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Article history: Due to the cost and energy embodied in steel production, a reduction in the cross-sectional area of a steel
Received 11 February 2008 structural member could imply a significant saving of money and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
Received in revised form Hernandez-Montes et al. [Hernández-Montes E, Aschheim M, Gil-Martin LM. The impact of optimal
2 April 2008
longitudinal reinforcement on the curvature ductility capacity of reinforced concrete column sections.
Accepted 3 April 2008
Available online 20 May 2008
Mag Concrete Res 2004;56(9):499–512; Hernández-Montes E, Gil-Martín LM, Aschheim M. The design of
concrete members subjected to uniaxial bending and compression using reinforcement sizing diagrams.
Keywords:
ACI Struct J 2005;102(1):150–8] proposed an analytical approach for reducing the amount of longitudinal
Steel structures reinforcement in reinforced concrete members subjected to the action of axial force and bending moment
Structural optimization acting about a principal axis of the cross-section. The approach, which makes use of Reinforcement
Sizing Diagrams (RSD), makes use of a graphical representation of all possible reinforcement solutions
for a particular concrete cross-section subjected to a combined loading consisting of bending moment
and axial load (M, N). The common symmetric solution is recognized as just one of the infinite number
of possible solutions. The RSD methodology used in that approach is extended in the present paper to
steel sections having at least one axis of symmetry, subjected to axial force, bending moment about the
strong axis, and shear acting in the plane of the bending moment. Special considerations are introduced to
address the instabilities associated with slender steel elements. The methodology is developed following
the Eurocode 3 provisions for compact steel members.
© 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction shear force, V , acting in the plane of the moment, and an axial force,
N, considered to be applied at the centroid of the rectangular web of
Structural members may be present as individual members the section, and directed along the longitudinal axis of the member
or as a part of a sub-assembly of a more complex structural (see Fig. 1). Beam–columns subjected to torsion or biaxial bending
framework. Members of indeterminate structures interact with are not considered in the present work. Furthermore, this study
one another, with respect to redistribution of loads and the is restricted to compact sections (i.e. Class 1 sections per EC3 [3])
development of instabilities. Beam–column members, which that are symmetric about the minor principal axis of the section
are subjected simultaneously to bending and axial force, occur (Fig. 1). The section is proportioned to provide sufficient strength
to resist these actions (M, N, V ) and sufficient stiffness to prevent
frequently in typical steel structures. For this reason the behaviour
premature buckling. An additional constraint, relating to the stiff-
and design of such members has been central to steel design.
ness necessary to limit deflections to acceptable levels, may also be
Beams constitute a special case, where the axial load (N) is
imposed.
negligible or zero, and are considered to be a subset of the more
It is common in concrete structures to have longitudinal
general beam–column design problem.
reinforcement arranged symmetrically in the cross-section. In
The present paper considers the optimal design of beam–column fact, the design of longitudinal reinforcement is often made
members in which external loading causes an in-plane bending with the assistance of N–M interaction diagrams, which generally
moment, M, acting about the strong axis of the cross-section, a are presented only for symmetric reinforcement. However, it
is evident from RSD design approaches that in some cases it
is feasible and economically advantageous to use asymmetric
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 958 249965; fax: +34 958 249959. reinforcement distributions. Fig. 2 illustrates this for an example
E-mail addresses: mlgil@ugr.es (L.M. Gil-Martín), maschheim@scu.edu described in Hernandez-Montes et al. [1,2]. RSD methodology
(M. Aschheim), emontes@ugr.es (E. Hernández-Montes). consists in the consideration of all the possible solutions, for
0141-0296/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2008.04.004
3004 L.M. Gil-Martín et al. / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 3003–3013
Fig. 1. Nomenclature.
Table 1
Buckling modes considered
Members in compression (M = 0, - · - · - buckling axis) Members in bending about the Members subjected to shear Plates under compression
strong axis
Lateral buckling (N = 0, - · - · - buckling axis)
Flexural buckling Torsional-flexural Lateral-torsional buckling Buckling shear Local buckling
buckling
1. Shear strength: To provide sufficient shear strength, EC3 [3] expressions that may be used to determine the flange areas, A1 and
provisions for shear strength require that: A2 :
V d
d≥ √ = dmin . (1) A1 · fyf · d + M − N · =0
tw · fyw / 3 2
(3)
d
2. Shear buckling: To prevent shear buckling, the slenderness of A2 · fyf · d + M + N · = 0.
2
the web has to be limited. EC3 [4] (Section 5.1(2) of part 1-5) Once preliminary values of A1 and A2 are obtained using Eqs. (3),
provisions require, where webs are not stiffened, that then the width of the flanges may be determined as follows.
d/tw 0.83 Depending on the ratio of axial load to moment, one or both
λ̄w = √ < flanges may be in compression. The aspect ratio (or equivalently,
37.4 · ε · kτ η
flange slenderness, b/tw ) of the compression flange(s) is limited to
or equivalently, prevent local buckling of the flange in the plane of the web. EC3 [4]
expressions for local buckling of the flange (Section 8 of Eurocode
0.83
< · 37.4 · ε · kτ · tw = d1 3, Parts 1–5) are used to obtain an upper limit for the thickness of
p
d (2)
η the compression flange in relation to the thickness of the web and
where kτ = the shear buckling coefficient for the web, η = the the height of the web, given that A1 = bf c · tf c :
strain hardening coefficient and ε is given by the following s
d E d · tw k2 · E2 · tw
3
expression ≤k ⇒ tf c ≤ (4)
s tw fyf A1 fyf2 · bf c · d
235
ε= . where E = 210,000 N/mm2 and k = 0.3 for compression flange in
fy (N/mm2 ) Class 1.
An accepted value of η, equal to 1.2, is used herein. Assuming Once the thickness of the top flange, tf c , and bottom flange, tf t ,
that there are web stiffeners only at supports results in kτ = are established, the corresponding widths are easily determined,
given the required areas A1 and A2 from Eqs. (3).
5.34.
A1 A2
Eurocode 3 limits the height of the web for Class 1 members; the bf c = and bf t = . (5)
tf c tf t
maximum height of the web, d2 , is discussed in Table 5.2 of EC3 [3].
Thus, the height of the web, d, is limited to dmin ≤ d ≤ dmax In the procedure described below, tf c is set equal to tf t , thus
where dmax = min(d1 , d2 ), d1 is given by Eq. (2), d2 is given by Table eliminating one variable.
Since the cross-section is compact (Class 1), the width of the
5.2 of EC3 [3] and dmin is given by Eq. (1).
compression flange is limited to
bf c ≤ 18 · ε · tf c + tw (6)
3. Preliminary proportioning of flanges
as described in Table 5.2 of Part 1-1 of EC3 [3].
In the remainder of the paper, the flanges are assumed to have
This section describes simple approximations that are used to identical thickness (tf c = tf t = tf ) and values of bf c and bf t obtained
establish preliminary proportions of the flanges. Equilibrium of from Eqs. (5) are rounded up to the nearest integer (in millimeters).
forces acting on the cross-section is established for preliminary Cross-sections whose neutral plastic fiber (NPF) is located
proportioning throughout the method assuming that axial load is outside the web when subjected to conditions of pure flexure
applied at the centroid of the rectangular web (Fig. 1). In order (i.e., for N = 0, the neutral plastic fiber, which divides the cross-
to determine the preliminary proportions of the flanges, as a first section area into two equal areas, is located in a flange) are not
approximation, the flexural resistance of the web is ignored and considered further. Then, with reference to Fig. 1,
the forces carried by the top and bottom flanges are assumed to act
bf c · tf + tw · (d + 2 tf ) − bf t · tf
at the ends of the web. Thus, assuming that the flanges are yielding, tt < < tf + d. (7)
2 · tw
summation of moments about either ends of the web results in
3006 L.M. Gil-Martín et al. / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 3003–3013
zg = za − z0
4.1. Lateral buckling
(y2 + z2 )
Z
zj = z0 − 0.5 z dA
The structural member can freely deflect about both principal A Iy
axes of the cross-section. As in EC3 [3], axis y–y is the strong one
and z0 is the distance to the shear center from the centroid of
and axis z–z is the weak one.
the section, za is the location of the point of load application with
The design buckling resistance of a compression member is
respect to the centroid of the section, k and kw are effective length
established in EC3 [3] as:
factors, C1, C2 and C3 are factors depending on the loading and end
χ · A · fy restraint, It is the torsion constant, Iw is the warping constant, L is
Nb,Rd = (8) the length of the member between lateral restraints and Iz is the
γM 1
moment of inertia along weak axis z–z.
where A is the cross-section area, fy is the yield strength, χ is the
reduction factor for pure axial compression corresponding to the
4.3. Combined lateral and lateral-torsional buckling
relevant buckling mode and γM1 = 1.0.
Depending on the restraint conditions, the relevant mode of
To verify the resistance to combined lateral and lateral-
buckling for doubly symmetric cross-sections may correspond to
torsional buckling for a prismatic member in bending and axial
weak axis buckling, for which
compression the General Method proposed by EC3 [3] is used, as
π2 EIz described in this section.
Ncr = Ncr,z = .
`2 The interaction formulae for instability effects for structural
components subject to compression and uniaxial bending in the
In the case of a singly symmetric section, the relevant buckling
plane is given by:
mode corresponds to torsional-flexural buckling, obtained from
the non-dimensional slenderness defined as (Kaim [6]): NEd My,Ed
+ ≤1 (11)
s
A fy
χ · NRk /γM1 χLT · My,Rk /γM1
λ=
Ncr,FT where γM1 is the partial safety factor for the building (γM1 =
1.0), NEd is the design normal force, My,Ed is the design bending
where moment about the y–y axis, NRk is the characteristic resistance
v
!2 ! to normal force of the critical cross-section, equal to Npl (full
z02
u
Ncr,z Ncr,T u Ncr,T Ncr,T
Ncr,FT = 1 +
− t
1− +4 plastic axial force) for Class 1 members, My,Rk is the characteristic
i20
2
z0 Ncr,z Ncr,z Ncr,z moment resistance of the critical cross-section about y–y axis,
2 1− i2
0
equal to Mpl,y (full plastic bending moment about the strong axis)
π2 E Iw for Class 1 members, χ is the relevant reduction factor for pure axial
!
1
with Ncr,T = G It + and i2o = i2y + i2z + zo2
i20 L2 compression, and χLT is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional
buckling, defined previously in Sections 4.1 and 4.2, respectively.
where variables iy and iz are the radii of gyration about strong and
weak axes, respectively, and zo is the distance between the centroid
5. Cross-section strength
and the shear center of the section. For the determination of χ in
Eq. (8) the buckling curve associated with weak axis bending, given
Since only Class 1 sections are considered in this paper, the
in Section 6.3.1.4 of EC3 [3], may be used.
plastic capacity is of interest. Where shear force and axial force are
present, allowance should be made for the effect of both shear and
4.2. Lateral-torsional buckling axial force on the resistance moment. However, EC3 [3] establishes
that this effect can be neglected where the shear force is less than
Design of buckling resistance for a bending member under half the plastic shear capacity (Vpl,Rd ). For larger shear forces, the
lateral-torsional buckling is defined in general in Section 6.3.2 of design resistance of the cross-section to combinations of moment
EC3 [3] as: and axial force should be calculated using a reduced yield strength
χLT · Wpl,y · fy for the shear area, (1 − ρ)fyw , where
Mb,Rd = (9)
γM1 !2
2 · VEd fyw
where Wpl,y is the plastic section modulus for bending about
ρ= −1 and Vpl,Rd = (d · tw ) · √ (12)
Vpl,Rd 3
y–y axis, fy is the yield strength, χLT is the reduction factor for
lateral-torsional buckling and γM1 = 1.0. For a cross-section of where an axial force is present, allowance should be made for its
a statically determinant beam, the value of χLT depends on the effect on the plastic moment resistance (EC3 [3]). According to
relationship between the plastic moment and the critical moment EC3 [3], for doubly symmetric I- and H-sections allowance need not
for elastic lateral-torsional buckling, Mcr (or squared dimensionless to be made for the effect of the axial force on the plastic resistance
slenderness ratio). moment about the y–y axis when both the following criteria are
For a cross-section symmetric about the minor axis z–z, Mcr is satisfied:
given as (annex F EC3 [5]): 0.5 · d · tw · fy
NEd ≤ 0.25 · Npl,Rd and NEd ≤ . (13)
π2 E · Iz (kL)2 G · It γM0
(" 2
k Iw
Mcr = C1 +
(kL)
2 kw 2 Iz π E · Iz Otherwise it is necessary to account for the effect of axial force on
#1/2 flexural strength. Cases, in which the axial force causes a reduction
+ C2 · zg − C3 · zj
2
− C2 · zg − C3 · zj
(10) in flexural strength, as illustrated in Fig. 4, are considered in this
section.
L.M. Gil-Martín et al. / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 3003–3013 3007
Fig. 4. Different cases where axial force causes a reduction in flexural strength.
1
6. Design refinement
.
× d + tf − PNA − y1 · · d + tf − PNA + y1 (21)
2
In the preliminary design we had assumed that the axial force
Case c: PNA + |y| > d + tf and PNA − |y| > tf
was applied at the center of the web. The section dimensions
Values of y2 and δc in Fig. 4(c) can be obtain from the system: may now be refined to recognize that the axial force is applied
at the center of gravity of the cross-section. The center of gravity
N − fyw · ρ · tw · d + tf − PNA + y2 − fyf · δc · bf c = 0
is located a distance h from the lowest fiber of the cross-section
2 !
y22 d + tf − PNA (Fig. 1).
fyw · ρ · tw · − We may define e as the distance between the center of gravity
2 2 (22)
and the initial point of application of axial force (at the center of
δc
− fyf · δc · bf c · d + tf − PNA + = 0. the web). Then
2
d
Then α (Table 5.2 EC3 [3]) is e=h− + tf . (30)
2
If N > 0 (tension) ⇒ α = 0 Therefore, the bending moment at the center of gravity of the
tf + d − PNA − y2 (23) cross-section, Mg , is
If N ≤ 0 (compression) ⇒ α = .
d Mg = M + N · e. (31)
The maximum value of web height of a Class 1 section is: To provide a cross-section of minimum cross-sectional area
that satisfies the preceding constraints relating to strength and
396 ε
If α > 0.5 ⇒ d ≤
· tw
stability, the following procedure is adopted:
13 · α − 1
For N ≤ 0 ⇒
36 ε
.
+ χLT ·Myy,,RkEd/γM1 < 0.95 the section provides
MRd NEd M
(24) 1. If ≥ 1 and
If α ≤ 0.5 ⇒ d ≤ · tw Mg χ·NRk /γM1
α
excess capacity. To reduce the cross-sectional area, the widths
For N > 0 ⇒ no limit of both flanges are incrementally reduced until:
MRd NEd My,Ed
and the reduced flexural strength accounting for N is (Fig. 4(c)) ≥ 1 and 0.95 ≤ + ≤ 1.
Mg χ · NRk /γM1 χLT · My,Rk /γM1
tf + δc
" !
MRd = fyf bf c · tf − δc · d + tf + < 1 or > 1 the section has
MRd NEd My,Ed
− PNA 2. If Mg χ·NRk /γM1 + χLT ·My,Rk /γM1
2
# inadequate strength or is governed by instability. To provide
1
+ bf t · tf · PNA − · tf sufficient strength, the flange areas must be increased. The axial
2 force and bending moment determine the approach to increase
flange area, as follows.
1
+ fyw · ρ · tw · PNA − tf − y2 · · PNA − tf + y2 . (25)
2 (a) If M = 0 or N = 0, the section is symmetric (Eqs. (3))
and areas of both flanges are increased incrementally by the
Case d: PNA + |y| > d + tf and PNA − |y| < tf same amount.
Values of δt and δc in Fig. 4(d) can be obtained from the system (b) If M 6= 0 and N 6= 0, then one of the flange areas is
of equations: increased as applicable in order to reduce the eccentricity
given in Eq. (30) and the corresponding moment given in
N − fyw · ρ · tw · d − fyf · δc · bf c + δt · bf t = 0 Eq. (31). If the axial force is tensile (N > 0), the area of
Fig. 6. Flange area solutions: (a) several flange thicknesses; (b) flange thickness of
19 mm.
7. Examples
Table 2(a)
Summary of results for Point D in Fig. 9
d bf c bf t Area Class cross-section Verification of resistance (EC3)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2 ) [C1: Class 1; C2: Class 2; C3: Class 3; C4: Class 4]
IPE500 468 200 200 11,173.6 Compression flange: 200−210.2 = 94.9 ≤ 9 · 16 = 144 ⇒ C1 NEd = 4.83 × 105 N ≤ Min{0.25 · Npl = 6.56 × 105 ,
Web: 0.5 · d · tw · fy = 5.61 × 105 } = 5.61 × 105 N,
486
N (M = 0): 10 .2 = 45.9 > 42 ⇒ C4 ⇒ ρ = 0.9 (the effect of axial force on the plastic moment of
486
M (N = 0): 10 .2 = 45.9 ≤ 72 ⇒ C1
resistance does not need to be taken into account)
486 396 My,Ed = 2.88 × 108 N mm ≤ My,Rd = 4.95 × 108 N mm
N + M : α = 0.72 ⇒ 10 .2 = 45.9 ≤ 13·α−1 = 47.74 ⇒ C1
Singly 395 220 214 10,973.0 Compression flange: Case a (in Section 5):
220−10.2
symmetric 2
= 104.9 ≤ 9 · 16 = 144 ⇒ C1 My,Ed = 2.88 × 108 N mm ≤ MN,y,Rd
cross-section Web: = 4.045 × 108 N mm
395
N (M = 0): 10 .2 = 38.73 < 42 ⇒ C3
395
M (N = 0): 10 .2 = 38.73 < 72 ⇒ C1
395 396
N + M : α = 0.751 ⇒ 10 .2 = 38.73 < 13·α−1 = 45.19 ⇒
C1
Doubly 396 217 217 10,983.2 Compression flange: NEd = 4.83 × 105 N
217−10.2
symmetric 2
= 103.4 ≤ 9 · 16 = 144 ⇒ C1 > Min{0.25 · Npl = 6.45 × 105 , 0.5 · d · tw · fy
cross-section Web: = 4.75 × 105 } = 4.75 × 105 N,
396
N (M = 0): 10 .2 = 38.82 ≤ 42 ⇒ C3 (the effect of axial force on the plastic moment of
396
M (N = 0): 10 .2 = 38.82 ≤ 72 ⇒ C1
resistance need to be taken into account). Section 6.2.9
N + M : α = 0.75 ⇒ 10396 396 of EC3 [3].
.2 = 38.82 ≤ 13·α−1 = 45.26 ⇒ C1 A−2bf tf 5
a= = 0.37 ≤ 0.5; n = 4.83×106 = 0.19;
A 2.58×10
My,Ed = 2.88 × 108 N mm
1−n
≤ MN,y,Rd = My,Rd 1− 0.5a
= 4.27 × 108 N mm
(a) Top and bottom flange areas and the total area of the cross-section (b) Solutions after refinement procedure for load corresponding to Point
obtained from Eqs. (3), for load corresponding to Point D in Fig. 9. D in Fig. 9. Point A corresponds to minimum cross-section area and
point B is closer to height of web of IPE500.
(c) Solutions after refinement procedure. Flange widths (d) Solutions after refinement procedure imposing double symmetry. Point
corresponding to Points A (minimum cross-section area) and B A1 corresponds to minimum cross-section area.
(closer to IPE500).
The saved cross-area is not significant. Details are summarized in area for initial possible solutions from Eqs. (3) for the specific
Table 2(a). case of flange thickness, tf equal to 16 mm and web thickness, tw
Fig. 11 plots solutions for loading corresponding to Point H equal to 10.2 mm. These values correspond to those of the IPE500
in Fig. 9. Fig. 11(a) shows flange areas and total cross-sectional shape. In order to avoid numerical problems, the minimum value
3012 L.M. Gil-Martín et al. / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 3003–3013
(a) Solutions from Eqs. (3) with minimum width of flange equal to 2 · tw (b) Solutions after refinement procedure. Point A (minimum cross-section area)
(with tw = 10.2 mm) for load corresponding to point H in Fig. 9. corresponds to d = 290 mm, bf c = 253 mm, bf t = 197 mm. Point B (closer to
height of web of IPE500) corresponds to d = 470 mm, bf c = 210 mm,
bf t = 177 mm.
(c) Solutions after refinement procedure (widths of flanges for Point A (d) Solutions after refinement procedure imposing double symmetry.
corresponds to minimum cross-section area and Point B is closer to Point A1 (minimum cross-section area) corresponds to
IPE500). d = 296 mm, bf = 228 mm. Note that the section closer to IPE500
(d = 467 mm, bf = 200 mm) is out of range because it does not satisfy
Class 1 requirements for compact sections.
Table 2(b)
Summary of results for Point H in Fig. 9
d bf c bf t Area Class cross-section Verification of resistance (EC3)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2 ) [C1: Class 1; C2: Class 2; C3: Class 3; C4: Class 4]
IPE500 468 200 200 11,173.6 Compression flange: 200−210.2 = 94.9 ≤ 9 · 16 = 144 ⇒ C1 NEd = 1.13 × 106 N > Min{0.25 · Npl = 6.56 × 105 ,
Web: 0.5 · d · tw · fy = 5.61 × 105 } = 5.61 × 105 N
486
N(M = 0): 10 .2 = 45.9 > 42 ⇒ C4 ⇒ ρ = 0.9 (the effect of axial force on the plastic moment of
486
M (N = 0): 10 .2 = 45.9 ≤ 72 ⇒ C1
resistance need to be taken into account). Section 6.2.9
N + M : α = 1 ⇒ 10 486 456 of EC3 [3].
.2 = 45.9 > 13·α−1 = 38; A−2bf tf 6
ψ = 0.226; 45.9 ≤ 56.4 ⇒ C3 a= = 0.43 ≤ 0.5; n = 1.13×106 = 0.43;
A 2.63×10
My,Ed = 1.12 × 108 N mm ≤ MN,y,Rd
1−n
= My,Rd 1− 0.5a
= 3.6 × 108 N mm
Singly 290 253 197 10,158.0 Compression flange: Case d (in Section 5):
253−10.2
symmetric 2
= 121.4 ≤ 9 · 16 = 144 ⇒ C1 My,Ed = 1.12 × 108 N mm ≤ MN,y,Rd
cross-section Web: = 2.00 × 108 N mm
290
N(M = 0): 10 .2 = 28.43 < 33 ⇒ C1
290
M (N = 0): 10 .2 = 28.43 < 72 ⇒ C1
290 396
N + M : α = 1 ⇒ 10 .2 = 28.43 ≤ 13·α−1 = 33 ⇒ C1
Doubly 296 228 228 10,315.2 Compression flange: NEd = 1.13 × 106 N > Min{0.25 · Npl
228−10.2
symmetric 2
= 108.9 ≤ 9 · 16 = 144 ⇒ C1 = 6.06 × 105 , 0.5 · d · tw · fy = 3.57 × 105 } = 3.57 × 105 N
cross-section Web: (the effect of axial force on the plastic moment of
296
N(M = 0): 10 .2 = 29.01 ≤ 33 ⇒ C1 resistance need to be taken into account). Section 6.2.9
296
M (N = 0): 10 .2 = 29.01 ≤ 72 ⇒ C1
of EC3 [3].
A−2bf tf 6
N + M : α = 1 ⇒ 10 298 396
.2 = 29.01 ≤ 13·α−1 = 33 ⇒ C1 a= = 0.29 ≤ 0.5; n = 1.13×106 = 0.47;
A 2.42×10
My,Ed = 1.12 × 108 N mm ≤ MN,y,Rd
1−n
= My,Rd 1− 0.5a
= 1.98 × 108 N mm