lltry 1n1 iht pmlslent fcding of engendered In hts
mtA b1 !nd numbm of
for,tbls last.. problem at lcut, however, he had found :1 rolutlon,
Ht.liacl 1 numhtr Df to he tran.1portrd from
lilly so that our men might famlllulu thcmsches witt. the
appntancc an_d or heut, :and lmn which parts
olltt bodywetc radlly vulner'lble to and, when It
lufly fllUippd and imourtd, wldc.h part was ldt exposed ancl
unproleclrd, and 'st> wu far mlullrs. Furthu. he
that .,rou,h the homs Y.ould their fear
of. thr :smtll, :and rt-mnce o{ the I lc very lnrgcly
snc-ednt tn achlcflns ctltK aiiJIL The tronrs lt:anclled the
and .,.,t'd ho'!' thty the rav01lry
fO!' prutla; t,!nt1ppcd and tht' of lht.
llusll haclll\ldr thr.hnneigtnw amulomro ,., lht'm.
Suck lfttn, of an.,icl)'; an.l rhclt
't '"""f tltn uric! .sty.le of p.l\lcn
pbcr l1J .a dcllhrr.-tc p1llcy. nsl$ wt nnt
,_lslnJ; the fDfca he wnr tn fishtlug In Gnu I, nn
lewd 1nd :aatimc !Itt Gault, and
ooi .ac 1H ti.U. to wlo wen: tCCII\IOIIltd In warbn: rn rtly
en thth lour. ftOI on trickery. Nn\\, ho ... hi! hllll tc IIV In
hl.s IM!' '''" I u ps :tnd m{t! or rhe
now wbrn. tlocy sl muld putsll r 2nd when
"" .. .
....
_t,. ' ' . , -:-;
1
' , 'J: "7 - ("_,-.)
r r 0. ,,
1
tf\ y ; r . ''lO o ;,. u- ,,. .._ !> 1.-
I I ..... " Ll V'- l '
8i.. . ft._s he 'tf.' '-S rnct.: fng !our of ' he ;;r!T!y, ht obstrvtcl \tt'
. . . , , . I
'it
. HCi t !P. :::JOhiS1Dn and
gates, sometimes coming out In a disordt1ly :md reckless bshion.
A number of other people began to notice the s-ame thing;
all of a sudden there was outcry from the officers recalltd
vctcmss. Tucy urged Cacs3r to gi ve the signal without fnrtlm
ado, since lhe gulls Wl!re clenly the victory wu
dc.stinrd lo be theirs. Caesar still hesitated md refused to be
by rhelr eager insiHence. Ue was bawling out constantly
that did not approve of engaging In haute by an impromptu
repeatedly rhtrking the line fro111 when
suddculy a trullll'cter on tlsc right wing. to pressure from
lite troops :tnd Wilham atdl!rs. began 10 sound the oil ta
by i hc- cahc; ts r. nd !br;' btgJn to
hn i ce:n tudans f;!ced abcut ;a nd
t.o d1ri: men, urging i heu1 fl Dl
ttul! on.'ers.
BJ. C:a.esar realized clt.ft II lmpo,o;s.iblc lo rcslst his troop;'
lmpeluoslty: gave tlte word, 'Good luck', sel his hom
1 gallop ilgiinst dte front line. Mranwhile the slingers
archers 011 the right wing hurletl nl'id volleys of rnissiles.at tile
drn.se of elephants, ;with the rcsulc thar 1he beasrs, tenilicd
by the ll'histling of cite shot and the showHing stonrs and
lead bullcLS, tmned rouncl and began to clown lhdr
;r:UtJW!oi , whn dose bdtinrl them. and tw hi
in ihc ramp.1n, iht front
Jf 'he f;,{uu!d5h en s:.; me wL.;g ih;e d eph;nts
t h:) thtJt fled. So on; !egioru got rmH1d
!;t:h:e.d \IH:: a[. t.he enrtn-7_; o! ,t h:t
i. i."r_$\:
iua left d2 y
!A..:a:tk;.r* dl;j St U!: m;d:: oi ihe g:Jlt.:rHry o6 r. of
vlhtg, :Ji1 by d1e
;,-i a;; o. i:"'!i! nue:d G:inp- foHower.
on him,
fi..J ';il]td rn:. n1-r edng \"la-s crushing 1! fin to Tht
t o the faliy :'2nn2d
s;:;w !he soidicf :it h :.v i! h
coq 1s:.:, Wt appcd 1ts trunk
iHi etJ h;w up t!tc Tht' so!dier,
Ji :.c:icn
'1!'1 ' .1 his :H
f.o,[('d t he sotdiet
..Hy i ! ; ound and ' oh1 t l1c

20
Talk 4: Understanding the Sources for Caesar
Primary
Caesar's Commentaries
(a) Bellum Gallicum
(b) Bellum Civile
'Continuators'
(a) Alexandrian War
(b) African War
(c) Spanish War
'Hero worship' ) jC 's 1\1\
(a) Oppius k.JLs o,uvLJV.j
(b) L. Cornelius Balbus
Anti-Caesar
(a) Tanusius Geminus
(b) Cicero (speeches; letters; philosophical works; rhetorical treatises)
Unknown but important
(a) C. Asinius Pollio e"" wh.t>d- h..9 LA..Jrelt:-e
Secondary
(a) Velleius Paterculus
(b) Plutarch
(c) Suetonius
(d) Appian
(e) Dio
Sample of an 'Odd' Source: C. Oppius and the Hero Caesar
Plutarch, Caesar, 17
This love of honour and passion for distinction were inspired into them and
( l-them by Caesar himself, who, by his unsparing distribution of money and honours,
showed them that he did not heap up wealth from the wars for his own luxury, or the
gratifying his private pleasures, but that all he received was but a public fund laid by the
reward and encouragement of valour, and that he looked upon all he gave to no danger to
which he did not willingly expose himself, no labour from which he pleaded an
exemption. His contempt of danger did not so much surprise his soldiers because they
knew how much he coveted honour. But that he was prepared to endure so much
hardship, which he did to all appearance beyond his natura] strength, very much
astonished them. For he was a spare man, had a soft and white skin, was distempered in
the head and subject to epilepsy, which, it is said, first seized him at Corduba. But he did
not make the weakness of his constitution a pretext for his ease, but rather used war as the
,
..
21
best physic against his indispositions; whilst, by indefatigable journeys, coarse diet,
frequent lodging in the field, and continual laborious exercise, he struggled with his
diseases and fortified his body against all attacks. He slept generally in his chariots or
litters, employing even his rest in pursuit of action. In the day he was thus carried to the
forts, garrisons, and camps, one servant sitting with him, whp used to write down what he
dictated as he went, and a soldier attending 'behind him with his sword drawn. He drove
so rapidly that when he first left Rome he arrived at the river Rhone within eight days. He
had been an expert rider from his childhood; for it was usual with him to sit with his
hands joined together behind his back, and so to put his horse to its full speed. And in this
war he disciplined himself so far as to be able to dictate letters from on horseback, and to
give directions to two who took notes at tl)e same time or, as ~ ~ i ~ s a y s , to more. And it
is thought that he was the first who contrived means for comm . eating with friends by
cipher, when either press of business, or the large extent of the city, left him no time for a
personal conference about matters that required despatch. How unparticular he was in his
diet may be seen in the following instance. When at the table of Valerius Leo, who
entertained him at supper at Milan, a dish of asparagus was put before him on which his
host instead of oil had poured sweet ointment, Caesar partook of it without any disgust,
and reprimanded his friends for finding fault with it. 'For it was enough,' said he, 'not to
eat what you did not like; but he who reflects on another man's want of breeding, shows
he wants it as much himself.' Another time upon the road he was driven by a storm into a
poor man' s cottage, where he found but one room, and that such as would afford but a
mean reception to a single person, and therefore told his companions places of honour
should be given up to the greater men, and necessary accommodations to the weaker, and
accordingly ordered that Oppius, who was in bad health, should lodge within, whilst he
and the rest slept under a shed at the door.
Suetonius, Divus Julius, 53
That he drank very little wine not even his enemies denied. There is a saying of Marcus Cato that Caesar
was the only man who undertook to overthrow the state when sober. Even in the matter of food Gaius
Oppius tells us that he was also so indifferent, that once when his host served stale oil instead of fresh, and
the other guests would have none of it, Caesar partook even more plentifully than usual, not to seem to
charge his host with carelessness or lack of manners.
Suetonius, Divus Julius, 72
His friends he treated with invariable kindness and consideration. When Gaius Oppius was his companion
on a journey through a wild, woody country and was suddenly taken ill, Caesar gave up to him the only
shelter there was, while he himself slept on the ground under the heavens. Moreover, when he canre to
power, he advanced some of his friends to the highest positions, even though they were of humble origin,
and when taken to task for it, flatly declared that if he had been helped in defending his honour by brigands
and cut-throats, he would have requited even such men in the same way.
A ulus Gellius 6.1.1
The tale which in Greek history is told of Olympias, wife of king Philip and mother of Alexander, is also
recorded of the mother of that Publius Scipio who was the first to be called Africanus. For both Gaius
Oppius and Julius Hyginus, as well as others who have written of the life and deeds of Africanus, declare
that his mother was for a long time thought to be barren, and that Publius Scipio, her husband, had also
given up hope of offspring.
A B
c
D.
Famous Images Associated with Caesar
A. Chiararn:mte Bust of Caesar (Rome)
R Coin of Hostilius Saserna with Gallic Warrior
( cvercingetorix ')
C Coin of Caesar from BC:. Venus
and Aeneas o h.r::Je:-j
D, Berlin bust of Caesar
23
Talk 5: Caesar's Dictatorship and Caesar's Assassination
1. Crossing the Rubicon
7th January 49
2.Wbat was a Roman Dictator?
Six monthly tenure
All other magistracies to lapse except the Tribunes of the Plebs (who were not part of
the normal Roman Cursus)
Sulla's Dictatorship
3. When was Caesar Dictator?
49: 11 days at the end of the year
Oct. 48: After the Battle of Pharsalus (August 48), nominated as Dictator for 12
months
46: After the Battle of Thapsus: nominated Dictator for 10 years to be renewed
annually.
44: Nominated Dictator Perpetuus (Dictator for an unspecified period) February 44
4. Other offices held by Caesar during the period 49-44.
48: Consul with P. Servilius Isauricus r ro.to s-vppo.-t-Q..,- (.!V''\lJ prck:J_ -f..,,..
"'-"-1- LLF, c,L,_;s 1'-\ A .etc 7
46: Consul with M. Aemilius Lepidus '
45: Sole Consul: abdicated in October on returning from Spain
44: Consul with Marcus Antonius
5. Who were Caesar's Magistri Equitum (Masters of Horse)?
Oct. 48-0ct. 47: Marcus Antonius
April 45-April 44: Marcus Lepidus
Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus (and eventually Gaius Octavius) were to follow Marcus
Lepidus but Caesar's assassination intervened
6. Caesar's major Battles and Campaigns during the Civil Wars
49: Spain Battle of Ilerda
48: Campaigns in Greece against Pompey and 'the Senate' Battle of Dyrrhacium
(lost to Pompey) Battle of Pharsalus (defeats PompLy)
47: Campaigns in Egypt and Zela
46: Campaigns in Africa Battle of Thapsus (April 46) Returns to Rome July 46,
departs late in the year for Spain
45: Campaigns in Spain against the sons of Pompey Battle of Munda (March 45).
Returns from Spain in October 45.
9
44: Plans Parthian Campaign; about to leave when he is assassinated
5. Caesar's Laws
c LAws
,__:::-::-=---
24
(NB Not all of these laws are passed by Caesar. He used others in different magistracies
to pass them and one has to estimate how much these 'assistants' were personally
involved.)
Lex Antonia de Proscriptorum Liberis 49 BC: giving thelright to stand for office back
to the sons of those proscribed by Sulla
Laws to restore exiles (especially those exiled through political trials of the late
fifties)
Law giving full citizenship to the inhabitants of Gallia Cisalpina (Northern Italy)
Law giving full citizenship to the inhabitants of Gades (Spain)
Lex Hirtia allowing confiscation of property belonging to the Pompeians
Law limiting 'Free' legations (official visits to provinces by Senators or their sons)
Lex Julia on Violence




@
Lex Julia on Maiestas
Law concerning the Collegia (restricting legal associations only to 'ancient and
traditional' ones
Laws solving the debt crisis
Reform of the Calendar
Lex Julia Municipalis (law regulating the administration of the Municipia and the
City)
6. Caesar and the City of Rome
Enlargement of the City: change to the POMERIUM
New City Administration: Census, new city administration, detailed laws
Forum of Julius 2 k>r:l r re.-S-{'_cJ.s
Building in the Campus Martius j
7. Caesar and the Roman Nobility
Caesar's use of slaves as 'bureaucrats'
The Treasury
The Mint
Caesar's New Magistrates: The Praefecti Urbis (Prefects of the City)
Enlargement of the Senate
Caesar and the 'One Day' Consulship of C. Caninius Rebilus
Inroads on the Consulship since 48
Enlargements of Junior Magistracies
Caesar and the 'Personalisation' of Roman Politics
8. Conclusions
Drive for efficiency
Introducing reforms through others due to absence
Disregard for Senatorial Order and its function in the Roman System
Displacement of Rome as a City State in its own right. It becomes 'the leading
Municipium in Italy'
25
The Politics of Assassination
A.
B
C D
Coins and Caesar's Dictatorship: A: Caesar, Diet. Ter (46 BC); B. Caesar, Diet. Quart.
(45-44 BC); C: Caesar, Diet. Perpet. (Feb. 44); M. Brutus IMP Eidibus Martiis (On the
Ides of March)
Sources for the Civil War
Caesar, Civil War, 1.7
He (Caesar) exl)orts them to defend from his enemies (inimici) the reputation and
dignitas of the imperator under whose leadership they have administered the republic
with good fortune, fought many successful battles and pacified the whole of Gaul and
Gennany. The men of the l3
1
h Legion ... exclaim that they are ready to avenge the
wrongs of the imerpator and the tribunes.
Caesar, Civil War, 1.22
Caesar interrupted (Lentulus Spinther's) speech: I did not leave my province with evil
intent but to defend myself from the slanders of my enemies (inimici) to restore to their
rightful position the triubnes of the plebs who have been expelled from the state on my
behalf and to reclaim for myself and the Roman People freedom (libertas) from the
domination of a small clique (jactio) .
"\
.)
26
Suetonius, The God julius, 30
Pompey's comment was that because Caesar had insufficient capital to carry out his
grandiose schemes or to give the people all that he had them to expect on his
return, he chose to create an atmosphere of political confusion.
Another view is that he dreaded having to account for the irregularities of his first
consulship during which he had disregarded the auspices and vetoes, and defied the
constitution; forM. Cato had often sworn to impeach him as soon as the legions were
disbanded. Moreover, people said at the time, frankly enough, that should Caesar return
from Gaul as a private citizen he would be tried in a court ringed around with armed men,
as Milo had been at Pompey's orders.
Cicero, Pro Ligario, 6.18
What purpose did your invincible army have except the preservation of its own rights and
your dignitas?
and the State: a Partisan View
LETTER 1.'57 (IX.9)
157 (IX.9)
DOLABELLA TO CICERO
Caesar's camp near Dyrrachium, May(?) 48
From Dolabella to Cicero greetings.
If you are well I am glad. I myself am well and so is our
Tullia. Terentia has been rather out of sorts, but I know for
cert11in that she has now recovered. Otherwise all your
domestic affairs are in excell ent
You did me an inj ustice if at any time you suspec.led that
in advising yo11 to throw in your lot wi th Caesar and wi th
me, or at least to ret! re into private life, r was thin ki ng o f
party interests rather than of yours. ll ut now, when the
are coming down on our side. r imagine that only
one tl1 ing can possibly be thought of me, namely, that 1 am
prvffering advice to you which it would be contrary to n y
duty as your son-in-law to withhold. On your side. my dear
Cicero. you must take what foll ows. whether It meets wi th
your approval or not, in the persuasion that I have thought
and written it out of the most sincere loyalty and devotion
to yourself.
You see Cn. Pompeius' situation. Neither the glory of
his name and past nor yet the kings and nations of whose
dependence he used so often to boast can protect him.
Even the door of an honourable retreat, which humble folk
fi nd open , is closed, to him. Driven out of .It aly. Spain losl.
his veteran army taken prisoner, he is now to crown all
blockaded in his camp, a humi liation which 1 fa ncy has
never previously befall en a Roman general. Do thereft re,
as a man of sense, consider what he can have to hope or
what gooJ you can do him: so you will fi nd i! easiest to take
the dcci.siou rnost e.'<-pedien r. ror you. One thing I beg of
121
you; if he does manage to escape from his present danger-
ous position and takes refuge with his Reet, consult your
own best interests and at long last be your own friend
rather than anybody else's. You have done enough for
obligation and friendship; you have done enough for your
party too and the form of commonwealth of which you
approved. It is time now to take our stand where the
commonwealth actually is rather than, by following after
its old image, to find ourselves in a political vacuum.
Therefore, my most delightful Cicero, if it turns out
that Pompey is driven from this area too and forced to seek
yet other regions of the earth, I hope you will retire to
Athens or to any peaceful community you please. If you
decide to do that, please write and tell me, so that ifl possi-
bly can I may hasten to your side. Any concessions that you
need from the Commander-in-Chief to safeguard your
dignity you will yourself obtain with the greatest ease from
so kindly a man as Caesar; but I believe that my petitions
will carry more than negligible weight with him.
I trust to your honour and kindness to see that the
courier I am sending you is able to return to me and brings
a letter from you.
. '
27
Caesar as Builder: The Julian Forum and Campus Martius
Curia Julia
Reconstruction
Curia Julia today
Coin from the Time of
Trajan showing the
rebuilt Temple of
Venus Genetrix
Reconstruction of the Julian Forum
VQWfD.If
WAS MAK[
A
ATEMI'U T0 ItER IN' ROME AS
OF V.ICTORY. ArPIAN
Campus Martius: Julian Buildings: Saepta; Ovile; Theatre
iAnJie p \C oJ per$S ,
rJ)).hf NLXf JcJ S
eN of? -t-k.9._
t j: uv reo 6e
Who Killed Julius Caesar?
28
( I A ntisti us Lubco
C.ic:.:ilius 8u..:ilianus (Pompci:lfll
C. (Pompe1anJ (C) Cassius :vi. lunius !PompeianJ
Dt:<.: . (Caes;lnan) Q. Ligarius !PompeianJ L. Minu<.:ius Basilus
Petroni us Ponuus Aquii<J (Pumpc:ian) Ruhrius Rug<1 tPompeianJ
P. Servilius Cas1::1 {Caesurian) C. Servilius C<1scJ !Caesarian)
Servius Sulpicius Galba (Caesarian) Sextius Naso (Pompeian) (M.J Spurius (Pompeian)
P. Turullius L. Tillius Cimber (Caesarian) C. Trebonius (Caesarian)
Why?
Plutarch Life of Brutus 8- t 0
At any rate there seems to be little doubt cl1at could easily
have become the first man in Rome, if he had had the patience to
scnre for a time as Caesar's depury and wait for his power to pass its
zenith and the glory of his achievements to fade. But it was Cassiw
with his violent tanper and his hatted of Caesar - which had its
roots in personal animosiry r:athc:r than in any disimc:rcsted aversion
to ryr.umy - who in&med Brutw's fedings and urged him on.
Brutus, ir is Vl:lS opposi:d to the dict.:itorship, hue Cassius hated
the dictator, and among other grievances which be brought up against
him was the nutter of the removal of the lions, which Cassius had
procured when ll.e Wai about to office as aedile. These animals
had been left :It and when the ciry was cprured by Glenus, *
Gcsar them for himsd They said to have brought
dis.aster to Megan, beause whc::n the ciry was on the point of being
opturr.:d, the Meg;u-ims broke open the cages :md unchained them,
hoping that they would attack the enemy as they entered the ciry.
But, of iliis, the lions rumed against the
md tore: them to pico:s as they ran to and fro in terror, so that even
thcir enemies were overcome with pity at the sight.
9. Some people luve made out dut Cassius's resentment at this aff:Ur
was his motive in the conspiracy, bur to say this
is a rravcsry of the Gas. From his very earliest Cassius was
inspired by :1. peculiar bi[[emess ;md :mi.mosiry towards the wl..ole
race of those who seek ro domim.te their fellows, and he
this even as :1 boy, when he co the same school as F:lustw, the
son of Sulh. When Faustus began to throw his weight about ;omong
the other boys and boast of his fuher's absolute power, Dssius
jumtlCd up and gave him a thr.uhing. F.lusrus's gwrdims :md reb-
rives wanted to uke the m:1ttc:r to Pompey rc:fwed to allow
this, brought the two boys together, and questioned them as to
what had h:!.ppc:ned. Thereupon Cassius said, so the story goes, 'Come
on then, Faustus, you can tell Pompey, if you dare, what you said
that J::IUdc me so angry, and I will !mock your teeth in again.',
Such was Cas.sius's chaucter. But in J3rurus's cse, it was not merely
the arguments of his per1on:1.l friends, bur a whole succession ofhints.
appc:1ls. and anonymous letters which urged him on. For example, an
inscription appeared on the starue of his :mccstor, th:H Junius Brutus
who lud overthrown the rule of the kings, which read, '0 th:Jt we
had you now, Brutus', and 'Would due Brutus were alive'. And the
cribun..,J upon which he as praetor began m be covered day
chy w1r.h writings which read, 'Brutus, arc you asleep?' or 'You arc
oo true Brutus' .. Many of these outburstS of popul:u- feeling were
brought about by the of Ca='s flatterers, who, :unong the
other invidious honours which they devised for him, went so far as
to have crowns placed on his srarues by night, in the hope chat the
people might be co S:lluce him as king of d.icucor.
But their dforu produced cxaetly the opposite effect co what w:u
intended, as I described in detail in my Lift of Cauar.*
ro. Now when Dssius sounded out his &iends about forming a
conspiacy they ,all agreed to joi;. him on conditwn
'RniH>< J,,.,...,.,,. rh,.;,.
Plutarch Life of Brutus 11
I I. There was a man ll:lmed Gaiw Ligan us, who had been denounced
as one ofPompcy's supporters but had beer been pardoned by Caesar.
Lig:1rius, so br &om feding nny gratitude for this :let of demcncy,
full of resentment at the power which b11d l?ut IUs Lift: in d.:mger:
he hated Gcsar 2nd W:I.S one of Brutus's closest &iends. Brutw nd
him sick om: cby when he ome ro visir him, and renurked, ob
Lignriw. what :1 time this il co uke to .your bed.' Lig2rius immedi-
arc.Jy raised himsc.Jf on to his elbow, grasped Brucw's hand, and
declared, 'No, .Brutus, if you need me for :my cause chat is worthy
of yourself, 1 ;uu well enough.'
Disappointment in Caesar
Cicero In Defence of Marcellus 23-25
It is for you and you only, Gaius Caesar, ro revive all you
see lying in ruins around you, inevitably shattered and over-
thro'Wll by the violent shock of war. Law courts have to be
reorganized, credit re-established, licentious passions cb.:cked,
rhc birthrate raised.
6
Everything that is now in a sratc of
disintegration and collapse needs to be knit together by
rigorous legislative It >31:as only w be expected char
a civil war of such dimc:mioru, 2eeomp:mied by such fi ious
feelings and formidable comb-an, would deprive our nation,
whichever side won, of many of its dements of greamess and
safeguards of stability. For the leaders of both p:IIt:ies alike
were bound to do things under :arms which they would not
have allowed in times of peace. All these are the war wounds
that you have to heal - and no one an heal them hut your-
self
That is why l was so distressed to bear your remark, sage
and splc:ndid though ic is, 'Whether for narore or for glory,
I have lived long c:oough.' Long enough perhaps for nature,
if you and even for glory, if you must have ir so: bur
cerr:iinly nor long enough for your counrry, and that is rhe
most i m.portanc point of aU! So let us hear nothing, of
char famous wisdom of the philosophers who calk slightingly
of do not, by being wise yourself, imperil us! Word
ofrc.n me that this observation about having had a long
enough life is too frequently on your tips.
7
I know you are
sincere, but I would only accept such a statement if it were for
yourself alone that you :uc: living and were born to live.
As it is, on the contrary. the welfare of evc:r:y Roman citizen
:1nd rhe whole state has become dependent on what you do.
And so far are you, to this day, from having completed your
greatest achievements that you have not even laid the
tions of all that needs to be planned.
P\ I
l-lfc c:f . Co...A.-so.r I sc-I
[57) Ncvatlldcss. du: Ro.m.m.s !PVC vny bcfoce his" !!'Cod
and the bit. The tulc of oru: = woqjd give than. d:tcy
tbousht. :a respite 6:o01 d:tc: miseries of the civil "tV:I.l'l. :and so d:u:y
::appoi.ncz:d him dic;caror for life:. This mont :m undisguised C}'ODJ1Y1
bi.s power 'I.T.tt now not only but pcrpecu.:d. Ga:ro I:I"1:ICic cb.c
first propog.ls in rhc scn.:w: for <Xlnfaring on him.lll.d.
:1:1 they wen:. it <Xluld be auincim:d due they were nor :Lfa:r :a.l.l coo
gtc.t for :1 nun. nw: a chen. in :dcirui of spirit of IX!mpc::Dricrtl :among
d:u:nudvcs. pnlposoi the mosc c:::s::a:"l.'':r;:mt :uidicio111 wirh the n:sulr
duc"d.u:v m:dc Uc:ar Ullpopuhr :md luft:ful co evc11 the l.c:asc
ally =ns the citi.=ns bc:ausc oi die quia: c::c:crd.in:ay
preu:utialllll.eSJ o tho tides clccrccd tor him. Hia c:nc:mics are choDgbt
to hllvc joined with his &uercn in. getting tbcsc mc::r.sarcs passed. 'l'hoy
wanted to have every possible co aa :agaiast him :mel to
appeu to b.:avc good rc:r.som on their lido whca !hey cmz.o to m:r.kc
:m attc.mpt upon his lif.c. And ccrcainly, in otha w.ays, once d:u:: civil
wan wen: over, no OllC IXIWcl chugc him with doing anything :uniss.
I ' edit is thought pct{ccdy right that the r;cmplc of Clemency w:r.s
o. ..::r.tcd :as :.i dwtk-offcring for his humane cnncluc:t :Uta IW viaory.
He b.ai only p:udow:d m:any of dtosc who h.:u.i fought against him.
bw: gave to some of du::m. hanoun :m.d ofli.c:es besides - to Bruuu,
for Wtanoe. :and to CassiUJ, both of whom w=c IIOW pr:u:I:Oa. IU
Pompey' smcucs r.oo, had bcca du:owu down, but Caesar would
oat col= this and had them put up It w:r.s on chis oa::asioa
du.c Cicero said that Caesar, in. seuiag up Pompey' a:r.nu:s. lnd
lirmly fixed :and c:stablisb.cd his own. And whm Cacs:r.r'a &i.c:od.s
:ulviscd bim to luvc :a bodygu.:r..cd., m:r.ay of them voltmtt:a'i:ng to
u:rvc ill ic tb.emsdva, Uc:s:r.r n:6ucd co h:ava :auything tJJ do with it.
29
c:an$'(':1mUa: him 30d to him down tD chc focu.m, :utd clW W:IS
when Ci.a:ro .rc:rn:z.dco:l: 'W c' d. berccr hu.n:y. or b.e y; U be ow: of
offio: bc:Corc W'C set du:n:.'
W:IS bom cc do grot dlinst :md ro = anucndy for
d.ia:Uu:rion. His uuny sucrrsrs so t&r fivm au:oungins lum co cc.t
:and co enjoy c:bt: liuic:s of :ill bD bboua. only JCrWd l'O !.indlc: i11 him
fresh for t:h.c iUNcc., filling IW mind wid:l projc:a::s of sUil
s=ua :u::ticnJ widt :l p:usion f'or :IS though b.c h:u:l.
nm chraush bis stoCk of chc old.. Hit best be cbcribcd by
Jayiag d:w: he: wu cnmpcling with himsdC dlousb. be '\vc:te somc-
ozu: dsc. :md. w:u =usgliag co nub: c:bt: LUtu:rcc:=cl du: lud
m:adc: his pbm :mel fi:lr :Ill c:pc:&tiaa the Pu-
cbi:ms: :.fa:r amqw::riz1s them he proposed to m:uch round cite Dbd::
S= by w:lf ofHyn:mia. chc Capiaa. Sc. :mel dac C:arnpn; be "mlul.d
thea. inv:adc ScydUa. .,.,uld cm:mm du:: c:cn.amics botd.crius oa
Gca:n=y =d. Gcrm.:my iad du:R..ruurn co Ic.ly b} w:ay
of Qwi. chua 1bc c:ixcuit ofbis c:mpirc wbic:h W"Ouf.d be
baandai aa Ada by lhl: oa::m. 'WWle d!is wu going
aa he propoted co dig :r. c::r.D2l thraap dzc ildumll of Coriadl.
l=d altccly put Auimm ia. o thA He :Wo
pblmed to dm::r:c the Tiber .i- below the city.= dc:p dn.and
wiUch '\'IOUid bend r:oaad cow.:arda Cim:ium cmne ow: inca dac
a: :r.c chat chac 'l."r''''1d be z sa&: :111d =sy
m.e:n::hmzmm co Rome. 'Ibm coo hc proposal CD dam the m:J..ahc:s
by Pommrium :md. Scm =d ac c:r=n: :r. pbm wbic:h could be aJ.Iri-
-ntt:d by m:my da.oasmds of mr:a. He :Wa immdcd ac build grcn
fm:akw:ta:a :dotag dae cmst what: cbc Je1 iii!Cl'Cit CD Rome. ac dar
3W2T :dl d:u:: obsauaioas which -m:n: :r. dmga: CD shipping u OA:i:r.,
md tn a:mscn:u:r lmbouu =d. nndPOds big caough fot' .du::
fL:ca which would lie at :mdwr- thczt::..
.All these 'W'Cn:: prajcca & rhc Gnurc. [,1 His n:"onn of the gj...
cucbr, hom:vc::r. aad cbc caaccl:ioas m:zdc: ill dae of
rcxXcning linu: WC"C aot oaly. smdial by han with c.bc gica:s:c
:ll:icnti6.c: sl:.iD. but wen: brnusftc inca dl"cct :uid c:n:rcmdy
llldUI. .. (a -n:ry :au:icDt 'lime-s dtc:rc &:.l bc:m gr'Cit amfwion ns
du: 1\omms wich tn tbe n:b.Dou of cbc: 1DRU co du: b.r T='"
wirh result = fi:ainb :sad cb.ys of saaific:c gr:u:lu:ally !;Ot our
lt w:r.s better, h.c said. to dio oua: tbm r:o be in li:ar of dc:ub. I
To sun:ound h.i.audf wil:h people's goodwill w:r.s. he: thought, tho I
best :and tho ll'1.U:St iCCUrity, :and so b.c sought me f:avour of .
th.c: people by giving them (cases :a.od alloW2DCCS of gnin. and gcui&:d
his by founding new colonies. the mo.u import:mt of wiW:h
were :u C:an:h:age and oJ: Cori.nlh. It _, happened dw: chc:sc cwo ciric:s
lud, in earlier d:ays. borh been captured oJ: the same cimc,u and uow
rhey were both restored :r.t the s:r.mc: time. of pUce :m.d Wully c:um: m be .u lhc Tt:rf
(.s8] He cf.cait with aobillcy by promising pr.actoab.ips and SC1SOtU CD w= inrc:ri&al. Nor wu lhc c:onfWiaa c:oa-
conrohh.ips in tlu: fU.run: ro some of them. ad by wiani.ng over ochea fiDai co the n:moa: puc. EYCD a& chis cimc most people were com
with v:ariow officz:s and honow:s.l7 All Wl:ftl c::ac:ai.I.DgCd to hope feu: pkcdy isnaaac on dK.: suhjc:cu: only de pcicstl knew
h;. '":avoqr, sirJa1 his gn:::at desire W:U 1D rule over cin.1r:. md Wcyu widzout smns m'f wouJd
_,ted his rule. Thw, when the coasul Muimw dicd,J
1
Caesar -- me a.lc:ncbc the incr:rcb.ry''m.omia knOwn 21 -
m-Ac C:m.iniw c:cusul foe du: one d:ay th:at rc.auincd of dl.o . ilii& w:u 6a:t puc iA by I:Uss Num:a who th.us
tcrm of office. M:r.ay people; i.e appc::r.n. wcm co me .Doo1:W cocu:ul to CD ti.ru1 m oinorisf.c:ofY u:mcJy lOr rbc:
of cbc c:ydcs. I lu.vc d=k m.tD ew
rubjc:a in m.y IJfo rf Cac=. bowc-ft:t. puc dx: bcfOm
ch.c: bo= sdlal:us mel cmr:Lcunricims of dx: d:ay :r.nd. ouc of tha
nrious rnalu:lds of I'.'Dl'rCCiion aln:ldy ia I* be fanned :a acw
01Cliwd uflW: own ahkh w:ss I.DGtC tbm :my oC cbc:m. I: is
chc: om: ui1i UKd by !he 1\om:ms. mel it IIICI:DU 'lhu th.c:y. bcacr dun
.Ul ad= people. h.:aw: :awaiclcd dac crroa :uTsiu; tiam cbc iocq=lity
cfsa: f:unu :aacf. _,W }QDo C1o"a1 chiJ g3we CD
tb.oJe looked u Cusu wUh qu mel rama:d hia po1"'CC.
Cccuin11 Occro, dac: or:u.oc. wbca som.c:oac due th.c:
coMdl.:arioa Lyn would rise n=r cby. a:m:atb:d: da It
lud bcc:n otd=:d cu do 10' - dl.&t C"fl:ft chc C'1SUl9 che
lOn !Omc:thitt!; dw people h:ul to u:ld.r:: c:omp<tlsion.
Page 30 l ((us
37- '"7
-x:x-xvii: t he W:'lr3, he: cdc: br:lted
five triurnpb:, four i.n n ai nslc mocth, but nt intcrw"Ab
o{ a fc: w d.cays, a ftc:.r vruu1uis!.ins Scipio ; u.nd '!HJ>thc:r
on defc:ntir.g Pompt:Y' s sons. Tiac fi rrt &ncl- most ::cr- Then turning hill attention to the reor ..
splendid ..,.G.S tlu: Gnll ic: triumph; the ne:rt t1tc .. tion of the he the ealenckr
Aleu.ndrian, tltc;o the Pontic, aft er that the Afria..c,l t.J:tc negligenC"C of the pontilfa had long shu: ue
r.nd 6D4lly tJ1e Spanish, differing from the l"'dt dmlrdcred, through their prinlege of adding
in its equipment and displAy of A.s he rode or dAy:s at pleuurc:, tluat the huYe:rt fc:stivul! did
the Y elaurum on the day of his G:lllic: come in aurnmc:r nor those of the vintAge in
triumph, t he :ulc of his uroke, Lind he. 'WJI.S .,IJ .,.autumn i 41.Dd he adjusted the year to the . S'"Q .e
uut tbro.,..n out; ..nd he mounted the C"Lpitol by hy m.a.ldag it eonsist of three hundred
toi"Chligbt, wittrforty clcph4nts l:unps on days, abolishing t,!:;t- month_
his right and . his left. In his Pontic triumph he ADd addmg- one: day f!:TU"J fourth ye:u. Furthe:-
displaycd amocg the show-pieces of the an mor:e, the eornct ieckoning of time might i
inscription .. of words, " [ c:une, I saw, I -begin "Wltb the next !Calends of Janu.uy, be inserted
1
1
conquered, not andaat1ng t11c events of the ..-ar, aa two months bearCC!l those of NoYeraher md
the others did, but the speed with which it w.u Dec:cmbc'r; henc:e the yar in "Which these az:aa.ge" _
6nislu:d. . mcn.t:s wc:rc: ma.cle -was one of fiftea months
XXXVIII. To c.:J.ch :md every foot-soldier of his .. .. .
veteran lesions be g-ave t\t"enty-fourthou52lldsesterccs nducling the which belonged to
by ,...y of booty, over and aboYc tJte t1"o that yc:u to the fonac:r:custom.
:tpiece which he bad Jl!oid them at the beginning of XLI. He li11cd th_e: r.a.c:andes in the senate, en-
the cirll strife. He .olso a.ssisned tltem lan.ds, bnt rolled add.itioual patric:wu,and inc:reued the aumber
of praetors, and quaestors, q well u of the
not by :side, to dispo-ssessing :my of minor otficials; he rdnst:ated th011c who had been
fonnc.r owners. To evcrj man of the people,bcsides - by otlicial action of the censors or four
t= Jtt:cks of gmin llXId the' aAJDe namiJc:r of pounds guilty. of bribcry by 1"cniic:t of the jura.:s. .n ...
of oil, he distributed the three handred sert.cn:es ahan:d. with the people Gil this b:uis:
\rhich he h:ui . promised at first, and one hundred that cue of the coa.sulsb.ip, the
:1 piece to boot..--bec:ul.se of the. delay- He Also .. ahouJd be appointed by the people's
n.:mitted"a year"rcntin Rome tO tenArlt:s ..-bo p:Ud rest hould be thole whom he had
two tholl.SIIJ'Id sesten:-cs or less., and in It:lly ap to lil'e e::;nalt;p: 'AOtllin:ated. And these he announeed in
hundred .sesu:rees.:. He &dded. A b:inquet and a dole '?'er the foiiOwiag, circulated tn each
of .aft.C1:-.his Spanish 'rictot')' t1ll'"O dinners ; tribe: C&csar the Dictator to thia or that tribe. 1 ,
for that . ..thc:::former of these bAd not been. coauncnd 70U ao aDd .,, to their positJo11.1 by I
sened a liberalitf-creiilblhle to liis g-eru:iosit:J', your .-ate&; He admitted to odiC"C eYeD the IODI of
he: ;p.vc: another on a most brish been He limited the i
.sc::alc. . . . . ngbt of serrms .. JW'Oft to two elassca, the: i
:XXXIX He pvc cntc.rbliameutl of diYcr:s kinds: :. and seu&toriaJ orden, disqaa.Wjinj the '
:. combat of gLLdiators,::md:.Dlso in every::.. c:l.ss. the.tribmles of the treasury.
"'"lnl .AU over dle clt.y_, pecformed too by actors of: . .. .He made the euamcr.atioo a( tbe people ndther
;all u ..,.ell--':Jltie.,. ia' the dral.s, athletic .. manner DOl' place, but lnJm street to
ronti!'Sts, and :1. sh:un .ln the' gl:uli:ltori21 : street aided b;r the O'Wilcrs of b&ock.s ol houses, and
contest in the Forum :Fari!,&S!'.Leptinus, A m.:1r1 ..of the n11.1Dba- of 'thole:who rceeived pin at
pmetori.:tn stOC'k, ll.l'l.d c;.tpenus; a former: . .. Jublie expense, from hundred aad twentv
so::n:ttor ple:ldcr t.hcbQr, fougbt to LiinisiL k::::..-: thousmd to oae hundn:d 'and &ay t.IUJuaad. .And
danc:c the: M!n.i a! tht: . tD pre..-aJt the c::alllag a!' additfoD&l snectinp "* -..n
1
print"es of &i.'"l :uzd the . .pl:ap . future: time for purposes of enroliD.cnt, be provided
l kchnu.s L:&berius, a Ro'lllll!''knight;ntcd a bn::c or tluat the plAces of u died 1hould be &lied aeh
his presented with year bJ the praeton (.rom those who wete not ,
Ike J.undrc.J thou.S."ltacLtesterc-o md a pd-riJir-t-- list. . .
passed from the wgc tk ardlest.ra and took Morco,.er. to keep up the cf
hi s pl-lc:c in the fourteen Fo-r the r::aces the the e&ty, depleted u it w-:as by the assignmcat of
... ircus .,.. . .u ien;-..J1enca cci .ud :l cm.UO: ,
w:..s dug :ali:WQut it; thczi ;roan' men of the hi1hcst d;:htr lhuu.o.;,,ml ,;tiZ..(!zUi tu ctlluni\O:: tlu:
r:tnk drove four-horse -.;and two-horse chariots and he au.,clc a hw- nu dtiZII.n ul.tc:r tla:.n tw..:utY ur
rode of horses, nulting fiv1D one to the other. \ "llllllt!'CT til."\ II r.tt-t\". whu W3lll nut let:l.iual
c::J.Ilcd Troy wu performed by two trOOps, of in \he "'",.11,1 II\: :da:s..."tJt from ltnlr i'<H" I1Mml
.' ' ' "
111
;:-cr :!.Hd of older bny.s. Comb::ats with wiW llc:uts-
prcsc:ntt-cl on lj\'C succc:s.thc cbn :l.lld bst of :1.11
"""5 ' IJ.."Lttlc: between orPosln&- amtics, in
" luch . lhc: hundrt.-d foot-sold zen, twenty cl..:ph:utts,
_,,J thtrty horseme-n eng:agcd on cd1 side. To m:ua:
ro "'"' t'ur this, the: were t.lken down :uuJ in thc.-ir
phcc c.:unps v.-en: pitcot:4 o\c:r "fPinst C3ch
t J, er. The: :1 til rctic competitions IJLSted for three d.:in
n .l tcm:""",...':' st:tdhm !Jt::!!t for t-!:e purpose in the
rc;on or the c. .. mpus .t-'or tJtc ll.:l\':Sl b."Lttle
' pool was dug- in the Codet.:a nnd there w;u ;ll
of ships of two, three, .1nd four IJ:anks of o.,n;,
to the T_nian :\nd F.s:rpti.ul fleets, mll.nnc.J
I.J: :. br_:.;-c of fightin:r men. Sut"h "' throng-
fiud.:o::-d to all thcs..: shO"-'S from every qu.,rter,
m::ny had to lod;;c in tents pitched in the
strc:et..; or :tlun; the ro.."Lds, ;md the press W;l$ often
such th=>t m=>ny were crushed to including
t \\"0 SCII:.J tors.
th:m tltn.-e'" i tlt.."lt no lllrnl
shuuld ;:o nlm::ul ou the <'0111P"tiot1 o( :\
or lll st!llf"; .:uul tl'-"t thus.: wl
:\ .. -u of :tltnuld :uuon;: .their
lu:nlsm1:11 ttt whu ""''-'"M.! men of Cf\:\:
birth. He cmaf\:rr\'d dtir.truhip on nil w-ho
111\.oUiduc: at Uuuu.. :uul un :dl t.::u:hcrs of the lib..:ml
nrts. tu m:tke tlh.'ffl tnun: cl._.,.j,..,u.-t nt' li\in_; !"
the :nul t :mlnn: u.tlt\.'"rs t" rt.,.l'"t it;-
of
\'II I. I prefer in this connection to my I
il!mtrat ions from foreign tory rnl her I han from;
uur own. Let me adtl, however, th;lt ns long the
1
e111pire of t he Romnn People mnintaincd itself by
nets of Nervice, not of oppression, wnrs were
iu the interest of our allies or to snfcguard >ur
supremacy; the e11tl of our warl; wns marker\ by nets
of clemency or by only a necessary degree of seve rity;
tl1e senate was :1 hnvcn of refuge for kings, triocs,
1111d nntions; and the highest ambition of our magis-
trntc.s nod 9cncr3Js WILS to defend OUT [lTOvinces nnd
:1llies with JUStice and honou r. And so our govem
ment could be called more nccurntcly 11: protech>rate
of the world thnn a dominion.
Tills pol"icy and practice we had begun gTndunlly .
to modi!) even before Sul\n.'s time; but since his 1
victory we have departed from it altogether. For 1
the time had gone by when any oppression of the
allies could appear wrong, seeing tho.t so
outrageous were committed agnino;t Roman citizens.
In Sul.ln's- c3Se, therefore, au unrighteous victory
disgraced n righteous cause. For when he hnd
planted his spear a o.nd was selling under the hammer
in the forum the property ,of men who were patriots
d men of wealth o.nd, at least, Roman citizens, he
d the effrontery to announce that " he was selling
---------- __ , __
his spoils." Affer him cnme one who, in an unholy
c::lllSC, made an even more shameful use of victory;
ror he did not stop at confiscating the property of
individunl eitb:ens, but nctunll y embraced whole
provio1ces and countries in one common ban of ruin.
And so, when for eign nations hnd beer:'
:ond ruined, we have seen a model of
in a triumphal procession, to ser\'e 35 proof to the
the of the people been i
:md that triumph we snw celebrated over a c1ty w1th
out whose help our generals have never gaine_d a
triumph for their wnrs beyond th7 Alps. I
mention mo.ny other outrages o.galllst our alhes, 1f
the su n hnd e\er beheld anything more info.mous
thnn t his particular one. Justly, therefoTe, are ;
we being punished. FQr if hod not o.llow:d the
crimes of many to go unpun.1.shed, !'0 gTeat
would never have centred in one individual. .H1s
estnte descended by inheritance to but a few indi-.
l'iduals, his ambitions to many scoundrels. And
never will the seed and occo.sion of civil war be
w:onting, so long o.s villo..i ns remember that blood-
F ed spear ond hope ta see. onoth.er. . As Pub \ius
S1.oua wielded that spenr, wl'len hiS k1nsman was
dictator, so again thirty-six years later he not
from a still more criminal spear. And stdlan-
other Sul\a, who \Vas a mere clerk under the fanner
dictatorship, was under the later one a city quaestor.
From this, one \vould realize that, if such rewards are I
offered, civil wars will never cease to be.
And so in Rome only th-; walls of her houses remain
sfanding-Md even they wait now in fear of the I
most unspenknble crimes-but our republic we have
lost for ever.' -
44- s c... De..- o en c..\ ; s 3 "3 - tt
Page Jl
... ;..f ll'hen ptlople disrezanl clcryt hi ng
' d ' f nl they fll 'lY
th::Jt is OlOI'ally right (\11 t.r ue, ' o y . i
Jl e ower thereby, are they not pII'Slllng t.lt!
SeCUf [l h d h h d tO hn\'C J.S :1 fntherln- ,)1 PoOli''l'
snme course as c "
0
WIS e
lhc mnn by whose he might gniJl
(1' If? He thouaht It ndvn.nto.geous to
power .ower while"' the odium of it fc11
ph . . Pd he fnilell to see how unjust to
upon an at er' nn 11 J3ut 11 ''"""'
t l
, and how wrona mora v. '
his country liS wus "' 11
the fo.ther-in-l nw himself used to hn\ e cont! n.un y
I
. . I' the Greek \' CI"Ses flom the
upon 11s 1ps I k\vllnllv
which I will reproduce as well ns co. n-:.a" ( '
. be bu still so that the meumng cnn le
1t mny ,
understood :
" If 1\'TOng mny e 'c.r be right, for a t hrone's sake
Were wronp- most l'ight :-be Uod in all else
feared! '
0
Our tyrant deserved his for hoving made an
exception of the one thing thnt wns the blackest
crime of nll. 'Why do we gather instances of petty
crirue-legncies crimiMlly obtained and frnudulcnt
buying and selling? Behold, here you have n
who was ambitious to be king of the Roman People
and master of the whole world; and he ac hieved it!
The man who mnint.ains that such nn ambition is s ..., to
morally right is n mndnum; for he justifies the de- tll!oo<by "'"rl
struction of and liberty and thinks their hideous :;;:J;:,t
and detestable suppression glorious. But if anyone
. agrees that it is not morally fight to be kind in a
, state that once was free and that ought to be free
j
now, and yet imasines t hat it is advantageous tor
. him who can reocli that position, with what remon-
/ strnnce or rather with what appeal should r try to
1 tear him awny from so strange a delusio11? For, oh
I ye immol'tal gods! c.an the most horrible and hideous
I
of nil murders-that of fatherland- bring acl\'nntnge
to anybody, even though he who has committed
I
such a crime receives from his enslaved fellow-
citizens the title of " Father of his Country "? 6 ldenm
1
ar
Expediency, therefore . must be measured by the


stn.ndaru of moral rectitude, nnd in such a way, too,
thnt these t wo words shall seem in sound only to be
wf!":_:ent but in meaning t.o be and the same.
Szcoll\ct Pl:"d /f?p\c. (aJJteSS<"d +-o
ll s-Ub .
life is it, day nod night to iir-ead \our
unless Indeed you have men bound to you by !!Teate;
favours Caesar had I some of those by whom
be wns elmn, or yourseJf are in any respect to I.Je
compared ftJa him. In him there w
45
genius
ealculat.ion, memory, letters, industrr, thought:
diligence i he lmd none in wo.r thi ;: \'ever
cnlnmitous to the St:tte, yet at least .aaving
lor mnny yenrs aimed at a t hrone, he hnd by grent
l:!.l.tour, gre4t dangers, achieved his object; by
shows, buildings, largesses, I.Jnnrtuets he had con-
ciliated the ignornat crowd ; his own followers he
hnd bound to him uy rewards, his :adversaries by a
sl1ow of clemency: in IJrief, be hlld nlrc.;tdy brought
to a free community-partly by rel1r, partly by
enduro.nce-a hni.JJt of servitude.
XL VI. With him I can compare you in lust of
domination, but in other tbings you :.are in no wise
compnr:.aule. But out Qf very mo.ny evils which he has
inflicted on tiJe Commonlrenlth, there has emerged this
tnuch good: the Rom:m people has now ho,y
much to tn1st each man, on whom to rely, of whom
to Think you not of these things? an d do
you not underst.and that it is enough for brnve men
to hnve learned bow beautiful in :act, how grateful
in I.Jcncfit, how glorious in report, it is t.o slny a.
tyrant? Or will men, when they did not endure
him, endure you l In tlvo.lry herenfter, believe me,
lhc.y wilj hurry to do this worlc, and no slow-coming
opeortunity wil!_ for.
I
i.---
\
.,
\ NEARER
\ SPAIN
\
I
\
.,
j.c!da ...
j_AFRICA !

1\
\ .
. /
'-
I THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 44 B.C. I
I 0 victories by Caew-ln
Oefe11t 11nd de11th of Crassus
53 B.C.
- - -"'. " Curhao
\
\

to
CJQ
(\)

N
(.&.,c..r,'<>...._ 'b L 's.


IIJ II I!, f! t ,U I
o,.
/1(). \ History
(
1
\ Exemplary Sample
o+h v \)Gt'tlfl Question 24
\
-C..... . ._:) \
ltAIO tr SHillS
fill W I Ill' t 1111 iiJ' L II
2006 SC -Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
.k he __,IAMM c
i VUfAC'k-=(JLl M
lUll tr ITDtlll
IIUtl .1\11
2006 SC -Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
'
C Ancient History 2006 s -
Exemplary Sample

AAA- I Ill I uu Jf ,r.-or...,.- _ J
01 . '

ll.lll tr lfUIIII
2006 SC Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
~ P v . ?
IIW IHI o Ill
ltll .t . , ~ , tlCI
~
2006 SC -Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
\
t

-
6 a.kou:+
fJVU)
-
t '


\)
'ctVt

lllU U JUJJII
2006 SC -Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
'
k:s OVv: dt.,.. vv/>v=nM
A
ltAll tr !Utili
JlttM ~ s
2006 SC -Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
BIHIIt JTtlliJ
111 tOirlt ,.,_ .. IJ
2006 SC Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
IUU lr l'flltlll
2006 SC Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
~
IIAIIIf JJDJIII
............. ,
~ .
2006 SC Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
..... "ltullll
WIW ltU1tl ft.li
2006 SC -Ancient History
Exemplary Sample
Question 24
~
I
.
GAlUS JULIUS CAESAR (100-44 B.C.)
1. Early Life 100-60 B.C.
2. First Triumvirate and Caesar's Cons ulship 59 B.C.
3. Renewal of First Triumvirate. LUCA 56 B.C.
4. Pompey's Break with Caesar. 50 B.C.
5. Caesar's Work in Gaul. 59-49 B.C.
6. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. 49 B.C.
7. Caesar defeats Pompey DYRRACHIUM and PHARSALUS 48 B. C.
8. Caesar in Egypt 48 B.C.
9. Caesar in Asia Minor 47 B.C.
10. Caesar in Africa 46 B.C.
11. Caesar in Spain 45 B.C.
12. Caesar's Death 44 B.C.
13. Caesar's Powers.
14. Caesar's Reforms at Rome 49-44 B.C.
15. Caesar's Calendar 46 B.C.
EARLY LIFE. ioo-
60
iOC
1
(1) Born into the Marian Party - Quaestor in Spain 69 B. C.
(2) Caesar first rose to power in Catiline Conspiracy. Supported
Cat. clandestinely. "A rising pat rician who repea t edl y
persuaded the wealthy Crassus co pay his debts in ret ur n
for political support". Attemp t ed to wi n aut hor i t y to
intervene in the affairs of Egypt . A bill pr oposed by t he
Tribunes of 64 B. C. was uns uccessful .
(3) Caes ar el ec t ed as PONTI FEX MAXIMUS 63 B.C. Caesar and
Labienus prosecuted C. Rabiri .us for joining in the rising
of 100 B.C. agains t Satur ni nus.
( 4) Caesar Praetor in 62 B.C. Supported Metellus Nepos who
proposed a bill i nvi t i ng Pompey to restore order in Italy
agai.ns t Catil i:J.!L Sen-!lte Caesar and Nepos from
thei r official f unct i ons .
( 5) Caes ar given command i. n Spai n 61 B.C. Proved an able tactician .
Desi r ed a t r i umph and a cons ulate. Caesar and Bibulus
consuls 60 B.C.
FIRST TRIUMVIRATE AND CAESAR'S CONSULSHIP . .,:_)f>(.,
(6) December 60 Caesar reconciled with Pompey and Crassus. First
Triumvirate. Caesar the youngest, less respected. Pompey
had greater political influence. Common enemy in LUCULLAN
PARTY in the Setl,ate.
(7) BIBULUS violently disagreed with Caesar over a bill to
provide land for Pompey's veterans in ITALY. Bibulus shut
himself in his house to avoid violence of Caesar's followers.
cave warnings of unfavourable omens . As a result, all of
Caesar's acts in 59 cl aimed to be invalid. Agrarian Law
passed. AGER CAMPANUS ET STELLUS to be made over to veterans.
Commission of twenty members to i mplement Agrarian Reforms .
All candi dat es for office required t o swear to observe them.
Many peasant s de pri ved of land. Caesar' s laws i n gener al
benefi t ed t he i mpover i shed in Italy.
(8) Caes ar remi rted one- thi rd of the debts of a Publ i cani Company
in difficult ies i n Asia. Clodius adopt ed as Plebeian.
Clodius elected Tribune 58. Clodius a friend of CRASSUS.
(9) Caesar granted CISALPINE GAUL and ILLYRICUM as provi nces unt il
March, 54. A five year command. Also given TRANSALPINE
GAUL - Porn's. request .
(10) Caesar carried a law on EXTORTION permitting the Extortion
Court to inflict a Capital penalty.
(11) Disclosures of VETTIUS. Confessed to a plot to kill POMPEY.
Bibulus and enemies of Triumvirs implicated. Vettius
poisoned by order of C.
(12) Caesar mar r i ed daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso, consul 58.
13) Pompey mar r i ed Caesar 's daughter JULIA.
(14) Pr aetors of the following year, 58, questioned the legality
of Caesar' s acts. C. MEMMIUS and L. DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS.
Caesar departed for governorship of Gaul.
I .
- - .. ... . ..... . -r .. , ... ., .. .-..... .. ..-.-..... . - .. --. _ _. . . .....,. . _, ... .. .... .. -- -......... ,., ..
RENEWAL OF FIRST TRiffi\VIRAH AT LL:o, .
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
Caesar in Gaul 58-57 B.C.
(a) Caesar in 58 overcame the Helvetii. Stopped their
migration to Gaul.
(b) Campaigned successfully against
(c) Defeated the Belgae 57 - most formidable of the Gallic
tribes.
(d) Caesar in Illyricum 57.
(e) Rebellion in N.W. Gaul . Ahenobarbus candidate for
consul 55 . Said he would have Caesar deposed from
hi s command. Campanian Law under attack by Ci cero-
Pompey and Crassus reconciled by Caesar at LUCA -
Pompey and Crassus consuls 56. Excluded Ahenobarbus.
Caesar's conunand in Gaul extended to !'\arch, 49. Spa in
granted to Pom. SYRIA to Crassus by LEX TREBONIA.
Death of Julia 54. Tie between POMPEY and CAESAR broken.
When Caesar resigned on being elected consul 48, the year
after he resigned command in Gaul, he would be liable to
prosecution for his acts in 59, and his illegal resistance
to Bibulus. His enemies , i.e. Cato, threatened to do this .
Caesar concentrated on being elected cons ul 48, the year
he r esigned command in Gaul. Caesar to be allowed to retain
his imperium till 49. Supported by the Ten Tribunes -
Candidates for office in Rome must be present to offer
candidature - Caesar from this r ul e - Allmed to
stand in his absence.
(20) Discussion in the Senate on Caesar's command in 51 by
M. MARCELLUS, the CONSUL. Pompey persuaded the Senate to
delay discussion till SO.
POMPEY
1
S BREAK WITH CAESAR. f;O.OC,
(21) Open hostility of Pompey for Caesar SO. Caesar wished to
raise his political prestige by competing with Pompey
even if it meant CIVIL WAR.
(ZZ) Legion Pompey had lent Caesar now recalled to deft:!nd SYRIA.
TWO legions from Caesar's command now kept in ITALY.
(23) ANTONIUS electe.d Tribune 49. He v. .. c:..:;
and his election resulted from Caesar's influence.
(24) Caesar ordered by the Senate to give up his army in 49.


SENATUS ULTIMUM CONSULTUM passed when M. Antonius and 41
Q. Cassius vetoed the law. Tribunes fled to Caesar for
\
protection. Caesar invaded Italy to protect the rights
of the SACROSANCT TRIBUNES.
(LS) Pompey raised ten legions in Italy - only two trained
legions and they had been on service with Caesar.
CAESAR
1
S WORK IN GAUL . ( -(rat'\ Cl') 59-49t3G
(26) Revolt
(a)
(b)
and conquest in Gaul.
56 B.C. Caesar suppressed revolt in Gaul.
55 B.C. Caesar defeated two German tribes, the
USIPETES and TENCTERI. He pursued them across the
RHINE.
(c) Campaign in BRITAIN 55.
(d) Second Campaign in BRITAIN 54.
(e) Revolt in GAUL 54-53.
(f) VERCINGETORIX led Revolt in GAUL 52. Defeated by
Caesar -most serious revolt.
(g) GAUL pacified by 51.
CAESAR CROSSES THE RUBICON 49 e,G
(27) T. LABIENUS deserted Caesar for Pompey. Caesar crosses the
Rubicon. Pompey, the consuls and many Senators left Rome.
Pompey retired to the EAST from BRUNDISIUM. Pursued by
Caesar. Pompey sailed to DYRRACHIUM, March, 49. Caesar
seized money in treasury at Rome. Pompey had seven trained
legions in Spain.

(28) Caesar besieged MASSILIA. Defeated two of Pompey's
lieutenants in Spain - Afranius and Petreius in Nearer Spain,
Caesar overcame VARRO in Further Spain.
Massilia surrendered.
(29) Caesar nominated DICTATOR by the Praetor M. LEPIDUS. Caesar
chosen consul 49. Laid down Dictatorship. Caesar seized
Sardinia and Sicily, but not able to control Africa.
Q. Metellus Scipio held two legions for Pompey in SYRIA.
CAESAR DEFEATS POMPEY. DYRRACHIUM And PHARSALUS. 4C06C
(30) Caesar crosses to GREECE. Defeated by Pompey at DYRRACHIUM.
Caesar defeats Pompey at PHARSALUS. After Pharsalus many
of Pompey's followers, including M. Brutus and Cicero
yielded to Caesar.
CAESAR IN EGYPT.
(31) Caesar in Egypt 48-47. Revolt of ALEXANDRIA. Caesar
blockaded. MITHRADATES of Pergamum brought reinforcements
to Caesar. Caesar defeated the Alexandrians. PTOLEMY XII
killed. Egypt given by Caesar to his brother Ptolemy XIII
and Cleopatra.
CAESAR IN ASIA MINOR. 4T E>(,
(32) Caesar went to Asia Minor to deal with revolt - PHARNACES,
son of MITHRADATES of Pontus reconquered Pontus while
Pompey was at Dyrrachium. Pharnaces defeated Cn. Domitius
Salvinius Caesar's Lieutenant.
(33) In August, 47, Caesar defeated Pharnaces at ZELA. Pontus was
regained for Rome. Mithradates of Pergamum made king of
CRIMES by Caesar. Actually, Crimea still controlled by
ASANDER, minister of Pharnaces.
CAESA.!-;. IN AFRICA, 46 B.C. 4-
(34) Caesar in Rome 47. Sailed to Africa to defeat Pompeians.
Afranius, Petreius, Labienus and Q. Metellus Scipio in
command in Africa. King Juba of NUMIDIA quarrelled with
Scipio. Caesar heavily defeated the Pompeians at
THAPSUS. Labienus and two of Pompey's sons escaped to SPAIN.
(35) Caesar remained in Rome, July, 46. Celebrated four triumphs
over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa.
CAESAR IN SPAIN, 45 B.C.
(36) Caesar then defeated Gnaeus Pompeius at CORDUBA (MUNDA).
Triumph held in Rome over Spain. Sextus Pompeius continued
guerrilla warfare in Spain after Caesar's death.
Annexation of NUMIDIA as province of AFRICA NOVA.
CAESAR'S DEATH. -44\30
(37) The Conspirators and Caesar's Death.
C. Cassius (an old Pompeian), Praetor in 44 B.C.
D. Brutus with Caesar in Gaul.
M. Brutus fought at Pharsalus with Pompey. Praetor
Urbanus 44 B.C.
Death of Caesar March 15, 44 B.C. (The Ides of March).
CAESAR'S POWERS.
(38) Consul 48, 46, 45, 44.
Dictatorshl.p valuable for its ereater power to control other
magistracies. T..aid down dictatorship 49.
Made Dictator 48 B.C. Tribunician Power for life 48.
After Thapsus made Dictator for ten years (47 B.C.). Named
half t he magistrates, people chose the other half.
Appointed magistrates and provincial governors for several
I
I
/
)
. .. .. .... --... .. .. - --- ...... - ........ .. .. .
'' " ' .. ;:.._., , .,._, .... ... .
years in 44 to prepare for Parthian Campaign. Allowed two
of his legates a triumph in 45 B.C.
In 45 given title of IMPERATOR permanently and the right to
sit on a gold seat in the Senate. Set up a statue in the
Temple of Quirinus "To the Invincible God" .
44 B.C. M. Antonius offered him a crown, but he refused it.
CAESAR'S REFORMS AT ROME.
(39) (a) Many exiles
(b) Children of
office.
4Q--Lf4 {)0 (,tC1J
rltct"t\ o
recalled . VI \1\ + t l c{ ftJ\-kA-
those prosc ribed by Sulla allowed to hold
(c) Payment of house rents in Italy abolished for one year 47.
(d) Moneys paid in interest on debts to be subtracted from
amounts due to debtors.
(e) Raised number of Praetors to TEN.
(f) Added one member to each of the priestly colleges.
(g) Allowed to create new Patricians, viz. - C. Rabonius who
married Caesar's niece, father of Gaius Octavius
(Augustus).
(h) Modified membership of the Senate. Senate enlarged to
600. Places of senators who had died or had been
killed were filled, e.g., Sallust made a Senator.
Rewarded followers of Caesar. Some Cisalpine Gauls
in Senate. Senate now dominated by Caesar's men.
Many Italians in Senate.
(i) Disbanding of Caesar's veterans. Newer colleges, secret
societies disbanded. Ancient colleges, burial cults
continued.
(j) Those condemned by the courts trying violence and treason
to lose half of their property and if condemn2d as
Parricidae, all of it.
(k) TRIBUNI AERARII excluded from juries - motive uncertain.
(1) Reduced recipients of public corn from 320,000 to
150,000. New beneficiaries i ncluded only when others
died . Aimed t o reduce number of city mob.
(m) Public works encouraged to provide work for the
unemployed - Basilica Julia, Forum Julium.
(n) Land distribution revived. Used land outside as well
as in Italy. Interests of existing tenants respected.
Veterans and the mob to receive land.
(o) Founded colonies - Carthage, Corinth, Sinope, Cirta.
Also in Southern Spain and Narbonese Gaul.
(p) Colonies founded in Spain at Arelate, Hispalus and
Corduba.
(q) Law passed requiring owners of large grazing estates
to employ free men as at least one-third of herdsmen.
Capitalists had to invest fortunes above a certain
sum in land.
(r) Roman citizens of military age forbidden to reside outside
Italy for more than three years in succession. Sons
of Senators forbi dden to leave Italy except on mil'tary
service or as staffs of provincial governors.
Senatorial class must be trained f or government .
(s) Communities of CISALPINE GAUL largely Romanized .
(t) Law regulating quali fica tions f or office and membership
of local Sena tes or the Municipia. Sicilian
communities received Latin rights.
(u) Regularised tenure of Provincial Commands. Each consul
to hold a province TWO years after his year of office
at Rome. Each Praetor to hold a province TWO years
after his year of office at Rome.
CALENDAR REFORMS . 4-0BCJ d.UY'.Vllj ,;(\c7\?la:rof f0\1\.Je(
Extra month inserted after February 23rd in every other year - A
355 day year prior to Caesar
By 46 B.C. Calendar Year diverged 90 days from Solar Year.
Sosigenes, a Mathematician, calculated the length of the Solar Year
in 46, and added two months and ten days between November and
.
:'
.. _ - -"- .. ':-' r>'r,:.,. , .r:- ... :. ..... ,.... ;, . ....... . . .
December.
Each year to have 365 days, extra day to be added every fourth
year, at the end of February.
G.
A.
I.
Julian Calendar lasted to 1582 when minor changes were made by
Pope Gregory XIII.
Spring festivals before Caesar often fell in the middle of winter.
Preserved patriotic and traditional feeling to the State
Religion by calendar reform.
-------
Gallic Campaigns.
Greek Campaigns - Pharsalus, Dyrrachium.
African Campaigns.
Ariovistus.
Agrarian Reforms.
Italians gain citizenship.
U. Union with Pompey and Crassus.
S. Spain as Quaestor.
J .
Spanish Campaigns (TWO).
Julia married Pompey.
July month.
Jury reform.
Juba, King of Numidia.
U. Usipetes defeated in Germany.
L. Labienus, Lieutenant in Gaul. Deserted to Pompey.
I. Imperator (TITLE).
V. in Gaul.
S. Tribunes defended he croEsed Rubicon.
C. Cons us hi p 59 wi.tn Bibul us . (Other cons ulships ).
Cl eopa t ra . (v\1\iS+
1
vV\ot\,\Qv' '4 t'll<>jlf-PVI.l&Lh.,. Sov-..)
Calendar r eform.
Colonies founded.
Clodius his friend.
Calpurnia his wife.
A. Asia - Conquered Pharnaces .
E. Egyptian visit.
S. Senatorial Reform.
A. Antony his Lieutenant.
R. Religious Reforms. .
Rubicon crossed. r -flp.,,t cl It i5 C 0\ ..__,..'
I

;::J
'
XVII
THE ROAD TO
THE RUBICON
'Then, catching up with his cohorts at the river Rubicon, the point
at which his province ended, he paused for a moment, and
understanding what a huge thing he was planning, he turned and
spoke to the men with him. "Even now we could turn back; but
once we cross that tiny bridge, then everything will depend on
armed force.'" - Suetonius, late first century AD.
1
1\ll this has made him [Caesar] so powerful, that the only hope
of standing up to him rests on one citizen [Pompey]. I really wish
that the latter had not given him so much power in the first place,
rather than waiting till he was strong before fighting him.' - Cicero,
9 December 50 BC. 2
Gaul had provided Caesar with glory and wealth. By 50 BC there
was no serious fighting and there was every indication that the series
of devastating defeats inflicted on each rebellion had combined with
the careful diplomatic efforts of the proconsul to create a stable new
province for the Republic. The willingness of the vast majority of
the tribal leaders to .accept Roman rule was not just a question of
personal loyalty to Caesar. His murder six years later did not provoke
fresh outbreaks of unrest in Gaul. Like any other successful Roman
commander he had reaped great personal benefits from his
victories, but this should not obscure the gains his conquests had
brought to Rome. Formally, the Republic now had a new source of
revenue, although this had to balanced against the costs of
434
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
garrisoning the province. Transalpine Gaul and the important land
routes to Spain were secured, while Italy itself was now much better
shielded from invasion by northern tribes following in the footsteps
of the Cimbri and Teutones. There was no imminent threat to Italy
from this direction, and such strategic concerns were not foremost
in Caesar's mind when he initiated his campaigns. Yet they were
no less real for all that and it was undeniable that in this respect
the conquest of Gaul was beneficial to Rome. However, throughout
history expansion has tended to benefit individuals far more than
states, and this was certainly true of Roman imperialism. Trade with
Gaul was important before Caesar's arrival, but his campaigns
helped to open up new markets- for instance in Britain-to Roman
merchants and allowed them to operate in verv favourable
conditions in the new province of Gaul. Fortunes were made even
more rapidly by Caesar's senior officers and staff, who shared in
his generous distributions of plunder and s l a v e s ~ was also not
one to hoard his own new-found wealth, but spent lavishly on his
building projects and planned entertainments, and at a more
personal level offered interest-free loans or even gifts of monev to
men he wished to cultivate. Many Romans who had never been
anywhere near Gaul gained from its conquest.
There were benefits to the Republic. - and even more to
individuals - from the victories in Gaul, but all were dwarfed by
the immediate and irrevocable change these brought to Caesar's
personal fortune and status. By 50 BC he was wealthier. had a .wore
extensive network of friends and clients. and could boasr of grearer
and more glorious achievements than any other senator exg;pr for
Pompe}: For several years he had made it clear that he intended to
seek a second consulship on his return to Rome. His eleqoral success
was .virtually guaranteed, for he had always been popular with the
voters and now had even more money with. which to court their
favour. Long established law, restated by Sulla during his
dictatorship, decreed that a ten-year interval should elapse between
consulships. This had been set aside in Pompey's case in 52 BC jug
one ;;f many unorthodox steps in his career, but the law remaineQ
in force and Caesar had no desire or need for preferential
435
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
treatment in this respect. He planned to put his name forward as
a candidate for election in the autumn of 49 BC, to assume the
consulship in January 48 BC, ten years after he had laid down the
office at the end of his first term as consul. The controversies of
that year still dog&ed him, and Caesar knew that he would be
prosecuted as soon as he became a private citizen. For that reason
he wished to go straight from his proconsular command into the
second consulship. The law put forward by all ten tribunes of 52 BC
-admittedly in at least one case after some initial reluctance- had
granted him permission to become a candidate without actually
entering the city in the normal way. Pompey and Crassus had done
the same thing in 71 BC, waiting with their armies outside Rome
and only crossing the formal boundary of the city when they actually
assumed the consulship. Once he had become consul- ideally with
a sympathetic colleague, perhaps even one of his own former legates
such as Labienus - Caesar would be in a posicion to present new
le slation rewardin his veteran soldiers wirhJand and collfu.ming
his settlement of Gaul. Other bills could have been tailored to ad
to his popularity with various sections of society. Back in the heart
of public life, he would have had a year in wruch either to win over
his polirical enemies or, at the very least, make lll.mself so strong
that they would not risk attacking him in the courts. We do not know
what he planned after that, and it is more rban possible that he had
no clear idea himself at this stage and intended to await events. A
fresh provincial command would have been one option, perhaps
against the Parthians to avenge the stain of Crassus' disastrous defeat
at Carrhae. Alternatively, he may have hoped for some appointment
similar to Pompey's, allowing him ro hold imperium and control
legions while hovering jusr outside Rome.
3
In the evenr, nothing worked out as Caesar had planned. Instead
of corning back home to a second consulship, a Gallic triumph,
games honouring his daughter and general acknowledgement as
Pompey's equal as the two foremost men in the Republic, he returned
as a rebel. His opponents held very different ideas about the manner
in which he should return, and so increasingly did Pompey. There
were attempts at negotiation, many offers of compromise, bur in
436
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
the end it proved impossible to find a settlement that all were willing
and able to accept. Stubbornness, pride and suspicion on all sides,
as well as deep personal enmities in a few cases, all contributed to
this impasse. So did misplaced optimism, leading to the belief that
opponents would back down. Some had seen the possibility of civil
war for more than a year before it actually broke out, but very few
of the key participants actually wanted it. Most, including Caesar
and Pompey, were gradually and reluctantly drawn into a situation
in which they decided that they no longer had any other acceptable
alternative. It would be very hard to say when war finally became
inevitable. The Civil War was not fought over great issues or between
conflicting ideologies, but was about personal, position and
dignitas- most of all that of Caesar. In later years, especially for
men llving under the rule of Rome's emperors, some were inclined
to see Caesar as aiming at revolution and monarchy from his early
youth. No contemporary evidence supports such claims, while his
actions certainly give no hint of such plans. A peaceful return to
rake up a pre-eminent position within the Republic, his prestige,
influence and auctoritas acknowledged by all other senators, even
those who disliked him, was what Caesar craved. Having to resort
to armed force to protect his position was a sign of political failure,
for Pompey as much as for
THE BREAKDOWN OF AN ALLIANCE
The pressure on Caesar had built up gradually. When Cato had
condemned his actions against the Usiperes and Tencteri in 55 BC,
there had been no realistic prospect that the Senate would act upon
his proposal and actually hand the proconsul over to the Germans.
The triumvirate had been renewed at Luca and between thqn
Pompey, Crass us and Caesar- espeaally the first two because they
were actually in Rome - were too strong to oppose. Domitius
could only be denied the consulship for a year, but
his ambition to replace Caesar in the Gallk"comrnand was blocked
without too much difficulty. The death of Julia the bond
437
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP, 49-44 BC
between Caesar and Pompe That of Crassus fundamentally shifted
the balance of Roman public life, since so many leading men had
been under obligation to him for past loans or favours. His surviving
son Marcus was neither old enough nor able enough to step into
his father's shoes at the centre of this network of clients and political
friends. Some of these men now attached themselves to Pompey-and
some to Caesar, but the bonds could not instantly become as
as the ones to Crassus, wbo had devoted much effort over many years
to expanding his political capital as much as his financial wealth.
Many of the strongest crirics of Caesar had also in the past been
hostile to Pompe& which made his appointment as sole consul ip
52 BC on the motion of Bibulus backed by Caro all the more striking.
Cato did srress his continued personal independence, bluntly telling
Pompey that he would advise him for the good of the Republic but
that this did not imply any personal friendship between them. This
no doubt contributed to his failure to gain the consulship.
However, for the moment at least, Pompey, through his new marriage
and willingness ro resrore order to the State, had become more
acceptable to many of the leading men in the Senate. These liked
to be known as the 'good men' (boni) - or sometimes the 'best'
(optimates)- and came predominantly from very well-established
families. In 52 BC they willingly supported Pompey as a means of
dealing with the violence that was disrupring public life, especially
since, apart from Milo, virtually all the casualties from the rrials
in the new court were partisans of Clodius. Cato had even said that
Milo ought to be acquitted as one who had deserved well of the
Republic for disposing of his dangerous rivaJ.S
In 51 BC Marcus Claudius Marcellus was consul and began a
concerted arrack on Caesar, who was his personal enemy. The
ultimate source of this hostility is obscure, rhoush: a factor
was doubtless the resentment of the virmalmonopoly of grand and
important commands held by the triumvirate. Under normal
circumstances, such opportunities for serving the Republic and
winning glory ought to have gone to men from the great aristocratic
families - men like Marcellus himself, his brother and cousin.
P.ompey was too srrong to attack at present, bur Caes'H appeared
438
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
to be vulnerable. Marcellus openly declared his intention of having
Caesar recalled from his command, that his great victory
over Vetcingetorix, which the Republic had marked with a public
thanksgiving, showed that the war in Gaul was now over. This
justification was necessary, since in 55 BC Crassus' and Pompey's
law had granted Caesar a new five-year command in Gaul. Marcellus
also argued that Pompey's more recent law concerning provincial
commands superseded the tribunes' law granting Caesar the
privilege of becoming a candidate for his second consulship without
actnally returning to the ciry. As eady as March Pompey expressed
his disapproval of the consul's intentions. Apart from his ties with
Caesar it was deeplY. insulting to have his own law challenged in
this wt especially since clauses in the law itself had forbidden
alteration of it by subsequent meetings of the Senate or Assembly.
He made it clear that he would never support any move to have
Caesar recalled before his legal term as proconsul had expired.
In JulY. questions were asked in the Senate about the legion that
Pomi>trY had 'loaned' to Caesar after the defeat of Cotta and Sabinus,
and he was urged to take it back under his direct command.
GrudgingLy Pompey declared that he would do so, but refused to
be coerced and set no date for recalling his troops. Marcellus kept
up the pressure and, after a postponement, managed to ensure that
the Senate would debate the matter of Caesar's province on
1 September. The Senate met outside the formal boundary of the
city, so that Pompey could once again be present. He again stated
his view that it would not be proper for the Senate to rule on this
question at the moment. His father-in-law Metellus Scipio did put
forward a motion for the issue to be raised again on 30 March
50 BC, and it seems unlikely that Pompey disapproved of this. In
fact Marcellus was able to secure a fuller debate much earlier than
this on 29 September. Once again Pompey was present. Marcellus
put forward a motion very similar to that of Scipio decreeing that
the Senate should address the issue of the 'consular provinces' on
or after 1 March. This was approved. Further measures, one to bar
any tribune from vetoing the decision of that debate, and another
to begin the process of discharging any of Caesar's soldiers who
439
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP, 49-44 BC
had served for their full legal term- which at this period was most
probably sixteen years - or had other grounds for honourable
discharge were debated. Both of these proposals were vetoed by two
or more tribunes, as was another dealing with appointments to
propraetorian provincial commands that would also have affected
the number of men waiting for commands when Caesar's term
expired.
6
Marcellus had not won outright, but neither had he altogether
lost. Caesar was still formaUy acknowledged as rightful governor
of his three provinces when the consul laid down his office at the
end of the year. Earlier in the year he had shown a sign of his
frustration with working solely through the proper channels in the
Senate. In 59 BC as part of his agrarian legislation Cae;ar had
established a colony at Novum Comum in Cisalpine Gaul north of
the River Po. Throughout his time in Gaul, he had also treated the
Transpadanes as citizens even though they as yet had onlv Latin
Marcellus ordered a former magistrate of the colony t? ,be
flogged, a punishment from which citizens were exempt, telling the
man to go back to Caesar and 'show him his stripes'. It was a crass
act, which disgusted Cicero when he heard about it, and indicates
just how bitterly Marcellus loathed Caesar. Even if he had not
secured the proconsul's recall, Marcellus had raised serious
guestions over his future. Some of Pompey's comments during and
after the debate on 29 September certainly encouraged Caesar's
opponents. He stated that he could not countenance the removal
of Caesar from his command until 1 March 50 BC, but that after
that his attitude would be different, which rather suggests that he

110 believed that the command granted to Caesar by his own and
Crassus' law would expire on that date. Asked what his attitude

f would bo ;f a ;buno vetoOO tho Sonato' doci,;on at that po;nt,
Pompey's answer implied little closeness with his ally and former
father-in-law. He said that it did not matter whether Caesar opposed
the Senate himself or via the agency of a tribune - either by
implication would be wrong. Cicero was not in Rome at the time
- having gone reluctantly to govern Cilicia as a result of the new
J
regulations introduced in 52 BC. Fortunately one of his
440
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
correspondents - the same Caelius Rufus he had successfully
defended in 56 Be and who was now aedile - sent him a
account, which mentions one last question put to Pompey: '"What
if," someone else said, "he wants to be consul and still retain his
army?" To this Pompey responded mildh; "What if my son wants
to attack me with a stick?" These words have made people suspect
that Pompey is having a row with Caesar. '
7
The question of precisely when Caesar's provincial command
expired has long been a source of academic debate and seems
unlikely ever to be finally resolved. Clearly some obvious significance
must have been attached to 1 March 50 BC for Pompey to select this
as the __ date after which it would be proper to consider a
replacement. This tends to suggest that the law passed in 55 BC
granting Caesar an extension of his command had come into force
in February of that year. Therefore the five years granted to Caesar
began then and expired on the first day of March 50 BC, known to
the Romans as the Kalends of March. From that point, a new
governor could be appointed by the Senate and Caesar's command
would end as soon as this replacement arrived. Caesar clearly
interpreted the law differently and may have preferred to see it as
having granted him an extension of his original five-year command,
the new period not commencing until the first was complete.
However, he does not seem to have made any formal announcement
as to when he believed his command should legally end. It is perfectly
possible that the original law was imprecise, for it was likely to have
been prepared in considerable haste and at a time when the alliance
between the triumvirate was strong. The situation was funher
complicated by the bill passed by all ten tribunes, granting Caesar
die right to stand for election without having to present himself in
person as a candidate. He took this ro mean that he should not be
replaced in Gaul until the elections had occurred, a period of SOWfj
eighteen months if his term ended in March 50. and he intended
to wait till the consular elections in the autumn of 49 BC.
8
Domitius Ahenobarbus had wished to take over the command
iii Gaul for some time and since his praetorship had also attacked
Caesar's Cato was egually vocal in his criticism and
441
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP, 49-44 BC
repeatedly stated his intention of prosecuting Caesar for the events
of 59 BC, and had even taken an oath to t hat effect. More recently
he had taken to declaring that Caesar would stand trial just as Milo
had done, with armed soldiers surrounding the court. Bibulus had
also lost none of his resentment, though for the moment, just like
Cicero, he found himself despatched as provincial governor, in his
case to Syria. Marcellus, his brother and cousin were all equally
hostile, and Metellus Scipio was at best unfriendly. All were united
in their desire to prevent Caesar from returning to a second
consulship and avoiding trial. Yet for all their bitter hatred, none of
this would really have mattered if Pompey had decided to give his
full support to Caesar, since this would surely have allowed the latter
to secure evervthing he wanted. Pompey had proconsular imperium
.and a formed ar:my in Spa.0. Without him there was no force with
which to threaten Caesar, still less to fight him if it came to open
conflict. Caesar's opponents could achieve nothing without P.ompey's
suppon, as the failure of Marcellus ro recall him from Gaul in 51 Be
clearly demonstrated. Equally; Caesar would struggle to remain in
his command and return to Rome as he wished without Pompey's
backing, or at least, neutraliry. As was so often the case, what Pompey
was thinking was not clear to anyone else. Caelius already suspected
a rift between the two remaining triumvirs in the autumn of 51 BC.
Pompey's position was extremely strong and, in the end, his greatest
concern was how to profit from and maintain this dominance. His
old ally Caesar needed his help to get what he wanted. So did Caesar's
opponents, to whom Pompey had become closer in the last few years.
If Caesar came back with all the wealth and g!ory of his Gaulish
victories then he would become Pompey's equal and perhaps, in time
and given his greater pol.nical skill, eventually his superior. Yet .!f
Caesar was disposed of altogether, as Cato, Domitius, the Marcelli
and their allies wanted, then they would have less need of Pompey,
and he might easily find himself reduced to the comparanve political
impotence that had been his fate when he returned from the east .ill.,
62 BC. For the moment Eompey held the advanrage, showing both
Caesar and his opponents that they needed him, bur that neither
could take his aid for granted.
9
4A'l
.
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
The new year seemed to augur well for Caesar's enemies. Another
Marcellus was consul, after being acquitted on a charge of electoral
bribery, with Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus as his colleague. The
latter was the son of the Lepidus who had rebelled in 78 BC, only
to be suppressed by Pompey. In spite of this, he was not believed
to be especially well disposed towards Caesar either, and was anyway
currently more concerned with his efforts to rebuild in grander
fashion the Basilica Fulvia et Aemilia, a great monument to an earlier
member of his family. One of the new tribunes was Curio the
Younger, who in 59 BC had been one of the few men to criticise the
triumvirate publicly. Cicero's lively correspondent Caelius was close
to the tribune at this time. Both were prominent members of a
generation of young Romans notorious for their wild lifestyle, which,
combined with their grand ambitions, often placed them into debt.
Mark Antony was another of this group of reckless youths, and
Curio is said to have first introduced him to the pleasures of
mistresses, drinking and a flamboyantly luxurious lifestyle. The
consequence of this was that Antony was soon massively in debt,
and Curio's father banned him from their house lest his own son
proved too willing to pay his friend's way. More recently Curio had
spent a huge sum on staging spectacular funeral games in honour
of the Elder Curio, who died in 53 BC. He even constructed a wooden
amphitheatre that revolved and could be divided into two semi-
circular theatres for individual theatrical performances. A little later
he had married Clodius' widow, the forthright and forceful Fulvia.
These young men - they were still 'adolescents' in the Roman
understanding of the term - were talented, but did not seem at all
stable to the older generation.
Caelius was convinced that Curio planned an all-out attack on
Caesar
1
but one of his first acts as tribune was to propose a new
programme of distributing land to the poor. The hostility of the
consuls effectively blocked this and instead he put forward bills for
a. new grain dole to citizens in Rome, and a five-year programme
of road building in Italy. At the same time he began to make it clear
at; public meetings that he supported Caesar's cause. Later there was
cil.k of Caesar buying his support by paying off his massive debts
443
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
with gold from the spoils of Gaul. Velleius Paterculus mentions
rumours of a bribe of 2.5 million denarii, while Valerius Maxim us
talks of the staggering sum of 15 million. Gossip doubtless inflated
the figure, but in one sense Caesar was doing for Curio effectively
what Crassus had once done for him, covering his staggering debts
in order to gain a u seful political allv. There was also talk of Paull us
benefiting on the scale of 9 million denarii, helping him to complete
his building plans. Both men were ambitious Roman aristocrats and
looked to their own advantage when they switched to supporting
Caesar. For the moment they had been persuaded that it was in their
interest to support him. Curio was probably frustrated by the
blocking of his bills, which gave him no incentive to aid the leading
men in the Senate.
10
The profits of his victories had allowed Caesar to win useful friends
amongst the magistrates. When Marcellus duly raised the question
of Caesar's command on 1 March 50 BChis colleague did not.support
..!l!,m, but the real counter-attack was led by Curio, who focused most
of his attention on Pompey's position. If Caesar was to be replaced
in his Gallic command, then the tribune argued that it would only
be fair. as well as safe for the Republic. if Pompev simultaneously
gave up his extraordinary command of the Spanish provinces. He had
already voiced this proposal at public meetings to the approval of the
crowd. Caesar certainly approved of the tactic and may well have
suggested it in the first place. The Spanish command had been
renewed in 52 BC and still had several years left to run, so there were
no legal grounds for this proposal, but it was a reminder of Pompey's
unprecedented position. ft placed him and Caesar on the same level ,
suggesting that either both or neither should enjoy the honours voted
to them by the Roman people. More personally; it was dearly: intended
to show Pompey that it was to his advantage to maintain the alliance
with Caesar, since his own position might not in realiry be as strong
as he thought. Adding this element to the debate raised the stakes,
but took back some of the initiative from Caesar's opponents. They
were at first stunned, and for several months there was deadlock, with
Curio vetoing any attempt by the Senate to act against Caesar. In
April, Caelius wrote again to Cicero:
4
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
As for the situation of the Republic, all contention is focused
on a single cause, namely the provinces. At the moment
Pompey seems to be backing the Senate in demanding that
Caesar leave his province by the Ides [13th] of November.
Curio is utterly determined to prevent this- he has abandoned
all his other projects. Our 'friends' (you know them well!) are
afraid of pushing the issue to crisis point. This is the scene-
the whole thing - Pompey, just as if he was not attacking
Caesar, but making a fair settlement for him, blames Curio
for making trouble. At the same time he is absolutely against
Caesar becoming consul before giving up his province and
army. He is getting a rough ride from Curio, and his entire
third consulship is attacked. You mark my words, if they try
to crush Curio with all their might, Caesar will come to the
rescue; if instead, as seems most likely; they are too frightened
to risk it, then Caesar will stay as long as he wants.
11
It is not clear why Pompey chose 13 November as the new date
for the end of Caesar's command. It was not much of a concession,
since he would still have had the best part of a year to wait before
the consular elections in the autumn of 49 BC. It might have been
acceptable to Caesar if he wanted to stand for the consulship in the
elections at the end of 50 BC, but he does not seem to have made
any attempt to secure exemption from law decreeing a ten-year
interval between consulships. In any case, given the circumstances
he may have decided that this was unlikely to succeed. By June,
Caelius was reporting that Marcellus suggested negotiating with
thetribunes, but the Senate voted against any such compromise.
Curio continued to insist that Caesar's command should not be
discussed independently and that he must be treated in the same
way as Pompey. A year before there had been talk of Pompey going
out, to Spain - now some suggested that either he or Caesar should
go to deal with the Parthians. Cicero was very nervous that the latter
might launch an all-out invasion of Rome's eastern provinces before
he. could give up his own post as governor of Cilicia- knowing that
o n ~ e an attack occurred it would be dishonourable for him to leave.
445
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
That summer the Senate decided to take one legion from Pompey's
and another from Caesar's armies and send the troops our to bolster
Rome's forces on the Parthian border. Pompey decided to send the
one that he had loaned to Caesar in 54 BC, and which had been
campaigning with him ever since. Effectively this meant that Caesar
lost two legions, but before he sent the men on their way he gave
each soldier a bounty of 250 denarii, a sum amounting to more than
one year's pay. The whole affair seemed even more suspicious when
the two units marched back to Italy and then remained there, no
one making any effort to send them overseas. A young member of
the Claudian family had collected the troops from Gaul and returned
claiming that Caesar's entire army was disaffected. It was just what
Pompey wanted to believe.
Soon afterwards Pompey fell ill, suffering from a recurring fever
that may possibly have been malaria. Apparently spontaneously,
people throughout Italy began praying and making offerings for the
return to health of the man who had performed such great services
to the Republic. When he recovered the celebrations were ecsraric
crowds greeting him aU along his route as he went from Naples back
to the ourski:rrs of Rome. Pompey had always thrived on adoration,
whether from his wives, his soldiers or the people, and was deeply
moved. More dangerously .he interpreted this enthusiasm as a clear
;;ign of widespread devotion to his cause. While still ill he had sent
word to the Senate that he was willing to resign his command.
assuring them that Caesax would do the same. CUiio responded by
saying that that wouldbe fine,_as long as Pompey laid down his post
first. By August Caelius was speaking to Cicero of rhe prospect of
-
civil war. 'If neither of the two sets off on a Parthian war, then I
can see great discord ahead, which will be decided by cold steel and
brute force. They are both well prepared in spirit and wirh armies. tl
Yer there was.litde enthusiasm for conflict beyond the immediate
partisans, as was shown when the Senate debated the issue on
1 December. Curio again proposed that both Caesar and Pompey
should give up their commands simultaneously. The consul
Marcellus split this into two and presented separate motions to the
House. The first, that Caesar should resign, was passed by a big
446
~ ~ -
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
majority, but the second asking Pompey to do the same was defeated
by a similarly large margin. When Curio responded by asking the
Senate to divide on the motion that both men should resign, the
result was highly revealing. Only twenty-two senators voted
against this, but no fewer than 370 backed it. The 'back bench'
pedarii had lived up to their name and voted with their feet, even
though most of the great names had been with the twenty-two.
Marcellus dismissed the meeting, declaring 'If that is what you want,
be Caesar's slaves!', and the votes were ignored. It had not been a
victory for Caesar, since a clear majority had wanted him to lay
down his provinces and his army, while supporting Pompey's claim
to retain his command. Yet in the end what it had shown was that
nearly the entire Senate wanted peace above all else. They were
certainly nor commirred to Caesar's cause, but nor were they eager
to--risk civil war on behalf of Pompey, still less of Cato, Domitius
and their associates. By this rime Cicero had come back to Italy from
his province and his view was similar. He felt that Caesar's demands
were outrageously excessive, but even so preferred to grant them
rather than allow the Republic to tear itself apart. He, like many
others, remembered the dark days of the struggle between Sulla and
the Marians and had no wish to see such ghastly strife repeated.
In his view there was still the chance for compromise and a peaceful
settlement. Perhaps there was, but the mood of the main
participants in the dispute had hardened to the point where war was
becoming more and more likely.
13
A hard core of distinguished senators loathed Caesar, many of
them for personal as well as political reasons. Much of this hatred
was not entirely rational. There were memories of his popularis
behaviour as aedile and praetor, and even worse his turbulent
consulship. To Cato and his associates Caesar was the Catiline who
had never quite allowed his villainy to become so open. They saw
the effect of his charm on others - on other men's wives as often
as on the crowd in the Forum- but felt that they had seen past it,
which only made it all the more frustrating that others had not. It
can never have helped that Cato's half-sister had been one of
Caesar's most ardent lovers. Cato, his son-in-law Bibulus and
447
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
brother-in-law Domitius Ahenobarbus had stood up to Caesar in
the past and had had their moments of success. More often they
had simply pushed Caesar into going further, and time after time
he had got away with it, riding roughshod over them in 59 BC. They
despised Caesar as a man, which made his obviously exceptional
talent in public life and as an army commander all the more galling.
Appius Claudius, older brother of Clodius, who had co-operated
with Caesar much of the time, was obsessed with maintaining the
dignity of his ancient patrician heritage. One of his daughters was
married to Servilia's son and Cato's nephew Brutus, and another
to Pompey's eldest son. Opposition did not just come from Cato's
extended family, for families like the Marcelli and Lentuli did not
like to see their current resurgence of electoral success overshadowed.
For Metellus Scipio there was concern both to live up to his famous
ancestors - both real and adopted - and eagerness to exploit the
advantages offered by his marriage tie to Pompey.
Ultimately, no Roman senator liked to see another man excelling
him in glory and influence. It was not so much what Caesar had
done that provoked their hostility- most would have happily praised
the same deeds, especially his victories in Gaul, if only they had
been performed by someone else, or better yet by several other men
so that no one individual gained too much glory. Men from
established families were raised to believe that they deserved to guide
the Republic, bur Caesar's eminence robbed them of much of this
role. Now there was a chance to end his career- preferably in court,
and a court that shared their view of the accused and the need to
be rid of him, but if not, by armed force. Pompey's aid made-this
possible and so, for the moment, he was usefuJ enough for his own
anomalous osition to be i ored. In the future then it might be
possible to discard him or at least reduce bis dominance. Since e
first hinted that he was not firmly committed to backing Caesar's
demands, Pompey had encouraged his least does
seem to have hoped tu avoid civil war, and once it began made some
effort to moderate the vehemence with which it was fought. His
expectation was that Caesar could be forced ro submit. The attitude
of his allies was less clear. Some of them clearly hoped to profit from

THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
war. Cicero was surprised and rather disgusted by the militancy he
saw in many of these men. He could also see no sense in fighting
Caesar after years of allowing him to become so powerful.
14
J>Qmpey's attitude was different. Even at the end he would have
been content for Caesar to return to public life so long as it was in
a way that made it clear that he was not Pompey's egual still less
his superior. This desire had hardened as the months had gone by,
and Curio had made such efforts to place the two men on the same
level. Crass us he had been able to accept as an equal, for he was
s<?veral vears his senior and had fought for Sulla. Perhaps as
importantly, Pompey had always been confident that his own
charisma and spectacular military exploits - three triumphs
.compared with Crassus' mere ovation - gave him a comfortable
advantage over his rival. Caesar was younger by just six years, but
more importantly he had done nothing when Pompey had formed
and led his own armies to victory, and in this respect his career was
decades behind. He found it easier to like Caesar than Crassus, but
perhaps in part that was because he did not see him as a competitor,
at least at first. Even after Caesar's successes in Gaul, Germany and
Britain, Pompey still viewed him as a junior ally. After all he had
WQ!d'triumphs on three continents- Asia, Africa and Europe- and
defeated many different opponents, some of them Roman, in the
process and not just barbarian tribes. 'What if my son wants to
attack me with a stick?'- the comment implied not just the ease
of dealing with such a threat, bur how absurdly unlikely it was that
it even happen. Pompey did not want civil war, but had little
doubt that he could win it if the worst came to the worst and it
occurred. Around this time he would begin that he had
only to stamp his foot and armies would spring up from the soil
of Italy. In the end Caesar must realise that he needed to respect
Pompe}? accept his terms for coming back, and trust to his friendshi
for protection in the courts. Curio's attack on his own position made
hi'm all the less inclined to grant too many concessions to the
proconsul in Gaul. Caesar would have to see sense. bu-t he could
still be very useful to Pompey, who was aware that Cato and his allies
had no great love or him either.
449
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
Caesar claimed later that he had to fight a civil war in order to
defend his dignitas - his reputation. In his view the laws of hjp
consulship had been nec!>' and effective, especially the land laws.
Since then he had served the Republic defending its interests
and its allies, and making Roman power respeaed in regions that
had never before seen a legion. For these achievements the Senate
had awarded him no less than three public thanksgivings of
unprecedented length. Now his command was to be prematurely
curtailed - at least in his view - while the law put forward by all
ten tribunes in 52 BC as an expression of the will of the Roman
people was being set aside both in detail and in spirit. His enemies,
ignoring all his successes, were boasting of attacking and
condemning him because of his consulship almost a decade ago.
The great men of the Republic were not taken to court. Pompey
had not been prosecuted since his youth, before he had raised his
own legions. No one had ever dared to bring Crassus to trial. Simply
having to defend himself would have been a great blow to Caesar's
pride and auctoritas. There was also the very real danger that he
might be condemned, especially if the court was controlled J,y
enemies. As consul his behaviour had been controversial at the very
least, although innocence or guilt was seldom the decisive factor
in Roman trials. Milo's fate offered a warning, as did that of
Gabinius, the man who as tribune in bl BC had secured Pompey the
command against the pirates, and as consul in 58 BC with Caesar's
father-in-law Calpurnius Piso had helped to secure the triumvirate's
position. After that he had gone to govern Syria and, largely on his
own initiative, had taken his army into Egypt to restore the deposed
Ptolemy XII, a highly profitable enterprise. Yet he was a deeply
unpopular man and, in spite of his money and the support of
Pompey, he was eventually condemned when he returned to Rome
in 53 BC, going into exile.
Caesar could easily have suffered a similar fate, but at the very
least would have been politically damaged, when any hint of
vulnerability would attract further prosecutions. He would
therefore be taking a great risk if he placed his trust in Pompey's

_Qrotection and gave up his command. Even if he chose to support
4'""

t .a
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
Caesar, Pompey might not have been able to save him. In any case,
Cicero's exile had demonstrated that Pompev was not alwavs
reliable. Had Caesar given up his command he could have retained
his imperium and the command of some detachments of troops and
remained just ourside Rome, on the reasonable basis of waiting to
celebrate the triumph that must surely be awarded for his victories
in Gaul. Until he entered the city and so laid down his imperium
he would remain exempt from prosecution. Yet there was no
guarantee that if he did this he would still be permitted to become
a consular candidate in accordance with the tribunician
scill in command of three provinces and an army of ten legions, his
bargaining position was strong. After well over a year of attacks
on his position, be was very reluctant to sacrifice this. He knew that
his enemies were determined to destroy him. Pompey's attitude was
never easy to read. By the close of 50 BC Caesar felt himself backed
into a corner, reluctant to place too much faith in h.is old ally.li
A century later the poet Lucan would wrjte that 'Cassar copld *
nor accept a suoerior. nor Pomoey an egual.' For him, -tile Civil War
was virrually inevitable afrer Tulia's death severed the close boud
between them, wh.ile Crassus' loss in Parthia removed from each
the fear that he could end up figbtjng alone against the orher rwp.
It was a fairly common-view in the ancient world and contains mors:
than a grain of truth. Yet this tends to imply an inevitability about
the Cfvil War, and this should nor be pushed too far. Even in the
last months before the war broke out, neither Caesar nor Pompey
seems to have believed that the other would not back down, or at
least offer acceptable terms. The long dispute had eroded their trust
in each other, however, and this made compromise far harder. They
had raised the stakes, which added to their nervousness about
making a mistake at the last minute. The outcome of the autumn's
elections further increased the rension. The third Marcellus would
become consul in the new year, 'W;th a colleague from anomer noble
family. They had beaten Servius Sulpicius Galba, who had served
competently as Caesar's legate for most of the Gallic campaigns,
one of the few parricians 1:0 serve with him for any length of rime .
Appius Claudius and Caesar's father-in-law Calpurnius Piso
451
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
became censors. The former began to purge the Senate of men he
considered to be unfit, something that was generally seen as ironic
given his own dubious reputation, and his targets were mostly men
believed to be associated with Caesar. Sallust, the future historian,
was expelled at this time and soon joined Caesar. An attack on Curio
was thwarted by Piso and the consul Paullus, but still resulted in a
brawl in the Senate during which the tribune tore the censor's robe.
There was also a vacancy in the priestly college of augurs and
Domirius Ahenobarbus was enraged to be beaten in the race for this
by Mark Antony, who was also elected tribune for the coming year.
Most of Caesar's opponents were united only in their hatred of him,
so it would be a mistake to see their actions as co-ordinated. Yet
there was a sense that the proconsul of Gaul was vulnerable, and
this encouraged their hostility and so helped to make him even more
suspicious and nervous. The mood on both sides was scarcely
conducive to compromise.
16
Mark Antony would play a major role in what followed and it
is worth pausing to consider this flamboyant character. He had
already proved himself to be a courageous and skilful soldier., leading
Gabinius' cavalry during the operations in Judaea and Egypr. In
52 BC he was Ca.esar's quaesto; and had served in the campaign
against Vercingetor)x, as well as the rebellions of the following year.
The two men were distant relations, for Antony's mother was a Julia,
although from the other branch of the family. Her brother was the
Lucius Julius Caesar who was consul in 64 BC. In the familiar Roman
way, Antony's father and grandfather were both also named Marcus
Antonius. His grandfather was one of the leading orators of his day,
but was killed in the purge that accompanied Marius' return to
Rome in 87 BC. His father was given a special command to deal with
the pirate problem in 74 BC but could not call on the resources later
lavished on Pompey and was defeated, dying shortly afterwards.
Antony was only nine at the time. His mother soon remarried, and
the boy spent much of his formative years in the house of his step-
father Lentulus, one of the Catilinarian conspirators executed on
Cicero's orders in 63 BC. This may well have given little cause for
Antony to like the orator, but there is no evidence that the bitter
452
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
feud betweer_I the two men developed until much later. After Caesar's
death,,Cicero's .rhetoric- especially his famous Philippics, a series
of virulent speeches modelled on those originally delivered by the
famous orator Demosthenes warning the Athenians of the threat
posed by Alexander the Great's father, King Philip II of Macedon
- would do much to blacken Antony's name. Yet in spite of the

exaggeration and bias, other sources suggest that Antony had
genuinely provided of material with which Cicero could work.
As already noted, tradition maintained that it was Curio who
had first introduced Antony to wild parties, wine and women
(seep. 443). Whether or not this was true, there is no doubt that
Antony rook immediately to all such things with enormous
enthusiasm and almost no self-restraint. There was a great passion
in the man rhat seemed always ready ro boil over, and which gave
force and massive determination m all that he did. His oratorv, his
soldiering- as well as his drunkenness and womanizing - all seem
to have had a power behind them that came from his personality
more than skill or training. A big, burly man, it was said that he
liked to be compared with Hercules, just as Pompey had enjoyed
references ro himself as a new Alexander. As tribune, Antony's
character would make him hard ro ignore, and even harder
fOr Caesar's opponents to browbeat. Yet for more subtle negotiation
Caesar would need to relv more on men like Balbus, the equestrian
from Spain who privately acted as his An.tony was unlikely
to give anyone the impression that the proconsul was keen for
compromise and did not plan a radical second term as consul.
17
'THE DIE IS CAST
Rumour and misinformation also played their part in the growing
In October rhe story circulated that Caesar had concentrated
four legions m Cisalpine Gaul, which was taken as an indication
that he was preparing for he had only one legion in the
province. the Thirteetrth, which he claimed was rhere to secure the
border areas against barbarian raiding. In early Decernbe13 shortly
453
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP, 49-44 BC
disgusted ,Marcellus had dismissed a Senate for wanting
to disarm both men and avoid conflict, another report came tQ Rome
slaim.ing that Caesar had already massed his army and invaded Italy.
;rhe story was fa}s!p bur the consul probably did not know this and
now urged the Senate ro act. Helped no doubt by Curio, but also
by the reluctance of fhe overwhelming majority to plunge .into war,
the House refused. Accompanied by the consuls elect, but not by
his own colleague, Marcellus went to Pompey and presented him
wi-th a sword and called on him to protect the Republic. He was
given command of the two legions recalled from Gaul ostensibly
for the projected war against Parthia and instructed to raise more
troops. None of this was legab since the Senate had not approved
the action or granted emergency powersi Pompey told them that
he would accept their charge and figllt, if this proved necessary. He
began trying ro recruit troops, but no aggressive moves were made.
In part rhis was because the troops were not ready to fight, but the
discovery that the rumour was untrue must have played a part.
Public business went on at Rome almost as if nothing bad
happened. Caesar had not in fact started a war, so his opponents
were determined that they would not take the blame for beginning
a conflict. Marcellus and Pompey may still have been more
in making a gesture, sending a message to the senators of their
confidence and to Caesar of theii determination to fight if he
provoked them. They well have still hoped that be would back
down. Caesar was at a major disadvantage because be could not
kavehis province tO negotiate in person and had to relviostead op
letters or representatives. Curio tried ro persuade rhe Senate to pass
a decree condemning Pompey's recruitment drive and instructing
good cidzens to ignore the call to arms. This failed, and since rhe
rribuncian year began and ended earlier than the normal political
cycle, bis term of office ended and .he left to consulr with Caesar.
What Caesar's men did nor do was as eagerly scrutinised as what
they actually did and said. On 6 December Caesar's trusted
subordinate Hirtius arrived in the city, but left after just a few hours.
He did not visit Pompey, and did not wait around for the meeting
with Metellus Scipio which had been arranged for the following
454

THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
morning. Pompey told Cicero that he interpreted this as a sign that
the breach with Caesar was now irreparable. However, although he
and others were now expecting war, they still did not wish to initiate
it. IS
On 1 January the new consuls took up their office. Lentulus, who,
was hugely in debt, and according to Caesar boasted that he wanted
to be a second Sulla, proved far more extreme than Marcellus.
However, Mark Antony was now tribune and, along with one of
his colleagues Quintus Cassius Longinus, was fulfilling Curio's role.
It was only through the persistence of these men that a letter from
Caesar was allowed to be read out in the Senate, although the
consuls prevented a debate on it. In the letter the proconsul
recounted his great achievements on the Republic's behalf and
returned to the demand that he should only be forced to lay down
his command if Pompey did the same, appearing to threaten war
if the latter refused. Cicero, who had just arriveq back on the
outskirts of Rome, described it as a 'fierce and threatening letter'.
f vote was taken on a motion proposed by Metellus Scipio, stating
that: Caesar must lay down his command by a set day or be
considered a public enem t was passed but promptly yetoed by
Anrony and Cassius. In pr.ivate, Caesar's tone was more conciliatOry
and he seems to have written or sent representatives ro mwy leading
figures including Cato. He offered to give up Transalpine Gaul and
all save two of his legions, so long as he was permitted to rerai!l
the rest of his command and make use of the privilege granted to
him by the tribunes in 52 BC. This would have balanced the forces
under Pompey's command in Italy but seriously impeded his capacity
to fight an aggressive war. Cicero became involved in the
negotiations, for he believed everything should be done to prevent
conflict and felt that the overwhelming majority of senators agreed
with him. He spoke to Caesar's opponents and friends, and the latter
agreed to a further concession, allowing him to keep just Cisalpine
Gaul and a single legion. It was still not enough. Caro declared that
he could not agree to anything presented in private rather than before
the whole Senate, but ultimately neither he nor any of his closest
allies were willing to accept anything that would allow Caesar an
455
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
unhindered path to his second consulship. Even in late December
Cicero had felt that Pompey had reached the point of actively
wanting war. The sources are contradictory, but he probably rejected
the first proposal. The second- just one legion and Cisalpine Gaul
-satisfied him, but he found that he was overruled by Cato, Metellus
Scipio and the rest. Overall it was hard for anyone to be roo trustigg
in the atmosphere of suspicion and hate. Nor did the distance help.
Caesar away in Gaul at the head of a veteran army was a fairly
sinister figure even to moderates. His charm had no opportunity
ro work at such a long range.
19
Senatorial meeting:: were becomin& deadlocked, with Antony and
Cassius vetoing the repeated motions attacking Caesar that were
presented by the consuls. The situation was difficult, but even so
Antony's temperament probably did not help. He was a man who
always struggled to contain his passions. Years later Cicero would
speak of him 'vomiting his words in the usual way' when delivering
a speech. A few weeks earlier the tribune had delivered a
particularly vitriolic performance in the Senate, attacking Pompey's
whole career and threatening armed conflict. Afterwards, Pompey
had commented 'What qo you reckon Caesar himself will be like,
if he gets to control the Republic, if now his weak and worthless
quaestor acts like this?' Following one of the Senate's meetings,
Pompey summoned all of the senators to his house outside the city's
boundary, seeking to reassure them of his steadfast support and
willingness to fight if necessary. Caesar's father-in-law Piso asked
that he and one of the praetors be permitted six days to travel up
to Cisalpine Gaul and talk directly to Caesar before the Senate did
anything else. Other voices suggested an even larger deputation.
Lentulus, Cato and Metellus Scipio all spoke against this, and these
ideas went no further. Instead, on 7 January 49 BC the Senate passed
the senatus consultum ultimum, calling on 'the consuls, praetors
a,nd tribunes, and all the proconsuls near the city to ensure that the
Republic comes to no harm'. There was no specific mention of
Caesar- whereas the reference to proconsuls was obviously intended
to place Pompey at the centre of things- but its target was obvious
to all. Caesar claimed that Lentulus, Pompey, Cato and Scipio, alo'!g
456
THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
with many of his other opponents, were now all determined on war.
Some of them may have been, but for others this may have
represented the final raising of the stakes, making it utterly clear
to Caesar that he could not get his way save by fighting and so must
back down. The Senate's ultimate decree suspended normal law and
was not subject to veto. Lentulus warned Antony and Cassius that
he could not guarantee their safery if they remained in Along
with Curio, who had returned probably carrying Caesar's letter read
out on 1 January, the two tribunes disguised themselves as slaves
and were smuggled out of the city in a hired wagon.:w
The precise chronology of what happened over the next few days
cannot be firmly had been in Cisalpine Gaul for
some time, arriving first - or so he claimed - to canvass for Mark
Antony in his bid to be elected augur and then, since this had already
succeeded by the time he arrived, in his campaign for the tribunate.
Lately he had stayed in Ravenna, close to the border of his province.
With him he had the Thirteenth Legion and some 300 cavalry. Several
of our sources state that the legion was at near enough full strength,
with 5,000 men, but it is questionable whether they had any reliable
information about this. It is more likely that it was somewhat nnder
strength. Since the early autumn Caesar had redeployed his army,
placing some legions ready to block any threat from Pompey's army
in Spain, while the equivalent of three or four more were ready to
move to join him south of the Alps. However, he had studiouslx.
avoided concentrating a field army lest his opponents use this as proof
that he was seeking war. Pompey, with his vast military experience,
seems to have been convinced that Caesar was not ready for an
invasion of Italy. On the road from Ravenna to Ariminum (modern
Rimini) the boundary between the province and Italy itself was
marked by the Rubicon, a small river that to this day has not been
positively identified. Caesar heard quickly of the attacks on him in
the Senate at the beginning of January, of the passing of the ultimate
decree and the subsequent flight of the tribunes. The news may have
reached him before the fugitives. In any case he decided to act.

Commentaries skim over what happened next, not


entioning the Rubicon at all,. but later sources provide a more

CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
detailed version. Caesar spent the day in Ravenna, calmly going
about his normal business as if nothing unusual was about to
happen. It was probably 10 January, though yet again certainty is
impossible regarding this crucial episode in the history of the ancient
world. He had already despatched some centurions and legionaries
in civilian clothes and with concealed weapons to seize control of
The proconsul spent some hours watching gladiators
practising and inspecting plans for a training school that he wanted
to build. As night fell he bathed and went to dinner, first greeting
the numerous guests invited to join him. Much earlier than usual
he excused himself and left, asking them to stay and await his return.
A few of his senior officers and attendants had been warned of this
and met him outside. One was Asinius Pollio, who would later write
a history of the Civil War, which was used as a source by Plutarch
and probably Suetonius as well. Orders were also issued to the
Thirteenth and the cavalry ro follow him as soon as they were, ready.
He and of his officers travelled in a hired carriage- Suetonius
claims that it was drawn by a team of mules borrowed from a nearby
baker's shop. Then they set off into the night down the road to
Ariminum. According to Suetonius an element of farce entered the
proceedings when Caesar and his carriage got lost in the darkness
and blundered around until dawn, when they found a guide who
set them on the right path. Plutarch and Appian make no mention
of this, and both state that he was already at Ariminum as dawn
broke. Therefore at some stage early on the 11th he overtook the
marching cohorts and came to the River Rubicon. Before he crossed
the bridge, he is said to have stopped, spending some time in silent
thought before beginning to talk to his officers, Pollio amongst them.
He is supposed to have spoken of the cost to himself if he did not
take this step, and the price the whole Roman world would pay if
he did so. Suetonius claims a supernatural being appeared, played
first upon a flute and then, grabbing a trumpet from one of the
military musicians, sounded a blast and strode across the river,
encouraging the troops to follow. It seems unlikely that Pollio was
the source of this tall tale. He did presumably repeat Caesar's final
words as he decided to cross, although even here we have several
458

THE ROAD TO THE RUBICON
slightly different versions. Plutarch maintains that he spoke in Greek,
quoting a line from the poet Menander, 'Let the die be throwQ!'
(aneristho kubos). Suetonius gives the more familiar Latin
expression 'The die is cast' (iacta alea est).
21
The gambler's phrase was appropriate, for he was embarking on
a civil war when little more than a tenth of his forces were with him.
Even when all his troops were concentrated, he would still be
overmatched in resources by his enemies. Although with hindsight
we know that Caesar prevailed, this was by no means certain -
perhaps not even likely - at the time. He chose to fight because as
far as he was concerned all the alternatives were worse. The
had become .dominated by a faction who ignored the normal
and particularly f,.efused to acknowledge the rra.ditional
gowers and rights of the tribunate. Yer Caesar was guitC: open
it was first and foremost because rhis faction of men had attacked
him that he now moved againsrthem. The Roman world was being
plunged into chaos and bloodshed because one man was as
determined to protect his dignitas as others were to destroy it. Over
the preceding eighteen months the stakes had been raised in turn
by both sides. Attitudes had tended to harden, suspicions had grown,
and trust declined too far to give compromise a real chance. The
Civil War that began in January 49 BC could not have happened
the biner, almost obsessive hatred felt towards Caesar by
men like Caro, Domirius Ahenobarbus and rhe othersi which made
them determined to prevent his return to public life as a consul. Even
this would not have mattered if .Pompey had not seen an,
opportunity to demonstrate his supremacy and show these men, as
well as Caesar, that they needed to placate him. Finally, the struggle
would not have begun had Caesar not placed such a high value on
his prestige and position. His life up to this point had demonstrated
.. his Willingness to take risks if there was a chance of a valuable prize.
Only rarely- as when he was dismissed from his praetorship- had
he been willing to back down, and even then it had only been because
this was clearly his sole means of continuing his career. In 49 BC
that option had largely been closed to him
1
or at least been
surrounded by risks that appeared greater even than those of
459
,,
CIVIL WAR AND DICTATORSHIP. 49-44 BC
fighting. The ethos of the Roman aristocracv celebra
determin-ation and especially admired the generals who would
concede defea: . Yet for all the dubious legaliry of his oppone1
,actions, in the end on!y one thing mattered. North of the Rubi1
Caesar held ri tful im 'erium and south of the river he did r
As soon as he crossed Caesar was undoubredly a re e , ate
the reasons that had driven him to this act. In this sense his en err
won a victory and could more readily claim to be fighting for
legitimate Republic. They were determined now to crush him
force, just as Catiline and, before him, Lepidus had been suppress
Resorting to his army was a mark of Caesar's failure to get w
he wanted by political means, The die had been rolled, but so
no one knew what number it would show when it came to rest
16


r"'P
Q

_,

-

-
;_[)

_,


_,


_,

Map 1 Italy
fd
iJ no
'
0
<lo
DSJ:j
d

0
0
"'
0
0
0
f
I
!
Caesar = The Politician
BC "!-$.,_ l'Jlt
-. ..
As Caesar was crossing the Alps [to take up his appointment in
Spain], it is said that he passed a wretched village, occupied by a few
barbarians. His companions made a joke of it: 'Could it be that here
too there is rivalry for office, enmity over who should take
precedence, and jealousy against each other among men of power?'
To which Caesar answered, quite seriously, 'I would rather be first
among these people than second in Rome.'
Caesar began his political career as a military
tribune. Since his year of duty coincided with
the slave revolt of Spartacus in 72 BC, it is likely
that he took part in that campaign and served
under the man appointed to lead it, the
enormously rich Crassus. Six thousand slaves
survived the battle. Crassus crucified them
all the way along the road from Rome to Capua,
where the revolt had started. He also, in the
course of the campaign, revived the ancient
punishment of decimation for the 500 of his
own men who had disobeyed his orders,
singling out one in every ten for public
execution before the whole army.
Plutarch, Caesar 11

Crassus was elected consul for 70 BC, with 'Pompey the Great', a born
military leader, who was under the statutory age for the post and had
never held any official position in the state.
Caesar, too, was now campaigning for public office, and was elected
quaestor for 68 BC, which also gave him a seat in the senate. He served
18
Julius Caesar- A Beginner's Guide
his quaestorship in Spain, but demanded to be
~ e d after sensing his destiny during a visit
to Cadiz, where he came across a statue of
Alexander the Great. 'He gave a hearty sigh, as if
disgusted with his own lack of direction in
having done nothing at an age at which
Alexander had already conquered the world'
( Suetonius, Julius Caesar 7).
Three years after the death of Cornelia, Caesar
married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla. She
was well connected and she was rich, two
qualities to appeal to an ambitious man who
was already heavily in debt. The best way to
catch the eye of the electorate was to spend
money on public works and entertainment, and
Caesar's financial position worsened during a
stint as curator of the Appian Way, which linked
Rome to the south. Any improvements to the
facilities which were not covered by the state's
allocation of funds, came out of the curator's
own pocket. The next official step up the
political ladder was the post of curule aed.ile,
which he achieved in 65. The two curule aed.iles
were not only responsible for orderly behaviour
in the streets and markets of the city, and for the
maintainance of temples and other public
buildings, but were obliged personally to
finance the games and other shows which the
public expected. Caesar's provision of games,
theatrical performances, processions, and public
banquets was both lavish and liberal. Somewhat belatedly, he mounted
a games in honour of his father, who had died 20 years earlier. An
unprecedented number of pairs of gladiat ors (some say 320) fought
each other to the death, all wearing silver armour.
Lat:!>cn - I rae I Ullll'"-1011 I ~ _ _, .........
Since he had spent all rus wife's money, as well as his own, it is probable
that Caesar was now heavily involved with Crassus, whose
avariciousness extended to money lending on a vast scale. Crassus was
quite capable of buying in some of his client's debts, and holding them
against the time when Caesar could repay him from the profits he
would eventually make as a_ provincial governor. Caesar was now 35.
He was ambitious for political advancement; it had also become an
economic necessity.
ELECTIONS, CONSP1RACY, AND SCANDAl
The consuls in 63 were Cicero and Caesar's
former adversary, Gaius Antonius. The
campaign the previous July had been hard and
vicious. Cicero had no money with which to
bribe the electorate, so he relied on his forensic
skills to blacken his opponents. In the case of
Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline), who had
stood before and failed to be elected, this was
not difficult. Catiline had been served with
notice of trial for extortion when he was
governor of -Africa in 67. He was also under
suspicion for several murders, including that of
his own son, conspiring against the state, and
having sex with a vestal virgin. Cicero was elected by an overwhelming
majority, to serve with Gaius Antonius as the other consul. Cicero
made a deal with Antonius. In return for being allowed to exercise sole
power, he made over to him the rich province of Macedonia which was
Cicero's post-consular privilege.
There were further significant elections in 63 BC. On the death of the
incumbent pontifex maxim us, Caesar offered himself for election as his
successor and, against all the odds, succeeded, mainly by extensive
bribery of the electorate. He saw the post and its perks, which included
an extensive house in the Via Sacra, as a further opportunity to exert
political influence, and he gambled everything on it. As he left his

f\ oegmner s umoe
home in Subura, an unprepossessing district of th :ity where
provisions were sold and prostitutes plied their trade, his mother, in
went with him to the door. He kissed her goodbye and said,
'Today I shall be pontifex maximus or an exile for ever.'
Later in the year, in October, Catiline stood again as a candidate for the
consulship and, once again, failed to be elected.
Caesar further consolidated his position on the political ladder by
being elected praetor for 62. Catiline, on the other hand, baulked for
the third time of his goal, mounted a coup to overthrow the state. It was
said that he bound his fellow conspirators into the plot by killing a boy
and pronouncing an oath over the entrails, which they all then ate. The
basic plan had been laid down some time earlier for just such an
eventuality. Gaius Manlius, who had been a centurion in Sulla's army,
would raise a military force in Etruria, to the north of the city, ready to
march on Rome. Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, a former consul who
had subsequently been expelled from the senate, but was now back in
office as praetor, would instigate a riot in the city and organize the
assassination of Cicero and other leading members of the
establishment. Catiline would appear as if in response to the needs of
both his supporters and his opponents, and be appointed dictator.
The plot failed because one of the leading conspirators, Quintus
Curius, blabbed to his high-born mistress Fulvia, that he would shortly
be in the money, thus hoping to retain her affections at a time when her
interest in him was on the wane. She extracted some information from
him and leaked it to members of the senate. Crassus went straight to
Cicero with the evidence, and Cicero acted.
He called a meeting of the senate, and obtained the necessary powers
to proceed against the conspirators once sufficient evidence had been
gathered. Catiline was allowed to join his army in Etruria. Lentulus and
four others were arrested. Cicero convened the senate to discuss what
should be done with them. In his opening speech he indicated that he
favoured the death penalty. The consuls elect and ex-consuls agreed

I
I
-
Caesar - The Politician 72-59 Be 21
with him. Caesar was then called upon to speak. At the close of a long,
carefully argued address, he proposed instead that the estates of the
accused should be confiscated, and that they should be imprisoned for
life in various of the bigger towns in Italy.
When it seemed that Caesar's oratory had
swung the vote, Cato, tribune of the plebs, stood
up. Cicero had taken the precaution of
discreetly disposing around the senate-house a
number of his slaves who were skilled
shorthand writers, so that he had a written
record of the speech. Predictably, Cato
advocated death for the conspirators, while
attacking Caesar for offering leniency to those who aimed to subvert
the state by terrorism. Cato halted in his harangue when he saw a
folded note being brought in and handed to Caesar. He demanded that
Caesar read it out. Instead, Caesar passed it to him. It was a letter of
encouragement to Caesar from his current, and for some time
favourite, mistress, Servilia, who was Cato's half-sister. Cato flung it
back at him -and resumed speaking.
The sentence was confirmed as death. The accused were collected from
the praetors' homes where they had been kept under house arrest.
Cicero himself accompanied Lentulus to the state prison, where
Lentulus was let down into a small, stinking dungeon, and strangled.
Then the other four were executed, one by one, in the same manner. It
was Cicero's finest hour.
When the news reached Etruria, many of Catiline's soldiers melted
away. The rest were finally hunted down, and slaughtered, Catiline
with them.
Caesar's spell of office as praetor in 62 was eventful. While Catiline was
still at large, Caesar was suspended from his duties by the senate for
supporting a motion that Pompey should be recalled from the east
with his army to restore order. He took off his praetorian robe,
22
Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
dismissed his lictors, the guards who walked in front of officials of state
cariJing the symbols of power, and went home. A noisy crowd
probably not spontaneously, in favour of his
reinstatement. Caesar went out and begged them to desist. The senate,
won over by his dignified behaviour, asked him to resume his office.
The festival of Bona Dea, the 'good goddess', was celebrated in the first
week of December each year at the house of a senior officer of the state.
It was a mystical ceremony, involving secret rites, and strictly for
women only. In 62, the venue was the official residence of Caesar, in his
capacity of pontifex maximus. Publius Clodius, a notorious upper-class
lout, decided to infiltrate the ceremony in drag. Some said it was
because he fancied Caesar's wife Pompeia, who was in charge of the
proceedings, but it was equally likely to have been done as a prank. He
was discovered, recognized, and thrown out of the house. There was a
fine rumpus! Caesar promptly divorced Pompeia. Clodius was haled
into court on a charge of sacrilege. Caesar refused to testify against
him. When asked by the prosecutor why, then, he had divorced
Pompeia, he replied enigmatically: 'My wife must not even be thought
to be under suspicion: Cicero, called to the witne$S stand, demolished
Clodius's alibi, for which Clodius never forgave him. Crassus bribed the
jury, and Clodius was acquitted.
THE RElGN lN SPAlN
Caesar's next post was that of governor of Further Spain, for which he
would have departed much sooner had his creditors not impounded
his carriage and wagon train. He was saved from embarrassment by
Crassus, who paid the necessary bills. Once in Spain, Caesar gave less
thought to public business or the administration of justice, than to the
acquisition of money to pay off Crassus and settle other debts, and
military glory to support his claim to the consulship for 59. He was
successful on both counts. Indeed, he made so much money from
booty, tribute, and by ot.her means that he sent some back to the public
treasury in Rome, and bolstered the pay packets of his legionaries and
the auxiliary soldiers whom he enlisted locally.
I

\\n
v\1
"'

; j
l5
Cll
"
"' i

o;
0 >
:::>
a:
...,
w (/}
a.
-;
"


)!
E
c
E!' e


(JI g
"'
"
{ g li
if

e! >= ?}J
.. -11 .s Iff
" U)

c:
il: a. il
..
-"'
..
c:

..
.,
..
::;
.... J


;igg
i
&.

It
IL
>-
ffl
)

;
...
...

:a

v

N

;:g
1
:=;
..
'
!
1
J

1
i
'
i
i
24 Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
On the military front he discovered his talent for large-scale
He mounted a campaign against the province's brigands,
$<lefeating them by a combination of military and naval operations, and
relieving them of their booty. He showed off the strength of Rome in
places inhabited by independent local tribes, including Brigantium on
the north coast. There was no military glory to be got from peaceful
submission, so wherever there was the slightest excuse, he destroyed
their towns. Then, in the summer of 60, without waiting for his
successor to arrive, he set off back home, bent on announcing his
candidature for the consulship.
There were, however, one or two technical
problems to be overcome. The senate had
granted Caesar a triumph for his campaign
against the Spanish brigands. A victorious
general had to remain outside the city limits
until the day of his triumph if he was to retain
his command. To qualify for election he had to
register his candidature personally in Rome.
Since Pompey had already tried to stand for the
consulship in absentia, and had been refusedz..
There was no way that Caesar would be allowed to register by
bowed to the inevitable, and presented himself in person, thus
-
forfeiting his command and his triumph. The senate retaliated in a
rather childish manner. As consular colleague, Caesar was lumbered
with Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, whom he hated - Bibulus was also
...
Cato's son-in-law. Then the senate blocked Caesar's way to rich
pickings,after his consulship by assigning him, as his province, the care
'woodlands and mountain pastures'.
THE CONSUl
Caesar's first act when he took office was to get Pompey fully behind
him by proposing a land bill which would enable the settlement of
Pompey's veterans from his eastern campaigns. His second was to
establish an understanding with Pompey and Crassus, that none of
I 11'- 0 ....... ._ .. _ _ _ _ -
them would take any political action of which either of the others
disapproved. This informal alliance is known as the First Triumvirate,
literally, 'rule (or board) of three men'. Caesar had the c;:harisma and
popular appeal, Crassus the money, and Pompey his troops. Cicero was
invited to join them, but refused, thus putting himself in the wrong
with all three.
Caesar further bound Pompey to him by giving him his daughter Julia
in marriage, though she was already engaged to someone else. Julia was
Pompey's fourth wife and, though she was over 20 years younger than
him, it was a happy marriage, prematurely ended by her death five
years later.
Business in the senate became farcical. Instead of following the rules of
precedence, Caesar would call on either Crassus or Pompey to open the
proceedings. Determined to push through his land bill, he had Cato
arrested for attempting to talk it out by filibustering. Cato was released
only because so many members of the senate chose to accompany him
to jail. Caesar now took the bill to the popular assembly, of which his
crony, Publius Vatinius, was tribune. An attempt by Bibulus to
intervene while Caesar was speaking was met by armed force. He was
physicaJly abused and had a basketful of dung tipped over him.
The next day Bibulus called a meeting of the senate to get a state of
emergency declared. When he failed in this, he resorted to the
ingenious tactic of announcing that the omens were unfavourable,
thus ensuring that business was suspended. Caesar ignored the
interruption. Bibulus retired to his house for the remainder of the
session, ostensibly to watch the sky for further phenomena. This left
Caesar free to act on his own for the rest of the year. Various jokes
circulated, such as signing off spoof documents with the phrase,
'Executed in the consulship of Julius and Caesar'.
Not that all Caesar's legislation was self-seeking. In particular he
promoted a law ensuring that provincial citizens could initiate
prosecutions where they felt that they had been subjected to extortion;
26 Ju1ius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
it remained in force for several hundred years. But when all is said and
dQll.e, his principal objectives were to secure his future as potential
of the state, and to ensure that he could not be prosecuted for
any malpractice during his year of office. He and Pompey decided that
the consuls for the next year would be Aulus Gabinius and Lucius
Calpurnius Piso, who were duly elected. Gabinius, as tribune of the
people in 66, had presented the law conferring on Pompey the
command of the campaign against the pirates. Piso, according to
contemporary accounts, was an unprincipled debauchee who, during
his post-consular office as governor of Macedonia, shamelessly
exploited his post. He was also Caesar's father-in-law, for in 59 the
consul had married Piso's daughter, Calpurnia.
It was Vatinius, in the popular assembly, who fixed Caesar's chosen
command, governor of Cisalpine Gaul (that is, Gaul 'this side of the
Alps') and Illyricum for a period of five years. Since there could be no
Roman troops in Italy south of the river Rubicon, which marked the
border with Cisalpine Gaul, whoever governed the province effectively
commanded the rest of Italy too. If Caesar wanted military prestige,
Illyricum offered a take-off point for attacking the troublesome
Dacians. Then there came a stroke of luck for
Caesar, such as happens to great men. The
tribes beyond the province of Transalpine Gaul
(roughly corresponding to Provence and
Languedoc), began massing for trouble, among
themselves and with Rome. Metellus Celer had
been appointed governor of Transalpine Gaul,
with a brief to prosecute the war against the
tribes if necessary. He died on his way to take up
his post. Pompey successfully argued in the
senate that Caesar should take on Metellus's
command as an additional responsibility.
Caesar had one more piece of business to
conduct before marching off to glory. He
t'
Caesar - The Po1itician 72-59 sc 27
needed someone in .__.! popular assembly to replace Vatinius, whose
term of office as tribune ended in 59: preferably someone as ruthless
and audacious as Caesar was himself. His choice fell on the odious
Publius Clodius. The fact that Clodius was a patrician, and therefore
ineligible, was no problem. Caesar, as consul and pontifex maximus,
had Clodius formally adopted by a plebeian, Publius Fonteius, who was
younger than his adoptive son.
Clodius performed his duties to perfection. He introduced a law by
which anyone who had executed a Roman citizen without trial should be
outlawed. That took care of Cicero, who went into voluntary exile in
Thessalonica. Clodius then ordered the annexation of Cyprus, and had
Cato posted there as governor. With his two most eloquent and able
adversaries out of the way, Caesar was able with greater peace of mind to
'
pursue his elaborate vision of himself at the centre of the known world.
'
f
1
\...\.1-A. \'w-
,..

C U o\-do lr \t_ J
VII
The Domination of .Caesar
1
I. CONDITIONS IN GAUL
When by the lex Vatinia in 59 (p. II9) the provinces
of Gaul and Illyricum, he must have been well satisfied.
Cjlpiw Gaul provided a fine recruiting grouud and it was near
enough to Rome to allow him to keep in touch with policicaf
tJ events. 1t n two fronts: while cam :ugrung m
U I ( t, e north he must defend and consolidate his political stan g m
Rome against all attacks. Further, illyricum offered him the prospect
of campaigning against Burebistas, king of the Dacians (living in
what is now Roumania), who had created an extensive empire in
')

-

1:::5 -
'-.j\[)
d
the Danubian lands and threatened the frontiers of Macedonia.
2
Since Caesar concentrated three of his four legions at Aquileia he
appears to have intended to deal with h.is potential menace to the
north-east frontiers of the Roman empire, where he might possibly
have anticipated the achievement of Augustus. But when the Senate
suddenly added Transalpine Gaul to his other provinces, the direc-
';:l tion of his interest turned rather to the north-west.
Since the defeat of (he Teutones at Aquae Sextiae by Marius, con-
a;.... ditjons in Gallia Transalpina not been very happy: Roman
1 and business-men followed the annies, and Cicero in the
j speech which he delivered in defence of M. Fonteius, who had been
( govemor c. 76-74 after a revolt stimulated by Sertorius' successes,
..- reveals how heavy was the burden of the unfortunate provincials:
6 'Nor a single sesterce in Gaul ever changes hands without being
<:;, entered ln the accounc-bonks of Roman citizens.' The governorship


ofL. Murena (64-63), who bad Clodius on his staff, was not a hap-
pier period, and so unsatisfactory was the Roman response to an
appeal for relief from debt from the Allobroges, whose envoys had
made contact with the Catilinarian conspirators, that they rebelled
(6I) but were reduced after the destruction of Valentia (Valence).
130
a-
T

t

!{

l

f

,.
,
f
f
f
f
I
!
'
l

I
l
!
!
CONDITIONS IN GAUL 131
Q.uter C..aul. or Gallia Comata ('long-haired Gaul') as the _ ___,_
Ro1Tia11S called it, was a vast coun.try. Its population was mixed but
predominantly Celtic;
3
there was a substratum of pre-Celtic
I6erians and Ligurians, but the Celts, who had come in from over
the Rhine (from c. Boo B.C.), occupied most of the land. The :Bel_g:e,
another group of Celts (with some German admixture), settled
north of the Seine and Marne about 200, and not very long before
Caesar's day some of them had crossed the Channel and settled in
S.E. :Britain. The civilization of the Gauls was mixed, in some
respects advanced, in others backward. They practised agriculture
and stoCk:tireedlilg, IIliiiilig and meta.1lifrgy. They made use
fiDe nver system to develop commerce, first no doubt
by the example of the Greek colony of Massilia near the mouth of
the Rhone; and for trade they used coinage, both Greek and native
copies. Their predominant lan ua e was naturally Celtic, but they
did not ow writing, except the Druids who used a reek script.
They had developea some small town centres (e.g. Avaricum
= Bourges; Cenabum = Orleans), but they were eolitically back-
ward. Most of their claus (pqgi) had united into tribes (civitates)
WhiCh were often at war with one another. Tribal king'; survived
among the :Belgae and in Britain, but elsewhere they hacl mostly
been replaced by aristocracies with one or more atmual magistrates.
The bulk of tl1e opulation was probably in a state of semi-serfdom.
The nobility to some extent s ar po 1t1ca power a11 wca t
with Druids, a privileged religious hierarchy which was excused (
from taxation and military seiVice.
4
These priests, who met annually ) -f.-
under an arch-Druid in the district of the Carnutes, took a large part
in the administration of justice, but they probably did not. gre<ttly
help the political unification of the country because they may have
been-divided among themselves as were the nobles. Their religious
views are obscure, but tl1ey believed in the immortality of the soul,
indulged in .human sacrifice, and worshipped their gods in groves
without temples or images.
J
.J

Since the Gauls lacked political uni , their military efforts were
naturally weaken tn es and U l (
b a
-:.w
132 THE DOMINATION OF CAESAR
though not in Britain. serfs and retainers of the nobles were not
well-train.ed or discipliiied. Thus Caesar may have hoped for easy
victoi]!_
- R oman intervention resulted from two tribal movements, those
of the Germanic b Ariovistus and of the Celtic Helvetii:"
.ese two eo les had lo been in ho,ti.le contact. From a out
400 B.C. the Helvetii had occupied an area sou o e Maine and
east of the Rhine (Baden, Wurttemberg, and part of Bavaria) until
at the end of the second century they had been driven southwards
J
into Switzerland by the German Suebi who in their expansion south-
west reached the Rhine. Even in their new home the Helvetii were
l subjected to constant German pressure from the north. Soon, how-
Jl ever, the Suebi were offered a chance to advance into Gaul. The
.y S. strongest tribe in central Gaul, the Aedui (south-west ofDijon), who
J were Friends of Rome, were at loggerheads with their easterly
b J. j neighbours, the Sequani. The latter short-sightedly invited the
t Suebic Ariovistus to come to their help from over the Rhine. Noth-
CL I ing loth, he came and assisted them to defeat the Aedui, but then he
)
. settled down in Alsace with large numbers of his German followers,
and refused to budge despite pressure from the Sequani and Aedui
qJ whom this common threat now united. The Aedui then appealed to
j. d their Roman friends, but the Senate failed to follow up an initial
_.JJ promise ofhelp, and two years later Ariovistus was even recognized
as a Friend of the Roman People, perhaps as a temporizing measure.
=( -J J The second disturbance arose from the Helvetii (in Switzerland);
.1- feeling German pressure from Alsace and from over the Rhine, they
.:f" d _. decided to seek new homes in western Gaul by a mass migration.
2 j This was lanned to start 58 d t o pass peacefully through
a f: oman ternto near Geneva.
2. THE REDUCTION OF GAUL (58-56 B.c. )"
l ).(I\\ In the spring o 58 reached Caesar that the Helvetii had burned
"J their homes an ere on the move, men, women and children
numbering over a third of a IDillion. With one legion he hastened
( to block their route j ust west .of Gene:va and thus forced them nonh-
)o wards through the territory of the Sequan:i. He followed, joined
\
flPJ,cr" soon by :five more legions. His motives in thus seclcim!: war with the
y-Helvetii must remain uncer tain, whether the desire for personal

:G
,,
J


&
THE REDUCTION OF GAUL 133
or a genuine conviction that only by such action
could tlielllture safety of the frontiers of the Roman province be
safeguarded; at any rate he any attempt at a purdy diplo-
matic settlement, as for instance an effort to unite the Gallic tribes
against Ariovistus and the Germans. His excuse might be the
Helvetian attack on his troops near Geneva or that on the Aedui after
they had crossed the Saone. However that may be, he followed them
up until he had to turn aside for supplies to the Aeduan capital of
Bibracte (near Autun). The Helvetii, who unexpectedly followed
him there, were decisively beaten after a tense struggle, but for the
most part tliey were allowed to return to their original country,
where they would help to cover the Roman province against Ger-
man pressure. ,r C<.- S ue.\o 1
Caesar was now urged by the Gauls to eject Ariovistgs, whose
earlier request to become a Friend of the Roman People Caesar him-
self had supported. This may not have worried Caesar unduly. but
in any case Ariovistus made hostilities easier when in an interview
later he insulted Caesar with some home-truths, including a re-
minder that Caesar's death would rejoice many a noble in Rome.
Caesar then occupied Vesontio (Besanc;:on), where for a moment his
men wavered until they were recalled to duty by his threat to
advance alone with his crack legion, the Tenth; never again during
his Gallic campaigns did his troops falter. Confidence restored, he
advanced through the Belfort Gap and along the eastern slopes of
the Vosges until he encountered Ariovistus' force (perhaps near
Cernay). Mter a tough struggle, which was only saved Wiieii
young P. 'Crassus on his own lDlriatlve threw m the reserves on tlie
left wmg at the decisive moment, the Germans fled defeated to the
!Urine; Ariovistus died soon afterwardS.
Caesar put his troops mto wmter quarters at Vesonti
own province;an.d returned to Cisalpine (.;aul. tie may havel:relreve
that a withdrawai would provoke a fresh German invasion: at any
rate, he was clearly taking over responsibility for the Rhine frontisr
control of the lands of the Aedui and Se When
news rea e t at the reat confedera of the B ae in the
north-east was making _ tary preparations, no do t in anticipa-
tion of further Roman advances, he raised two more legions in
Cisalpine Gaul and @1arched against them. He established a. .:1
.----
. j 134 THE DOMINATION OF CAESAR
..._ bridge-head over the .Aisne, where he gained the support of the
H 5" ltemi, and the Belgae who despite their numbers failed to organize
j a full-scale assault on his position gradually dispersed. The Suessiones
_9 (near Scissons), Bellovaci (around Beauvais) and Ambiani (near
J v Amiens) submitted, but the Nervii further nQith (at Hainault)
j resisted and nearly defeated Caesar on !;he Sambre: however, he
J ea t he overcame the Nervii'.
{ eantime oung Cras d advanced throug Normandy and
d Brittany without r opposition. Thus in two years the greater part
tOd oj Gaul had been over-run, if not conquered> and Cicero in Rome
d c/) well Illlght move that a public thanks su oli -

an unprece ent , e ecreed by the Senate for Caesar's
achievements.
Iii 6 it b that Gaul was b no means con uered.
Caesar himself had to hurry off where he reached e
a eement b which his command would be rolon ed until at
t the end of so: he could now p on Wl es. Meantime t e
Veneti (in Brittany) had Jl!tented of their submission, especially
when they heard rumours t Caesar rmght mvade Bntain and thus
interfere with their cross-Channel trade. The Morini (opposite
1
;{
Dover) and the Menapii (at the mouth of the Rhine) also were rest-
.t less, and another German invasion was feared. Caesar sent Labienus
r the Germans and Belgae, while Q. Sabinus overran Nor-

mandy, and P. Crassus reduced the Aquita:n in the south-west


{ between the Garonne and Pyrenees. Caesar himself moved agamst
f the V eneg, but could achieve nothing by land, since most of their
d settlements were on peninsulas . .f,.t last a fleet under Decimus Brutus
was made ready. In a naval action in Qw'beron Bay the lighter
Roman ships were at a disadvantage against the heavy oaken ocean-
going vessels of the Veneti, until they managed to cut the enemy's
rigging with scythes fixed on long poles: entirdy dependent on sail,
the Venetie ships were then at the mercy of the Roman oared fleet.
Caesar took savage deterrent action against the Veneti: their council..,.
lors were executed and the population sold into slavery. Then he
advanced against the Morini in Flanders, but their marshes saved
them.
I
,fk

v ..
\J j_ +

I
I
t;
I
I

I
I
I
;

I
t
r
I
.
l
1
GERMANY AND BRITAIN 135
3 GERMANY AND BRITAIN (55-54 B.C.)
Two tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, who had been driven west-
wards over the Rhine by the Suebi, formed Caesar's next victims.
When they refused his offer of land on the e<JSt of the Rhine he
annihilated them, robabl near Xanten, and barbarouslv
rrdo
<!0
err women and children. In. Rome ato ro osed that Caesar
should be handed over to the Germans, ut his moral indignation
Will have been reinforced by political motives, and he achieved cr
1

no . Caesar's terrible warnings to th !: that they must c.b ... ,.:....
keep to their side of the Rhine was strengthened by a Roman
demonstratlon on the east ban Skilled engineers built a
-ridge over the river (near Andemach or the Lorelei) in ten days,
ut the army that crossed over met no massed enemy and afte
ravaging the lands of the Sugambri, returned after eighteen days,
destroying the bridge behind it.
Though it was late in the summer (55) Caesar launched his first
attack across the Channel on Britain. a His excuse might be the help
that BritiSh tribes 6d given to the Gauls, but he will not have been
urunindfnl of the glory that Pompey gained from conquests on the
fringe of the known world, nor of the mineral wealth of the island. '"?
The Belgic tribes in the south-east had made considerable material
progress, and apart from the old trade in Cornish tin, the island was
reputed to be rich in pearls and precious metals. The invasion was
brief. In face of the Britons Caesar effected a landing (near Deal?)
with two legions, and the tribal chiefs in Kent submitted, but a
storm wrecked his ships which were drawn up on the open beach;
yet he succeeded in holding off hostile attacks, refitted his fleet and
reached Bologne just before the equinox. R\
In(s4'Y.!e returned to Britain with flVe legions and 2009 Gallic Cv \2J
cava!?(. Marching inland he met and defeated the Kemish forces G
near Canterbury, bur had to return to the coast where his Reet had
again been wrecked: he had not discovered an adequate harbour nor
learnt the lesson of the previous year. He now turned to meet the
Belgic chiefs who united their forces under Cassivellannus, lcing of
che Catuvellaun.i in Henfordshire. After forcing the Thames. Caesar
received the submission of the Trinovantes in Essex, who were
hostile to Cassivellaunus, and stormed the k.ing5St!Onghold {at

.....-

,Vrcg
I36
----L.... 4 REVOLT AND RECONQUEST
Gaul was restless ven e ore t e secon British expedition there
ha een trouble among the Trcveri and the Aeduan leader Dum-
norix had been killed for disloyalty. Caesar was therefore compelled
to spread his forces oyer a wide area of N.E. Gaul for the coming
winrer (s.d./31 Ambiorix, king of the Eburones (in the Ardennes)
struck first and after treacherously luring the troops under Sabinus
and Cotta out of their camp at Atuatuca (near Liege) he destroyed
them. tried the same trick on Q. Cicero (the orator's
brother), but he wisely stood siege in his camp until relieved by
Caesar who hastened up from his headquarters at Samarobriva
(Amiens). Labienus managed to suppress the During the
winter Caesar increased his force to ten legions by raising two new
ones and borrowing another from Pompey. In the course of the year
he reduced the disunited rebels, the Senones, Carnutes, Menapii and
Eburones; he also crossed the Rhine again. By devastating the j
country of the Eburones and executing some other leaders he
attempted to overawe all opposition, but he probably sensed that all
was not well. ..
News of disturbances in Rome after the death Clodius 52
encouraged a vast rising in cenc:ral Ga , w at st oun a true
leader in the Arvemian Chie V ercmgetorix.l Caesar hastened back
, . _r::;'\ from Cisalpine Gaul, where he had spent the winter, but he reached
his army at Agedincum (Sens) only with difficulty, coming through
the thick snows of the Cevennes and eluding Vercingetorix, who in
vain tried to force a scorched-earth policy on his supporters. Mter
attackiilg and fulally stormmg Avancum (Bourges), Caesar sent
Labienus against the Senones and Parisii and himself marched against
Gergovia (near Clermont-Ferrand), but in attempting to storm the
fortress he met with his first real defeat at the hands of the Gauls.
This encouraged the Aedui to join the revolt. Caesar linked up with
!



:t

t
t
I
I
l
REVOLT AND RECONQUEST 137
Labienus, who had won a victory near Lutetia (Paris) and then
moved south, hut on the way, perhaps near Vix, he fell in with Ver-

torix whom he worsted and forced into the hill-town of


Around this isolated hill Caesar built a double ring of earth-
' one to keep Vercingetorix in, the other facing outwar ' '
t tlle inevitable Galli - - -
,..
illic army of rellef.
1
ThiS fil:tally arrived, a
quarte.r ot a mll.llon strong it Caesar is to "'be believed, but its attack
'on his lines failed; it then withdrew and Vercingetorix surrendered
in an attempt to save his men. After six years in captivity this great
champion of Gallic freedom was led in Caesar's triumph and then
executed.
After this titanic strug le the Aedui and Arvemi submitted, but
some other tri es aug ton, per aps in e know e e t Caesar's
command would soon end. The Bellovaci were not conquered until
1

in SI Caesar moved up seyen lons against them, while some
survivors from a defeated force of tribes in the west took refuge in
the almost impregnable hill of Uxellodunum (north of the Dor-
dogne) where they held out w1til Caesar cut off their water supply.
One of the Gallic guerrilla leaders was Commius, whom Caesar in
57 had made Icing of the Atrebates and thereafter had used as an
agent especially in Britain; he now managed to escape and fled
finally to Britain, where he established a dynasty of the British
Atrebat . in Hampshire. Caesar spent the rest of the year and the
ne 50 t n to heal die sav e wound:s that he had iriHicted on 1)'\V
. m this e proved as suecessful as in war. He imposed a
moderate tribute, whiCh he left to the Gauls themsel:ves to collect, f
and he let their tribal institutions alone. This conciliatory policy, lf-
though parallel to the dementia that he later showed to his political '"T
eiJemies in Rome, doubtless derived some support from the con- J C
sideration that he would need a contented Gaul if he were to cross
swords with the senatorial government. And for this struggle, if it
came, he had won a devoted army, wealth and a reputation in arms
to equal Pompey.
Few men could have achieved Caesar's success, which was perha s
ort a peno y

138 THE DOMINATION OF CAESAR
effort at Alesia long trembled in the balance. By common consent
he is one of the world's greatest soldiers, and clearly his qualities can

strateg1c and tacttcal brilliance, his famous '!e1er,tas, his orgaruz.a-
tion ot supplies, hiS use of engineering skills, or his drive and
_eersoilil magnetism whi<;h inspired all ranks. All these he needed to
'7JE enable the better-armed and disciplined legionaries to overcome
brave men who were fighting for their liberty.
/ I The Gauls fought for freedom, but freedom for what? There is
r little to suggest that, if left alone, they would have composed their
internal rivalries and have given their land peace instead of warfare.
!p.deed, if Rome had not stepped in. the Germans would probably
have done so; and they would have brought, not a higher civiliza-
J tion, but a retrogression to barbarism. Whether Caesar, who did not
I
shrink from ruthlessness and atrocity when he regarded these as
necessary, always jud ed the need ' ht, unbiased by personal con-
(' S1 eranons an am ition, cannot be said with co ce. Roman
- 6 non t ve inltrate into Gaul more
S 1 o y e Germans did not oo over e e. As it was, a
.!J generation bled, suffered and died, the succeeding one enjoyed
c peace, thanks to their predecessors' sacrifice and to the wisdom of
_q-Q... thetr conqueror's filial settlement. His conquest of GaUl represents
a vital act in world history: central Europe was opened UR,.. to
..J- _; .1\i<:diterrapeap civilization, and on the Celtic foundation there grew
I + up a peaceful Latin civilization; this was made possible by Rome's
I
hold on the Rhine frontier and it became so deeply rooted that,
when the fron.tier finally broke as the Roman Empire itself col-
\p lapsed centuries later, it survived the Germanic flood that followed
V
\\ and France emerged into the modern world as a Latin country. In
that sense Caesar was the founder of france.
5. CIVIL WAR IN ITALY, AFRICA AND SPAIN (49 B.C.) 8
When Caesar crossed the Rubicon (p. u6) the scales must have
seemed heavily weighted against him. He had with him only one
legion, control of the Po valley and of Gaul, and some political
support in Rome, whereas Pompey, backed by the Senate, had all
the rest ofitaly, Spain, all the eastern provinces, and control of the
sea and the com-supply. But he had only two legions in Italy, and
I
I
I
i

f.
"

f
i
CIVIL WAR IN ITALY, AFRICA AND SPAIN 139
since these were the two that he had taken from Caesar (p. r26) he
dared not risk an attack until he had raised more troops. Caesar
scruck first, with his usual speed: though it was winter, he pressed
down the east coast, seized the passes to Etruria, and overran
Picenum. Thus menaced, the consuls and Senate left Rome for
Capua, and Pompey aimed at building up his forces in Apulia. His
scheme was wrecked by the obstinate folly ofL. Domitius Aheno-
barbus, who had been appointed governor of Transalpine Gaul in
succession to Caesar and was thus not subordinate to Pompey.
Domitius, despite Pompey' s advice and pleas,
9
insisted on trying to
hold out against Caesar at Corfinium, where after a short blockade he
was forced to capitulate. The addition ofDomitius' men to Caesar's
forces tilted the balance of legions against Pompey, who was thus
compelled to withdraw to Brundisium, where he very skilfully
embarked his men in face of Caesar's hasty attempt to thwart him;
he then sailed across to Greece, leaving Caesar master ofltaly after
some two months' campaigning.
During these months at least three attempts at conciliation had
been made. When Caesar was still at Ariminum he received an
official communication from the Senate and a private message from
Pompey. Caesar's reply envisaged roughly a renewal of their
alliance, in which of course he would inevitably predominate.
Though Pompey accepted most of Caesar's suggestions, negotia-
tions broke down when Pompey insisted that he should continue to
levy troops for the present. After the fall of Corfinium Caesar made
another attempt, but the terms of Pompey's reply are not knovm;
and again at .Brundisium Pompey refused to meet him.
1
From
Brundisium Caesar returned to Rome after taking steps to secure
Sicily and Sardinia. Already he had got a praetor, L. Roscius, to
carry a bill to grant full franchise to the Transpadanes.
11
When. he
, reached Rome, no proscriptiollS followed on the pattern of Marius
and Sulla: he merely collected what senators he could and tried to
persuade them to renew peace negotiations with Pompey, but noth-
ing came of it. Since he needed money, he disregarded tribunician
obstruction, broke into the Aerarium and helped hi.mself. Then
leaving Aemilius Lepidus in charge of Rome as praefectus urbi, an
office that had lapsed since the time of the Kings, and M. Antony
in charge ofltaly, after a fortnight in the capital Caesar went off to
;
Caesar -- The General
BC
In less than ten years in Gaul, Caesar successfully stormed over eight
hundred cities, subdued three hundred tribes, and fought hand-to-
hand battles against a total of three million warriors, of whom he
killed a million, and took as many more prisoner.
Plutarch, Caesar 15
The predominately Celtic tribes of Gaul maintained a loose, sometimes
adversarial, relationship with each other. Though they had not
developed the art of writing, they had other skills, such as 111etal work,
weapon-making and agriculture, to a high degree. They had natural
resources and they had space. An enforced colonization would enable
the Romans to emerge out of the restrictions imposed by the narrow
land of Italy, while at the same time the buffer zone between
Rome and the dangerous tribes of Germany all
the way along the Rhine. There is, therefore,
some economic and social, as well as political,
justification for Caesar's campaigns in Gaul.
THE CAMPAlGN OPENS 58 BC
The first people to show their hand were the
Helvetti, who occupied the territory equivalent
to modern Switzerland. They felt threatened
not only by the Germanic ttiQ.es across the
Rhine, but also by their neighbours in Gaul, the
Aedui and the Seguan.i . As other civilizations
had done in similar circumstances, they set out
2!1 a vast migration, aiming to settle on the west
coast of Gaul.

_o


<-..::; \17:\
i
1
;:

\..at::)(ll - I IJC UCIICidl :J0-"1':7 DL "-"J
The preferred route of the Helvetti took them through Transalpine
Gaul. At Geneva, Caesar broke dom their bridge"' over the Rhone and
- -
headed them off. The determined Helvetti now tried a more northern
which took them through the territory of the Seguani and into
;)
that of the Aedui
1
who appealed for help from Rome. ftaesar, delightedC:;f
with a legitimate excuse for aggression, marched against them with his j
four legions, reinforced by two m2!; which he had hastily recruited
from non-Roman citizens of his province of Cisalpine
of Bibracte'=Caesar's first experience of a set-piece confrontatiOJ?-, was a
triumph for tactical inspiration and Roman discipline.
4
Caesar drew up his army on the downward slope of a hill in the classic \ aa.t:.rl
Roman formation of three lines, each eight men deep. His javelin fire
was enough to disperse the massed ranks of Helvetti, who withdrew to
a neighbouring hill slope and rallied their men. The Romans advanced
against them in formation, only to be attacked on the left flank by
15,000 warriors of the tribes of Boii and Tulungi, who were part of the
migration but had not so far been involved in the hostilities. Cahnly,
Caesar ordered his third line to about-turn, and then right-wheel t
face this new threat, while his first two ranks still engaged the en em ...
The result was total victory on both fronts.
The next trouble came from Ariovistus, chief of the Suebi, a Germanic
tribe east of the Rhine. In return for aidi1"1g the Seguani asainst the
Aedui, he had been dubbed by the senate a 'friend of
was harassing the Aedui by settling members of his tribe rather too
on land to which he was not fully entitled. The Aedui
called on Caesar to remove him. Clearly this was a case first for trying
diplomacy, but before that Caesar was called upon to put fire into the
bellies of his army, some sectors of which were less than happy at the
prospect of meeting the fearsome German hordes. He all his
""centurions and, in a rousing harangue, announced that he was going to
break camp during the final watch of the night: 'And even if no one else
follows me, I shall march with the Tenth Legion alone.' -
- u. :.-=J
M, !l:;s.e.A Ao-'' _.
e

i
"
30
Julius Caesar- A Beginner's Guide
Caesar caught up with Ariovistus at Vesontiq, where he made some
wetence at negotiating a peaceful settlement. Neither side trusted the
-c:' Ariovistus insisted that Caesar appear only with a cavalry escort,
no legionaries. Caesar borrowed some horses from his Gallic auxili
cavalry sguadron and mounted on them crack infantrymen from the
Tenth Legion. When the battle finally began, after six days of fencing
and skirmishing, both sides charged at each other so fiercely that there
was no time for the Romans to hurl their javelins. They just ran in with
their swords. Caesar, on his own right wing, shattered the enemy
....
opposite hirp. The Roman left wing was in trouble, but Publius
Crassus, son of Marcus Crassus, who was in charge of the auxiliary
cavalry, saw what was happening and ordered men from the third line
of the right wing to reinforce their comrades on the left af the army.
The threat from the Suebi was over, and those of their tribe who were
p1assing on the eastern bank of the waiting to cross, thought
better of it, and went home.
Caesar had made an excellent start, so mu9h so that he was able to cease
hostilities before _!he end of the campaign season. He billeted his army
for the vvinter among the friendly Sequani, with his legate, Titus
Labienus in charge . .lie himself wintered in Cisalpine Gaul, where he
could keep an eye on what was going on in Rome.

SECOND PHASE 57-54 Be
The mere presence of several legions in Gaul equipped for war was
enough to alarm various tribes of the Belgae in the north, several of
whom formed themselves into a federation
1
with the Nervii prominent
"'
among its ranks. VVhile Caesar was performing a mopping-up
operation on the Somme, the Belgae established themselves on the
e '
.Q.Yth bank of the river Caesar was still making camp on the
north bank, with his line of march, each legion followed by its baggage
wagons, strung out across country, when the Belgae crossed the river in
--
f2_rce, and attackeg.
I
..
!"'
Caesar - The General 58-49 Be 31
There was no time to form ranks. Each man simply rallied to the
nearest standard. Those on the left of the haphazard line, mainly
consisting of men of the Ninth and Tenth legions, stood firm, and then'
drove the opposition back across the river with great The
Nervii, however, under their chief Boduognatus, ..rushed back the
Roman right, and were threatening to encircle it when Caesar arrived
....
from supervising the legions on the left of the line. He seized a shield
.. from a legionary and dashed to the front. There he ran up and down
the line, steadying the ranks, and shouting encouragements to
"Iitdividual centurions by name. 1?9 1. & u
U Q'. . Oj?5o#
The day was saved by the arrival of the two leg!ons who had been
bringing up the rear of the march, and by the ubiquitous Tenth Legion,
whom Labienus ordered to disengage and join the battle on the Roman
right. The fighting complement of the Nervii was wiped out"
men of the tribe, hiding in the countryside with the women and
-
children, surrendered to Caesar, who told them to go back to their
-
homes and ordered neigl).bouring tribes not to molest them. 'S'H"Ar
He was less generous to the Aduatuci. Their warriors had been on their
way to back up the Nervii when they heard of the disaster. They
returned home and, with their families and chattels, fortified
themselves in a hill-top stronghold. Caesar invested the whole town
with a fortified rampart. Then, under protective covering, a ramp and
a siege tower were built. The within the wall laughed, until they
saw the tower moving towards them. Caesar offered to spare their lives,
if they would give up all their arms. This they appeared to do, throwiiig
them down from the top of the ;all. It was only, a partial
decommissioning. That night, several thousand armed Aduatuci broke
out of the town and attacked the Roman camp. Most of them were
killed; the rest retreated back through the gates.The next morning the
Romans forced their way Caesar laconically described the fate of the
inmates: 'Caesar sold off the whole town, lock, stock, and barrel. The
& /_ ' ,_ . /!1
kc.. ..eee. Ail.. ;n,Lrt:,.,# $S'
JL.
JUliUS LoeScH - M. ot:ymru::r \.JUIUt:
gealers gave him a receipt for fifty-three
thousand head of (The Gallic War II,
"'-'!:" 2_:;o) . Slave dealers accompanied armies in
ancient times, hoping to pick up their
merchandise cheaply and in bulk. Sometimes,
however, they got things spectacularly wrong, as
in 165 BC, when they backed the Syrians to
defeat the Maccabaean Jews.
Caesar spent the winter of 57-56 in illyricum
and Cisalpine Gaul. Though his despatches to
the senate had earned in his honour an
unprecedented 15 days of public thanksgiving, he was far from satisfied
with the impact he had been able to make on the global scene. Matters
improved after a conference with Crassus and Pompey at Luca, where
he was promis;d an extension of his comrnanql This was confirmed by
the senate in 55 under pressure, Crassus and Pqmpey having
it that they would be consuls for that year.
Caesar's big thrust in 56 was against the western tribes in what is now
........- ...,_._
Normandy and Brittany. The gcuse was the behaviour of the Veneti.
These maritime people, instead of meeting the Roman request for
....
supplies of corn, had forcibly detained Caesar's envoys, dematJ.ding
exchange for their release the Venetian hostages who bad been banded
over as sureties for the tribe's good conduct. Neighbouring tribes
followed suit . responded by building a fleet of warships on
--- -- Loire, and drafting in rowers a..11d helmsmen
-from Transalpine Gaul. At first, however, the
Roman ships could make little headway against
the local vessels and their crews' local
Roman ingenuity prevailed,
Caesar's naval commander, Decimus Junius
Brutus, devised an implement with sharp
-
hooks mounted on a long pole, which cut the
ropes supporting the yardarms and sails,
t
l
causing them to collapse. The Venetian fleet was now at the mercy of
the oar-driven Roman ships. A naval victory to Caesar! Having suffered
- 4
the loss of all their ships and now their fighting men, the surviving
male population surrendered to him. Caesar decided to make an
example of them for detaining his envoys. He put to death all members
of the council, and sold the rest to the slave dealers. fl./
Trouble flared up in 55 on the other side of Gaul, where the restless
Suebi had displaced other Germanic tribes, who had crossed the Rhine
zue -
during the winter in search of places to settle. Caesar's march took him
to the River Meuse, where protracted negotiations ensued with the
representatives of the Germans. Both sides were guilty of sharp tactics. :.4
Caesar's auxiliary cavalry, advancing under a banner of truce
which had been agreed, were set upon and put to flight by 800 Gefill.an 1
horsemen. When the German leaders came to the Roman camp, as had
been agreed, both to apolog_ize for the behaviour of their cavalry and
to extend the truce, Caesar ordered them to be held in chains. Then he
led .out his army in battle formation
1
with the cavalry at the rear to give
them time to recover from the previous day's mauling.
He covered the 13 kilometres to the German camp before anyone there
was aware of what was afoot. The survivors of the massacre, women
and children among them, were pursued as far as the Rhine, where th_ey
were cut down or drowned. 81lt.IT'II '-

I
As a final show of force, Caesar decided to cross the Rhine into enemy
territory. He refused the offer of friendly tribesmen to ferry his army to
- li
the other side in river boats, as being beneath his dignity. Only the
. most spectacular method was good enough for Caesar! The Rhine at
foblenz is 400 metres wide, and six to eight metres deep.
engineers built a timber bridge right the way across, supported on
massive piles driven into the stony bed of the river at an angle, so that
the poweiful current would not disturb them.- According to Caesar '*-
himself, it was finished in ten days. A research team participated iii""a
television program_me in 2000, in which conditions and methods
34
Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
were duplicated as far as possible, and
concluded that given the human skills and
-
resources available to him, this was
quite feasible.
Caesar now sent his army across into German

territory where, for 18 days, they burned
-
villages and buildings and cut down and
destroyed crops. Then he returned across the
.ridu which, having served its purpose, was
broken up:
CAESAR TN BRlTAlN 55 AND 54 sc
Caesar's two landings in Britain may represent his most famous
military exploits, but they are also his most inglorious. Various reasons
have been suggested for these expeditions i.I)to the unknown. Caesar
himself said that the Celts in Britain had beep supporting the Celts on
,__ J
the mainland and needed teaching a lesson. Suetonius said he was after
f:ar]s, which, if this observation is true, must have proved a great
disappointment, as British pearls were of poor quality. There was
indeed very little of value to be obtained by way of booty, except slaves.
? It is more likely that Caesar feared being recalled by a senate which
4
might regard him as having achieved his objectives in Gaul, and that a
successful campaign would do him no harm in his rivalry with Pompey
for public acclai1n and support.
Though it was now late in the campaigning season, Caesar sent an
officer to spy out the land and report back. This was done, though the
man did not dare actually to disembark, for fear
of what might happen to him in barbarian
hands. Caesar decided to go ahead straight
away with an exploratory expedition. He
assembled the Seventh and Tenth legion at
Boulogne and set sail during the night in the
fleet that had =don; good servic" against the
l Caesar - The General 58-49 BC 3 5
Veneti, with the cavalry to cross separately in 18 transport ships.
\ Because of bad weather, the cavalry was unable to disembark. Caesar
1 sailed eastwards along the coast, looking for somewhere to land his
, C, infantry, while on shore tribesmen tracked the fleet, hurling missiles
and abuse from the cliffs.
, .u' Caesar decided to disembark his army on the shore by Deal, but
because it was low tide his ships could not get in close enough. Instead
his soldiers had to drop down into the water and wade to the beach,
}oaded down with their personal kit, in the face of a concentration of
enemy missiles and cavahy assaults.

There was a general reluctance to proceed, until the aquilifer of the


Tenth shouted out to his colleagues: <Jump, men, if you don't want to
l the eagle to the enemy: at least they'll say of me that I did my duty
to country and my general!' With that, he launched himself into the
' water and waded towards the enemy, carrying the eagle in front of him.
i ! t:The troops, mumbling among themselves about not wishing to be
.. followed him.
"' l f: The brief campaifW a of w:m- some, lose .some. Owing to the
v weather Caesar was still Wlthout his cavalry, which would normally
'ill t have been essential to combat the fast British chariots, each manned by
3 a driver and a warrior. He still defeated .opposing force, and took
a "the statutory hostages. He also saw off a Brrtish attack on the Seventh,
L.. whose men were out in the com-fields foraging for supplies. He was
uc , however, to et his arm back across the Channel at all. He totally
; judged the tides and the weather, and as a result the ships which he
had drawn up on the shore were flooded, and the transports lying out
at anchor were subjected to fierce gales. Several ships broke up and
others were too damaged to sail. Caesar crammed his soldiers into the
ships which had survived and withdrew {Qr the winter.
Before leaving for his province in Italy, Caesar ordered a new invasiol}-
fleet of 600 tra.ns.ports apd 28 galleys to be built to his specifications ...
36
Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
They would be lower in the water and shallower in the draught, for ease
of _Q,eaching and unloading, and the transports would be fitted with
oars as well as sails.
He was all ready to embark in the spring of 54, when trouble blew up
in Gaul. Dumnorix, of the Aedui, had ,Eersuaded several other chiefs to
join him in an armed revolt. The powerful Treveri, who never attended

Caesar's council meetings of tribal representatives, were even actively
negotiating with German tribes across the Rh..i.J?.e.pesar took..fugr
legions and 800 cavalry and force-marched them into the territory of
the Treveri. The solution, however, was one of diplomacy rather than
arms. There were two opposing factions wTthin the Treveri, led
respectively by Cingetorix and Indutiomarus. Cingetorix took the
initiative by pledging his loyalties to Rome. Caesar then rebuffed the
claims of friendship by Indutiomarus and ordered him to hand over
200 hostages, including his son and the rest of his_ family.
When he got back to Boulogne, Caesar sent out orders for all the tribal
chiefs of Gaul to meet him there. Those that arrived who he thought
____,.
might be antagonistic to Rome, he immediately detained, to be kept
under his personal supervision on the expedition to Britain, so that
m
they could not make trouble in his absence. Dumnorix pleaded to be
excused, on the grounds that he was a bad sailor. When Caesar refused
to release him, he escapeq., but was hunted down and killed.
The huge invasion fleet crossed the Channel in July 54. To save time,
Caesar anchored the ships that would with him off the
unprotected shore, rather than drag them up the beach. The rest he
sent back empty to Gaul. Then he marched inland to find the
opposition. Two days later he received the news that his British fleet
had been wrecked agaip.. The damage was catastrophic. Some ships had
dragged their anchors in the storm, or snapped their cables, and had
been bodily thrown up on the beach. Others had crashed against each
other in the water and had broken up. Caesar returned to the scene and
ordered the rebuilding of those ships which were not beyond
1:,


'
Caesar - 1 ne uenerat 01...
_:_epair. To do this he withdrew craftsmen from his legions and obtained
ships' carpenters from Gaul. He also wrote to Labienus in Gaul to have
as many new ships as possible built by the army. Then he started
out again.
The Britons were ready for him. As leader, they had elected
Cassivellaunus, chief of the Catuvellauni, from north of the Thames.
For a time his glferrilla tactics succeeded, but it was inevitable that he
had to make a stand somewhere. At the same time, i.i1. an attempt to
cause a diversion and also paralyse Caesar's lines of communication,
Cassivellaunus sent orders to the maritime tribes in Kent to carry out an
attack on the Roman naval camp. This was repulsed by the ten cohorts
and 300 cavalary which Caesar had left there to guard the ships.
Cassivellaunus took up a position fortified with stakes on the far bank
of the Thames, at a point where it could just be forded. Caesar sent his
cavalry in first, followed by the legions, up to their necks in the water.
So fierce was the assault, however, that the Britons abandoned their
positions and retreated into the woody countryside. Caesar marched
eastwards, into the land of the Trinobantes, whom he induced to
surrender to him, thus depriving Cassivellaunus of a powerful ally.
Cassivellaunus, who was no fool, capitulated rather than endure a long
war of attrition. This also suited Caesar, who had had disturbing
reports of 'sudden commotions' in Gaul, and was anxious to return
-- '
there for the winter.
fixed an annual rate of tribute which the British tribes should
pay to of which probably only the first instalment was delivered,
and requisitioned a large number of hostages and prisoners: At the
coast, the refurbished ships were lying ready. Even with the 60 new
ships which Labienus had prepared, and the original ones which had
returned to Gaul, it would still be necesary for each ship to make two
trips. In the end, because of the weather, only a few of the ships from
Gaul reached Britain; the rest were driven back by the wind and the
tide. Caesar packed his transports tighter than he had intended, and
aj
38
Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
brought his army and his human booty safely across. In two campai&!ls
he bad achieved nothing tangible. It would be 97 years before the
., -aested helmets of the legions were seen again in Britain .
....-/ .. . - - J 1/ ,,,
.. .
eAiesia


- I
sf3ibracte
'\ CARNUTES

"\...
1

Avaricum
tl)Jll
rc,S

o/"
UxeUodunum
0 200km
Map 3 Gaul
REVOLT IN GAUl 53-51 BC
Coblenz
ovesontio
HELVEITI
The 'sudden commotions' which had made Caesar's return to Gaul
imperative, exploded into a bloodbath. Ambiorix, chief of the
Eburones, while professing friendship to Rome, inveigled the newly
raised legion holding the camp at Aduatuca into aba.ruioning it for
a

Caesar - The General 58-49 ac 39
reasons of safety, to join up with the legion nearest them. The latter was
commanded by Quintus Cicero, brother of Marcus. The column was
ambushed and massacred on the way. "?L- '
Ambiorix now encouraged the Nervii to take a leaf out of Caesar's
book and besiege Cicero, which they did so effectively that Cicero was
forced to ask for Caesar's help. Caesar was at Amiens. He left
immediately, but with far fewer troops than he would have liked. The
Nervii broke off the siege and surged along the way to meet him.
Outnumbered by ten to OIJe, Caesar constructed a camp dehberately
smaller than would normally be the case, in order to deceive the
opposition as to his numbers. Then he _:>rdered his men to feign
The Nervii gathered round, scenting easy victory. A single sally, from all
the gates at once, was enough to put them to flight. Caesar was just in
When Cicero's men were paraded for him, nine-tenths of them
were walking wounded.
While various ..l; g:,...s_o_f_h_o_s_til_ e_ t_ri_b_es_ w_e_re___; takin __ .


raised two extra legions from Cisalpine Gaul, and borrowed a third
from He held conferences of Gallic chiefs
2
and took
action against those who failed to turn up. He neatly avoided
committing his legionaries to figl1ting the Eburones in the unfavourable
Jorestsa by inviting neighbouring tribes to join him in j>illaging their
lands. Ambiorix took his revenge out on
of the Senones, who had incited his tribe not to co-operate with the
Romans. At the next meeting of the chiefs, he was flogged to death.
While Caesar was taking his habitual winter sojourn in his province,
observing from a distance events in Romel. there emerged a new resolve
on the part of the insurgents, and a new threat. The Carnutes struck at
the heart of Caesar's lines of supply, and also at Roman protocol, by
'ii:tassacring Roman merchants who had made a commercial base at
Orleans, a significant centre of the corn trade. At the same time, the
confederacy of hostile tribes found a charismatic leader in
Vercingetorix, chief of the Arverni.
i


l

I
l
40 Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
The main body of Caesar's ar:tEY was disposed in various parts of
northeastern Gaul. He had with him in Italy only a force of new
recruits and a supplementary levy from his He decided to
march with these, rather than risk summoning his regular troops, who
might on the way have to fight a battle without him. Vercingetorix was
among the Bituriges, inciting them to join his cause, when Caesar
suddenly irrupted into Arvernian territory . across
4
the Cevennes,
through passes which at that time of year were two metres deep in
snow. It was a feint. While Vercingetorix hurried back home, Caesar
marched his rudimentary force towards the Seine, where he had
ordered his army to concentrate. Then he recrossed the Loire to attack
Avaricum, the heavily fortified settlement of the Bituriges.
The tactics of Vercingetorix were to hover around the Romans to
prevent food supplies getting through to them. With no chance of
starving out the people of Avaricum, Caesar resorted to siege engines,
and constructed a ramp up to the top of the wall. The people inside
retaliated by hurling down balls of lighted pitch to set the apparatus
alight, and digging a tunnel underneath it to create more havoc. Caesar
brought up his d3.J.-t-throwing catapults, but whenever a Gaul on the
walls was shot, another took his place. Even with food running out,
Caesar's soldiers insisted on maintaining the attack, rather than lose the
chance of taking revenge for the murder of the Roman merchants. it
was finally successful. Of the 40,000 inhabitants, Jess than 800 escapeq
p
inevitable slaughter that followed; these had leapt from the walls as
the final assault began, and made their way to Vercingetorix.
Next on Caesar's list was Gergovial in the territory of the Arverni.
=
Caesar's subterfuge there failed, due to the indisciiJline of part of his
The result was a defeat for Rome. Caesar had made up the
baggage mules, with their handlers wearing military helmets in the
saddle, to look like cavalry, and sent them towards one part of the town,
while at the other end a legion of infantry was to obliterate the camp
Vercingetorix had established, and then retire. The soldiers ignored the
instructions to retreat, and were repulsed with the los11 of 46 centurions
-fk s.oU-oo.:O ct.:.l ........ Ill
d:u-4,& f M 1 e; -' ' \ {
6
<
6 .
I
.
I
I f'"
.. o
'


I

'
i
;
l
I
I
!
i
I
;:-
,'- .........
\
' .
.
'
,_
' .
,
.
.
'
'
' I
.
' .
I _,
: .. "_ .,, - - "'
'
'
'
'
'--
, ... -
I 0
. '
' .
I
'
'
I
' ,
.
' I
E
..:.::
ll)
'<t
C')
', C\1
.
I
.
.
'
.
c.
Q)
Q)
"'0
0
c;"g ,g
s <11 c;;
.9 (I) Cll 0
c
(I) "'0 c. c.
- , .::: ": E E-o
-., :::: E l5
<.!)
uzw
:J:>U

<e-o
<!lulu..
a:
, c
0
CDCC"-i::-E
\ e
(ijcaucaca>o

: Ql"'O U_Cil
'caocecc(ii <d
c <11 :::1 <11 <11 Cll -
: t:.l!!EuEECD 10
<
<t:CDUOWU..<.!)
,.....
0


"'

""" 0..
"'

42 Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
and 700 legionaries. The next day Caesar assembled his troops and gave
a lecture on military tactics apd the of obeying
''?", , d 8UI 4/
or ers. _:' 9
/ ...
So far Vercingetorix had got many things right, against a master
strategis! Also, of all the t ribes in Gaul, only three still supported
At this point, however, Vercingetarix made his first and, as it
turned out, his last tactical error. He withdrew, with his cavalry and
about 80,000 infantry, to the stronghold of which
-elateau bounded on three sides by rivers. Caesar established a blockade
of the town, which he surrounded with an elaborate series of ditches
and earthworks (contravallation). To protect himself from attacks by a
relieving force, he then constructed a further ring of fortifications
outside the first ( circumvallatiol!) .
Vercingetorix made several sorties out of the gates, but his men were
severely mauled by Caesar's German cavalry. To;save food, and also to
summon assistance, Vercingetorix managed to get his cavalry out of the
town by night, with instructions to raise the tribes. Both sides were now
running short of supplies. One ofVercingetorix's lieutenants advocated
killing the elderly citizens of the town and eating them. A compromise
was reached. All civilians, with their wives and children, were tur--ued
out of the gates. Caesar posted sentries on the ramparts and refused to
them through, leaving therq. to starve in no-man's-land.,.
The Gallic relieving duly arrived and encamped on the heights to
the west of the town. It was enormous, comprising some 250?000
infantry against Caesar's estimated 70,000 troo:us. There were
two battles, one by day and the other by night. Caesar, conspicuous in
his red cloak, was forced to fight on two fronts. While the Gauls assailed
the Roman outer line of defences at various points, Vercingetorix with
his warriors made sallies out of the town against the inner line. Caesar
himself led the final coup de main, appearing with four cohorts and a
!
1
E
Caesar- The General 58- 49 BC {(iL
/
There was slaughter and wholesale surrender. Vercingetorix was sent to
Rome in chains. Caesar spared members of the Aedui and the Arverni
1
to make it easier to recover their territories for Rome. Ihe rest of the
prisoners were distributed as booty to the Roman troops, one per man.,
marked the end of concerted Gallic resistance, but not quite the
end of hostilities. Pockets of resistance had to be mopped up. For this
reason, Caesar wintered in Bibracte with a 30-year-old officer called
Mark Antoni as his quartermaster-general. He left Antony in charge
early while he went to sort out the Bituriges. On this occasion he
showed great demencw in order to demonstrate that it was better to be
friends with than to be her enemies.
No such treatment was afforded to the rebels at Uxellodunum, who
holed themselves up with enough supplies to last some time. When
Caesar arrived, the siege was under way. He summed up the position
and instructed his engineers as to how to cut off the town's water
The inhabitants capitulated. Caesar had the hands of all those
who had borne arms amputated, to discourage others from continuing
Ill
_0-e strugg].e. t...E'T 7N,- .8, J,./JtfllflNIN4- 7Z> /1&-L r
Caesar had achieved in Gaul a sort of peace, on his own terms, and had
added to the Roman empire a territory twice the size of Ital.r, with a
population far greater than that of Spain. Now it was time to attend to
his more personal affairs and to othe; ;;tters affecting his career .
development. . M
BACK lN ROME 58-51 .;,t:Y.:?. V /
It is a matter for conjecture whether the year of power Clodius was
enabled to exercise in 58 gave havoc.f)lle man could cause
....,...., c.c.c
to the constitution, or of the need to have a single person at the hehn
of state who could control excessive behaviour. His legislation largely
reduced the administration to chaos, especially his crowd-pleasing

:i
\:
oop of cavalry to reinfo.rce an attack on the Gallic rear.

/' '
c-.- Au_ t/J::"' -' ...
r $!J . . ,
measure to substitute free corn for S,!!-JZPlies at reduced pris_es for those
in need. His _gangs of thu$s, established under the cover of craftsmen's
l
l

44
Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
guilds, roamed the streets, making trouble. He even set them on
Pompey, who was forced to barricade himself in his villa outside the
. city walls. Pompey by forming his own private of urban
guerrillas, under the command of Titus Annius Milo, a rich aristocrat
who had held public office, and was popular with the mob for his
provision of public entertainments.
When Clodius's term of office ended, there was nothing to obstruct the
introduction of a law calling for Cicero's return from exile .
used his influence to enable it to have a smooth passage through the
senate, as well as his gang of hoodlums to ensure that there was no
:::::\ opposition from supporters of when it came before the
l
::::: popular assembly. Cicero returned the complimel}t by .l'roposing, two
days after his return in 57, that .fompey should be
""( supply suprem9. Pompey undertook this office with admirable
efficiency; it also kept him in the public eye.
There was now a setback to the smooth progress of the plans of the
.
triumviri!te of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey. Lucius Domitius
Ahenobarbus, brother-in-law and a staunch supporter of Cato, who
was due to return to Rome in 55, announced that he was standing as a
candidate for the consulship in and that if elected he would press
to be recalled from Gaul immediateltJoface whatever musi;:
his enemies had in store for him.
This was the background to the emergenE_X meeting of the triumvirate
at Luca. Crassus and Pompe:y returned to Rome to take part in the
consular elections. That they were successful over Ahenobarbus was
due to terror tactics on the part of Pompey's gangs and Caesar's neat
ploy of sending on leave to Rome enough of his soldiers to tip the
electoral balance. lfe.-.,e_ - ..U
During their term as consuls, Crassus and Pompey filled as many of the
eublic appointments as they could with their own supporters, through
whose offices they obtainW official sanction for the extension of
Caesar's command until 50, and for themselves until then the plum


i
l
Caesar - The ueneral 58-49 sc
jobs of the governorship of Syria for Crassus,
and of Spain for Pompey. Pompey used his job
on the Orn supply as a pretext to exercise Jris
,_&overnorship from where he could
continue to exert political influence.
In 54 the personal link between Caesar and
Pompey was broken, when Julia died in
childbirth, together with the child she was
carrying. Caesar suggested that he might now
,divorce Calpurnia and marry Pom:eey's
daughter, and that Pompey might
Octavia, Caesar's great-niece, the granddaughter
_of his sister Julia (minor). PomJ!.ey would have
none of this. Instead, he married Cornelia, of
the influential family of Metellus, who was the
widow of a son of Crassus.
Meanwhile, Crassus was energetically enriching
himself in Syria. He denuded the great Temple
in Jerusalem of its treasures, and then

embarked on a misguided attempt to acquire military by taking
on the Parthians. He was ignominiously defeated, and then murdered
while attempting to negotiate the terms of his surrender. It is said that
the Parthians cut off his head, and poured molten gold into his mouth,
as a symbol of Crassus's greed.
. In Rome, widescale political bribery brought goverfu!lent to a halt, as
the tribunes of the people used their vetoes to block anything
constructive. Total anarchy reigned in 52 after Clodius was killed in a
clash betwee; his gang and Milo's. There were riots, and the senate-
=--
_!:ouse and other buildings in the Forum were burnep down. gompeli.
conveniently on the spot, was appointed sole conspl with effectively the
eowers of a dictator, to calm things down. He did so firmly and
efficiently, bringing in several significant measures. There must now be
j
1
46
Julius Caesar - A Beginner's Guide
a fi.ve-'year gaE between a consul proceeding to a provincial
The convention that no one could stand for office in
their absence was reaffirmed. This did not, however, apply to Caesar, on
whose behalf Pompey had previously obtained a ruling that at the end
of his command he could stand as consul for 48 without leaving Gaul.
: /A, 4,., ,,,
1
UEClSlONS DEClSlONS J
.
; some months inJ.l writing up his campaign for
publication. He also had to work out what he would do after his next
term as consul expired, since now he could not immediately get a
further command. There were also renewed problems for him in
Rome. The consuls for the year SO demanded his return, on the
i
grounds that the war, in pursuit of which Caesar had requested an
extension of his contract, was over. Caesar managed to brjbe one of
them and also, by the same means, got over to his side Gaius Scribonius
Curio, a bosom pal of Mark Antonv_ in their youth,
,![ibune of the peoe!e, had been causing all sorts of difficulties for
Caesar's supporters. Now, he simply vetoed any proposed legislation
that was not in Caesar's interests.
Caesar moved one of his legions from Gaul to his in north
J!2!y, claiming that it was needed there in case of trouble in Illyricum.
His overall manpower was neutralized, however, by a neat piece of
tactical legerdemain on the part of Pompey. More troops were needed
in the east, against the Parthians. Pompey_ declared that he would
release one of his legions in Spain, if Caesar would give up one of his.
.....
When Caesar agreed, Pompey nominated as his contribution the legion
Caesar had borrowed from him in 53. thus lost two legions. He
also lost the initiative, for when the two legions arrived in Italy it was
decided that the Parthian situation had improved, and they were put at
the disposal of Pompey.
The situation was boiling up into a confrontation between Caesar and
Pompey which could easily develop into civil war. There were several
attempts on both sides to arrive at a compromise. Caesar was finally
f
Caesar - The General 58-49 Be
ordered to lay down his command. He replied
that he would _2nly do so if Pompey did the
The broke the deadlock by
declaring a state of emergency.
The River Rubicon, by an administrative
accident, was the northern limit of the environs
of the town of Ariminum (now Rimini). It was
als'o the boundary between the province 9f
Cisalpine Gaul and Italy. ]x law, Caesar could
not leave his province without losing his
_c_omm __ an_d_.; ... by bringing armed soldiers into
Italy he became an enemy of the state. He
ordered his men to go on ahead, while he set
out from Ravenna in a closed carriage by a
different route. Just before dawn on 11 January
49, he arrived at the north bank of the river.
Here it is said that he paused in thought, before
pronouncing, 'Alea jacta est,' and crossing the
Rubicon by the little bridge t o the other side.
.. ..1'
47


/J ____ y

i
"-;(" .,-- If(
#



J

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi