1.

Introduction Wireless cellular systems are present since 1980s and evolve through time and technology from their first generation to second generation and so on. These systems requires a centralized support structure like a base station or an access point that connects ireless users with the wireless systems when user roam freely from one place to another place. The adaptability of these wireless systems is limited that means the technology can not work in the places where there is no such permanent infrastructure. But the recent technological advancements introduced a fresh and different type of wireless systems which are known as Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks. They do not need any fixed or supporting infrastructure infact they offers quick network deployment in conditions where it is not possible in former type.Ad-hoc is a latin word which means for this only[1].Usually ad-hoc networks are created on the fly for a particular one time purpose. Each node here act as a router and performs the network control functions. These networks are easily deployable unlike those infratrcture based networks. Mobile adhoc network ia an autonomous system for mobile nodes which are connected by wireless links. In mobile ad hoc networks connection is established via peer to peer links between the individual pairs of the nodes. Wireless networks are classified in two type:1. Infrastructred networks and 2. Ad-Hoc networks. Infrastructure networks consists fixed or wired gateways. A mobile host intracts with them via bridge or a base station(or an access point) within its communication radius. When it goes out of range of one base station, it connects to another and starts communicating through it and this is known as handoff. In this approach base stations are fixed. A mobile adhoc network is a group of wireless mobile nodes in which nodes collaborate by forwarding packets for each other to allow them tyo communicate outside the range of direct wireless transmission. If mobile node is directly in the range of another node then they can communicate with each other or else the intermediate nodes forma a route from the sender to the receiver. Adhoc networks does not require any fixed network infrastructure and hence can be setup quickly and cost effectively.[2] Since the nodes are mobile, there is no fixed network topology. The network topology may change with every instant as nodes are free to move in any random motion. The network is decentralized wher all the network activities like discovering the topology, establishment of routes and delivering the messeage are executed the nodes only. his brings the requirement of packet routing algorithms in
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which the nodes maintains the routes information which should be updated periodically as the nodes are moving and routes changes with their movement.

Figure1 Example of simple Ad-Hoc Network [3] Mobile ad-hoc networks or MANET is a self configuring network of mobile nodes or routers connected by wireless links, the union of which forms an arbitrary topology. The participating nodes are free to move randomly and manage themselvesarbitrarily. Such a network may operate in a stand alone fashion or may be connected to the larget internet.[4]. Mobile Ad-hoc network is a collection of independent mobile nodes that can communicate to each other via radio waves. The mobile nodes can directly communicate to these nodeswhich are in radio range of each other and other nodes take the help of intermediate nodes to route their packets.

Figure 2. Change in topology in MANET[5] As shown in the figure, the topology in MANET can change at any instant of time and hence they are called to possess dynamic topologies and dynamic routing.

1.1 Characterstics of MANET MANETS are furnished with wireless transmitters and receivers using antennas, which may be higly directional(point to point) or ominidirectional(multipoint). At a given point in time, depending on nodes, their transmitter and receiver patters, communication power levels and co-channel interference level and wireless connectivity exist among the nodes.[4] The characterstics can be summarized as[6]: Wireless communication. Host and Router part are played by the nodes itself. Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links. Operation is energy constrained. Limited physical security. Dynamic network topology. Frequent routing updates Intermittent nodal connectivity. Mobile nodes are characterized with less memory, power and light weight features. 1.2 Advantages of MANET Following are the advantages of MANET Provide access to information and services regardlessof geographic position. Network can be set up at any place and time. Inexpensive network formation. 1.3 Applications of MANET Some of the applications of MANETs are as follow: Military or Police exercise. Disaster relief operations. Mine cite operations Urgent business meetings. VANET.

Areas Military Scenarios

Possible Scenarios MANET supports tactical network for military communications and automated battle fields.

Rescue Operations

It provides Disaster recovery, means replacement of fixed infrastructure network in case of environmental disaster.

Data Networks

MANET provides support to the network for the exchange of data between mobile devices.

Device Networks

Device Networks supports the wireless connections between various mobile devices so that they can communicate.

Sensor Network

It consist of devices that have capability of sensing ,computation and wireless networking . Wireless sensor network combines the power of all three of them, like smoke detectors, electricity, gas and water meters.

Table1 Applications of MANET[7]

1.4

Disadvantages of MANET

Though there are many applications and advantages of MANET but there are some disadvantages as well. The disadvantages of the MANET are listed[8] Limited resources and physical security. Intrinsic mutual trust vulnerable to attacks Lack of authorization facilities. Security protocols of wired networks cannot work with Ad-hoc networks. Volatile network topology makes it hard to detect malicious nodes.

2 Litrature Survey The concept of commercial Ad-hoc networks comes in 1990s and at the same time idea of collection of mobile nodes was given by several researchers.This results in GloMo(Global Mobile Information system) and NTDR (near term digital radio)[7]. Since then different work has been done already and many other researchers are still working. Researchers has given different works, different protocols, proposed many modified protocols and many simulation results were given over a period of time. There are several IP routing protocols, with competing features, developed for wireless ad hoc networks. These protocols have varying qualities for different wireless routing aspects. Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF) is a large open international community of network designer, operators, vendors and researchers concerned with the evolutionof internet architecture and smooth operation of the internet. The actual technical work of the IETF is done in its working groups, which are organized by topic into several areas (e.g., routing, transport, security, etc.). The IETF MANET working group mandate was to standardise IP routing protocols in MANETs. The RFC 2501 specifies the charter for the working group. The RFCs still has unanswered questions concerning either implementation or deployment of the protocols. Nevertheless, the working group identifies the proposed algorithms as a trial technology. There are different ongoing work going on MANET and few of the work which are present to IETF as open drafts. Open drafts are the documents of IETF which are provided by to different researchers[9]. 1. Dynamic Link Exchange Protocol (DLEP) by S.Ratliff, B.Berry, G.Harrison,D.satterwhite, Cisco Systems and S.jury, NetApp. On August 30, 2012. 2. Link Metrics for the Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) Routing Protocol OLSRv2 by C. Dearlove BAE Systems ATC , T. Clausen LIX, Ecole Polytechnique, France, P. Jacquet Alcatel-Lucent Bell Labs on October 9, 2012. 3. Architecture for MANET Clustering by Sanghyun Ahn, University of Seoul on December 3, 2012. 4. Definition of Managed Objects for Performance Reporting by R.cole, US army CERDEC,J.MAcker naval research Laboratory, A.beirman yumaworks, inc on November 5, 2012.

5. Intermediate RREP for dynamic MANET On-demand (AODVv2) Routing C. Perkins, Futurewei and I. Chakeres, Cengen, November 28, 2012 6. Precursor Notification for dynamic MANET On-demand (AODVv2) Routing by C.Perkins, Futurewei, July 14, 2012. 7. Dynamic MANET On-demand (AODVv2) Routing by C. Perkins, Futurewei and I. Chakeres, Cengen December 1, 2012 8. AODV Extensions for MANET Clustering by Sanghyun Ahn, University of Seoul on December 3, 2012. These internet drafts are still open and few are about to be close in the year 2013.

3 Problem Statement The objective of this work is to evaluate the performance of routing protocol based on OnDemand Behavior, namely AODV, Ad-Hoc on Demand Distance Vector routing protocol for mobile ad hic network. This evaluation is to be carried out through exhaustive literature survey and simulation. The general objectives can be outlined as: Get a general understanding of Ad-hoc Networks. Litratue review of AODV. Choosing a proper simulation platform to carry on this work. Generate a simulation environment that could be used for further studies. Implement AODV routing protocol for wireless ad-hoc networks. Analyse the protocol and through simulation and verify it on the basis of literature review. Discuss the result of the proposed work.

4 Routing protocol Routing is the process of moving information from a source to destination through some routers or intermediate node that act as a router in an inetnetwork. Basically routing is a two step process: 1. Determining optimal routing path. 2. Transfering the packet through an internetwork. The transferring of packets through an internetworknis called a spacket switching which is straight forward and the path determination could be very complex. Routing terminology is used in different kinds of networks such as in telephony technology, electronic data networks and in the internet network. Here we are more concern about routing in mobile ad hoc networks. Routing protocols in mobile ad hoc network means that the mobile nodes will search for a route or path to connect to each other and share the data packets. Routing protocol use several metrices as a standard measurement to calculate the best path for routing the packets to its destination that could be numberof hops, which are used by routing algorithm to determine the optimal path for the packet to its destination. The process of path determination is that the routing algorithm finds out and maintain the routing tables, which contain the total route information for the packet. The information of route varies form one routing algorithm to other.The routing tables are filled with entries in the routing table as IP address prefix and the next hop. Destination/next hop association of routing table tell the router that a particular destination can be reached optimally by sending the packet to a router representing the next hop on its way to the final destination and IP address prefix specifies a set of destinations for which the routing entry in valid. Routing is classified as:1. Static routing 2. Dynamic routing Static Routing maintains a routing table usually written by network administrator. The routing table doesnt depend on the state of the network status i.e. whether the destination is active or not[10].

Static routing: is done by the administrator manually to forward the data packets in the network and it is permanent. No any administrator can change this setting [11] Dynamic routing refers to the routing strategy that is being learnt by an interior or exterior routing protocol. Dynamic Routing is automatically done by the choice of router. It can route the traffic on any route depend on the routing table. Dynamic routing allows the routers to know about the networks and the interesting thing is to add this information in their routing tables.

Figure3 routing update in MANET This routing primarily depends on the state of the network i.e. the routing table is affected by the activities of the destination. Dynamic routing is more flexible than static routing. In dynamic routing it have the capability to overcome the overload traffic. Dynamic routing uses different paths to forward the data packets. Dynamic routing is better than static routing.

4.1 Routing in mobile ad-hoc networks Mobile ad-hoc networks are self organizing and self configuring multi-hop wireless networks, where the structure of the network changes dynamically. This is mainly due to the mobilityof the nodes[10]. Nodes in these networks utilize the same random access wireless channel, cooperating in a manner to engage themselves in multihop forwarding. The node in the network [12]. Unlike wireless network, in mobile adhoc network there is no infrastructure support and since a destination node might be out of the range of a source node transferring
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packets so there is need of a routing procedure. This is always ready to find a path so as to forward the packet appropriately between the source and destination. Within a cell, a base station can reach all mobile nodes without routing via broadcasr in common wireless networks. In case of ad hoc networks, each node must be able to forward data for other nodes. This creates additional problems along with the problems of dynamic topology which is unpredictable coonectivity changes[13]. In mobile adhoc networks because of the mobility of nodes and dynamic topologies at a time there may be a route available and after an interval of time the nodes may get out of range and the route disappears. 4.2 Properties of AdHoc Routing Protocls An ad hoc routing protocol is a standard that controls the decision of the nodes that which route the nodes have to taken from source to destination. When a node wants to join a network, it discovers the topology by announcing its presence, and listening to broadcasts from other nodes in the network. Following are the properties of Ad-hoc routing protocols[2]:i. Distributed Operation

An Adhoc wireless network is totally distributed in nature, since nodes has to gain easy access to the broadcast channel. The use of any centralized control or routing approach in such networks will consume large amount of bandwidth. The protocol should be distributed. It should not be dependent on a centralized controlling node. This is the case even for stationary networks. The dissimilarity is the the nodes in an ad-hoc network can enter or leave the network very easily and because of the mobility the network can be portioned[14]. ii. Loop Free

To improve the overall performance, the routing protocol should assure that the routes which are supplied should be loop free. This avoids any misuse of bandwidth or CPU consumption. This prevents the traversing of node twice for any route to establish. To maintain loop-free routes to a destination, it is necessary that the same topological image is perceived between neighboring nodes and thus across the network as a whole, and to make routing and forwarding decision which are consistent with this. However, it hasbeen observed that transient routing loops form in Ad-hoc Networks running MANET proactive routing protocols using hop count metric[15].

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iii.

Demand based operation

To minimize the control overhead in the network and thus not misuse the network reseources the protocol the protocol should be reactive. This means that the protocol should react only when needed and shuld noty periodically broadcast control information. iv. Unidirectional Link Support

The radio environment can cause the formation of unidirectional link which can be utlised. Utilisation of these links and not only the bi-directional links improves the routing performance. v. Security

The radio environment is vulnerable to attacks and some security measures must be ensured so that any malicious node doesnt contaminate the network. For this we need sme security measures. Authentication and encryption can be an option but the problem lies in the distribution of keys among the nodes as they are mobile and key distribution would surely be a challenging task to perform. vi. Power conservation

The nodes in manet can be laptop or wireless sensors or mobile phones etc. These nodes are limited to limited power backup and therefore routing protocol should use the power efficiently and consume less power.Some times these devices uses some standby mode or sleep mode to save the power. The routing protocol should have support for these sleep modes. vii. Multiple routes

Since the topology In MANET is changing continuously and nodes are free to move the routes that are available at a time may not be available after an interval, hence multiple routes are used. The other route can be used in case of failure of the primary route and also in case of congestion data can be routed throu different routes. Mulitiple routes also saves nodes to initiate new route search of the primary route fails.

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viii.

Quality of Service Support

Qos is usually defined as a set of service requirement that needs to be met by the network while transporting a packet stream from source to destination. The network needs are governed by the service requirement set by the end user application. The network is expected to guarantee a set of measurable pre specified service attributes to the user in terms of end to end performance such as delay, bandwidth, packet loss[16]. Two most specific service attributes to the manets are : 1. Power consumption 2. Service coverage area. 4.3 Problems in Routing with MANET Because of fundamenta characterstic of manets there are numerous problems associated with the routing in manets. Following are the problems 1 Asymmetric Links Most of the wired networks relay on the symmetric links which are always fixed. But this is not a case with ad.hoc networks as the nodes are mobile and constantly changing their position within the network that also changes the available and shortest links. 2 Routing Overhead In wireless ad hoc networks, nodes often change tgeir location within the network . So some stale routes are generated in the routing table which leads to unnecessary routing overhead. These routing overhead creates unwanted data traffic which reduces the percentage of the net usable data from the traffic. 3 Interference This is the major problem with mobile ad-hoc networks as links come and go depending on the transmission characterstics, one transmission might interfare with another one and node might over hear transmission of other nodes and can corrupt the total transmission. 4 DynamicTtopology Since the topology is not constant so the mobile node might move or medium characterstics might change. In ad-hoc networks, routing tables must somehow reflect these changes in
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topology and routing algorithm have to be adapted. For example in a fixed network routing table updating takes place for every 30 sec. This updateing frequency might be very low for ad-hoc networks. 4.4 Classification of Routing Protocol Classification of routing protocol in mobile ad hoc network can be doen is many ways, but most of these are depending in the routing strategy and network structure[10][15][17]. The routing protocol can be categorized as Flat Routing Protocol, Hierarchical Routing Protocol and Geographic position assisted Routing while depending on the network structure. According to the routing strategy routing protocols can be classified as table driven and source initiated. The classification of routing protocols is shown in the figure

Figure4. Classification of Routing Protocols in MANET 4.4.1 Flat routing protocol Flat routing[aa] protocols are divided mainly into 2 classes. The first one is pro active routing and the other one is re-active routing. Pro-active routing is also known as table driven routing and reactive routing is on-demand routing. The common thing in both the protocol classes is that every node participating in routing play an equal role.They are further classified according to their design principles. proactive routing is mostely based on Link State routing while On-demand routing is based on Distant Vector.

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4.4.1.1 Pro Active Routing Protocol Pro active routing protocol in MANET are also called as table driven protocol and will actively determine the layout of the network. Pro active routing protocols build and maintain routing information to all the nodes. Through a regular exchange of network topology packets between the node of the network at every single node presents an absolute picture of the network. The advantage in the Pro active routing is the minimul delay in finalizing or determining the route which is to be taken. This is important and advantageous for the time criticial traffic. When the routes are changing quickely, there are many short lived routes that are being determind and not used before they turn invalid. This becomes a drawback of these protocols. Because of the increased mobility the amount of traffic aovegead generated is increased while evaluating these unnecessary routes. For large size network this creates a way much traffic overhead which decrease theactual darta content in the total control traffic. it is slow to restructure when there is a failure in a particular link. Lastly, if the nodes transmit infrequently, most of the routing information is considered redundant. The nodes, however, continue to expend energy by continually updating these unused entries in their routing tables as mentioned, energy conservation is very important in a MANET system design. Therefore, this excessive expenditure of energy is not desired. Thus, proactive MANET protocols work best in networks that have low node mobility or where the nodes transmit data frequently. Example: Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) Fish-eye State Routing (FSR) Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) Cluster-head Gateway Switch Routing Protocol (CGSR)

4.4.1.2 Reactive Routing Protocols Portable nodes- Notebooks, palmtops or even mobile phones usually compose wireless ad-hoc networks. This portability also brings a significant issue of mobility. This is a key issue in ad-hoc networks. The mobility of the nodes causes the topology of the network to change constantly. Keeping track of this topology is not an easy task, and too many resources may be consumed in signaling. Reactive routing protocols were intended for
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these types of environments. These are based on the design that there is no point on trying to have an image of the entire network topology, since it will be constantly changing. Instead, whenever a node needs a route to a given target, it initiates a route discovery process on the fly, for discovering out a pathway[13]. Reactive routing protocols are bandwidth efficient. Routes are built as and when they are needed. This is achieved by sending route requests across the network. Reactive protocols start to set up routes on-demand. The routing protocol will try to establish such a route, whenever any node wants to initiate communication with another node to which it has no route. This kind of protocols is usually based on flooding the network with Route Request (RREQ) and Route reply (RERP) messages .By the help of Route request message the route is discovered from source to target node; and as the target node gets a RREQ message it send RERP message for the confirmation that the route has been established. This kind of protocol is usually very effective on single-rate networks. It usually minimizes the number of hops of the selected path. However, on multi-rate networks, the number of hops is not as important as the throughput that can be obtained on a given path [18]. The different types of On Demand driven protocols are the following[19]: Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Dynamic Source routing protocol (DSR) Temporally ordered routing algorithm (TORA) Associativity Based routing (ABR) Signal Stability-Based Adaptive Routing (SSA) Location-Aided Routing Protocol (LAR)

4.4.1.3 Hybrid Routing Protocols Since proactive and reactive protocols each work best in oppositely different scenarios, hybrid method uses both. It is used to find a balance between both protocols. Proactive operations are restricted to small domain, whereas, reactive protocols are used for locating nodes outside those domains [13]. Examples of hybrid protocols are: Zone Routing Protocol, (ZRP) Wireless Ad hoc Routing Protocol, (WARP)

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4.5 Hierarchical routing protocol The hierarchical networks classify nodes on a priority bases. The entire network is divided in to sectors, similar to circles in a mobile network. In each of the divided sectors of the networks one node is giving higher responsibility and functionalities to maintain the routing tables of that particular sector. Hierarchal protocols address the important problem of scalability [20]. These sectors or clusters can be three dimensional in practice. The Cluster Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR) [21] protocol is a good example of this class of routing protocols. Figure 5 shows an illustration of protocol where the network is divided into a large number of sectors each with a priority node.

Figure5 Hierarchical division of a network under Cluster Gateway Switch Routing[21] Other examples are: Hierarchical state Routing(HSR) Zone Routing Protocol(ZRP) Landmark Ad Hoc Routing Protocol(LANMAR) 4.6 Geographical Routing Protocol Geographic routing protocol (GRP)[22] also known as position based-routing, is a well researched approach for ad hoc routing. GRP is based on two assumptions: nodes are aware of their own geographic locations and also of its immediate neighbors and source node are aware of position of destination. The nodes update its immediate neighbors locations periodically by beaconing. The data packets are routed through the network using the geographic location of the destination and not the network address. GRP operates without routing tables and routing to destination depends upon the information each node has about its neighbors. An advantage of geographic routing protocols [13] is that they prevent
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network-wide searches for destinations. If the recent geographical coordinates are known then control and data packets can be sent in the general direction of the destination. This trim downs control overhead in the network. A disadvantage is that all nodes must have access to their geographical coordinates all the time to make the geographical routing protocols useful. The routing updates must be done faster in compare of the network mobility rate to consider the location-based routing effective. This is because locations of nodes may change quickly in a MANET. Examples of geographical routing protocols are: GeoCast (Geographic Addressing and Routing) DREAM (Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility) GPSR (Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing)

Comparision of Proactive and Reactive routing protocol The general comparision for proactive and reactive routing protocols is shown below

Proactive Protocols Attempt to maintain consistent, up-to-date routing information from each node to every other node in the network. First packet latency is less when compared First-packet with on-demand protocols.

Reactive protocols A route is built only when required.

latency

is

more

when

compared with table-drivenprotocols because a route need to be built.

A route to every other node in ad-hoc Not Available network is always available. Constant propagation of even routing No periodic updates. Control information is when not propagated unless there is a change in the topology power Does not incur substantial traffic and power consumption compared to Table

information periodically

topology change does not occur. Incurs substantial traffic and

consumption, which is generally scarce in mobile computers

Driven routing protocols Table2: Comparison of Proactive and reactive routing protocol[23].
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5. AODV PROTOCOL In this section we will discuss about the working and characterstics, advantages/ disadvantages of AODV protocol to get familier with the protocol and its working 5.1 Ad Hoc on Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) Ad hoc on demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing is a routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks. It is jointly developed in Nokia Research Centre of University Of California , Santa Barabara and University Of Cincinnati by C. Perkins and S. Das. It is an On-demand and distance vector routing protocol, meaning that a route is established by AODV from a destination only on demand [24]. AODV can perform unicast and multicast routing[25]. It keeps these routes as long as they are desirable by the sources. The AODV algorithm gives an easy way to get change in link situation. For example if a link fails notifications are sent only to the affected nodes in the network. This notification cancels all the routes through this affected nodes. It builds unicast route from source to destination and thats why the network usage is least. Since the routes are build on demand so the network traffic is minimum. Additionally, AODV creates trees which connect multicast group members. The trees are composed of group members and nodes needed to connect the members. The sequence number are used by AODV to ensure the freshness of routes. It is a loop free, self-starting and scales to large number of mobile nodes[25][26]. AODV is a table driven routing information for routes in the network is stored in tables. These routing tables have following routing entries: destination IP address DSN, Flag state, Network interface, hop count, next hop, the list of precursors and lifetime.

There are three AODV messages i.e. Route Request (RREQs), Route Replies (RREPs), and Route Errors ( RERRs)
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5.1.1 RREQ A route request message is transmitted by a node requiring a route to a node .As an optimization AODV uses an expanding ring technique when flooding these messages. Every RREQ carries a time to live (TTL) value that state for how many hops this message should be forwarded. This value is set to be a predefined value at the first transmission and increased at retransmissions. Retransmissions occur if no replies are received. Data packets waiting to be transmitted (i.e. the packets that initiated the RREQ).Every node maintains two separate counters: a node sequence number and a broadcast id. The RREQ contains the following fields [25] : Source address broadcastI Source D Destination Destination Hop sequence no Count

sequence no. address Table3 Fields in RREQ

The pair <Source Address, Broadcast ID > uniquely identifies a RREQ. Broadcast_ id is incremented whenever the source issues a new RREQ [27]. Message format of RREQ[m1]

Figure6- RREQ Message Format [28] J :Join flag; reserved for multicast. R: Repair flag; reserved for multicast. G: Gratuitous RREP flag; indicates whether a gratuitous RREP should be unicast to the node specified in the Destination IP Address field

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D : Destination only flag; indicates only the destination may respond to this RREQ. U : Unknown sequence number; indicates the destination sequence number is unknown. Reserved: Sent as 0; ignored on reception. Hop Count: The number of hops from the Originator IP Address to the node handling the request. 5.1.2 RREP A route reply message is unicasted back to the originator of a RREQ if the receiver is either the node using the requested address or it has a valid route to the requested address .The reason one can unicast the message back, is that every route forwarding a RREQ caches a route back to the originator. Message format or RREP[28]

Figure7 RREP Message Format[28]

R : Repair flag; used for multicast. A: Acknowledgment required. Reserved Sent as 0; ignored on reception.

Prefix Size If nonzero, the 5-bit Prefix Size specifies that the indicated next hop may be used for any nodes with the same routing prefix as the requested destination.

5.1.3 RRER
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Nodes monitor the link status of next hops in active routes. When a link breakage in an active route is detected, a RERR message is used to notify other nodes, of the loss of the link. In order to enable this reporting mechanism, each node keeps a precursor list, containing the IP address for each its neighbours that are likely to use it as a next hop towards each destination. Message format of RRER

Figure8 RRER Message Format[28] N: No delete flag; set when a node has performed a local repair of a link, and upstream nodes should not delete the route. Reserved Sent as 0; ignored on reception.

DestCount: The number of unreachable destinations included in the message MUST be at least 1. Unreachable Destination IP Address: The IP address of the destination that has become unreachable due to a link break. Unreachable Destination Sequence Number:The sequence number in the route table entry for the destination listed in the previous Unreachable Destination IP Address field.

5.2 AODV Terminology

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This protocol specification uses conventional meaning for capitalized words such as MUST, SHOULD, etc, to indicate requirement level for various protocol features. This section defines other terminology used with AODV that is not already defined in [28]. 1. Active Route A route towards a destination that has a routing table entry that is marked as valid.Only active routes can be used to forward data packets. 2. Broadcast Broadcast means transmitting to the Ip limited Broadcast address , 255.255.255.255.A broadcast packet may not be blindly forwarded , but broadcasting is useful to enable dissemenation of AODV messages throughout the adhoc networks. 3. Destination An IP address to which data packets are to be transmitted. Same as destination node. A node knows it is the destination node for a typical data packet when its address appears in the appropriate field of IP header. Routes for destination nodes are supplied by actions of the AODV protocol, which carries the IP address of the desired destination node in route discovery messages. 4. Forwarding Node A node that agrees to be forward packet destines for another node, by retransmitting them to a next hop that is closer to the unicast destination along a path that has been set up using routing control messages. 5. Invalid Route A route that has expired, denoted by a state of invalid route in the routing table entry. An invalid route is used to store previosly valid route information for an extended period of time. An invalid route cannot be used to forward data packet, but it can provide information useful for route repairs, and also for future RREQ messages.

6. Originating Mode

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A node that initiates an AODV route discovery message to be processed and possibly retransmitted by other nodes in the ad-hoc network. For instance, the node initiating a Route Discovery Process and broadcasting RREQ message is called the originating node of the RREQ message. 7. Reverse Route A route set up to forward a reply (RREP) packet back to the originator from the destination or from an immediate node having a route to the destination. 8. Sequence Number A monotonically increasing number maintained by each originating node. In AODV routing protocol messages, it is used by other nodes to determine the freshness of the information contained from the originating node. One distinguishing feature of AODV is the way it uses its destination sequence number for each route entry.The destination sequence number is created by the destination to be included along with any route information it sends to requesting nodes. The destination sequence number provides loop freedom and is simple to program. If a node is given a choice with two routes to a destination it should opt for the one with greatest sequence number.

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5.3 Working of AODV 1. Shown in the figures a node S is trying to connect to node D for which it has no route.

Figure9 Route Request in AODV [5] 2. Node S transmits RREQ to its surrounding nodes in

Figure10 Broadcasting RREQ in AODV [5]

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3. The RREQ is further transmitted to different nodes. The dotted line showing the transmission and the solid line showng the reverse path.

Figure11 Broadcasting and Reverse path in AODV [5]

4. Node C has received RREQ from nodes G and H but does not forward it.

Figure12 Broadcasting RREQ and Reverse Path in AODV[5]

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5. RREQ reaches D and a reverse path is about to set next from S to S

Figure13 Broadcasting and reverse path in AODV[5]

6. The broadcast of RREQ is limited to Node D as it is the destination. Reverse path has been setup from D to S and next step is the forward path establishment.

Figure14 Final reverse path in AODV [5]

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7. The forward path from Node S to Node D is established and data transmission takes place through multiple hops.

Figure15 Setup of forward path for transmission[5] Being a routing protocol, AODV involves route table management and is run based on the following route-request/route-reply cycle: When a source node transmits data to a node, the route of which is unknown, it broadcasts a route request (RREQ) packet. This request packet will contain the last- known sequence number for that route. The sequence number ensures loop-free networks. Nodes that receive this packet update the route table for the source node address for a period of time: REV_ROUTE_TIMEOUT. This request will then be flooded throughout the network until it reaches the destination or it reaches a node that has a route to the destination. Every node that forwards the request maintains backward pointers indicating the reverse route back to the source node. The RREQ packet will contain the Internet protocol (IP) address of the source node, the broadcast identification, the IP address of the destination node, the destination sequence number, and the latest sequence number for the destination on the source node. When a node receives a RREQ, if the node either has a route to the destination with a sequence number greater than or equal to the sequence number in the RREQ

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or the node is the destination itself, then a route reply (RREP) message is generated. The RREP packet is sent as a unicast transmission to the source. As the RREP traverses toward the source, the routing tables of all nodes will be updated for that destination IP address. If the node that receives the RREQ does not have a route or is not the destination, then it will rebroadcast the RREQ. Nodes maintain a visible table to keep track of the RREQs received and their broadcast identifications. If an already-processed RREQ is received, then it will be dropped. As soon as the source receives the RREP, it begins to forward traffic to the destination. AODV begins to use the route that is first available to the node. If an RREP received by a node has a greater sequence number or an equal sequence number with lesser number of hops then, the node will update its routing table with that route. As long as a route is in use, it will remain active. A route will be considered to be active as long as there are data packets requesting the use of the route. If a link breaks while a route using that link is active, a route error (RERR) message will be generated by the node upstream. This message will propagate through until the source node and inform it of the now-unreachable destinations. After receiving the RERR, if the source node still desires the route, it can reinitiate route discovery. When a route is not used for a period of time, the route times out and is deleted from the route table. This time period is called the route expiry time (RET) or the lifetime of the route. Multicast routes are set up in a similar manner A node wishing to join a multicast group broadcasts a RREQ with the destination IP address set to that of the multicast group and with the 'J'(join) flag set to indicate that it would like to join the group. Any node receiving this RREQ that is a member of the multicast tree that has a fresh enough sequence number for the multicast group may send a RREP. As the RREPs propagate back to the source, the nodes forwarding the message set up pointers in their multicast route tables. As the source node receives the RREPs, it keeps track of the route with the freshest

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sequence number, and beyond that the smallest hop count to the next multicast group member. After the specified discovery period, the source nodes will unicast a Multicast Activation (MACT) [29] message to its selected next hop. This message serves the purpose of activating the route. A node that does not receive this message that had set up a multicast route pointer will timeout and delete the pointer. If the node receiving the MACT was not already a part of the multicast tree, it will also have been keeping track of the best route from the RREPs it received. Hence it must also unicast a MACT to its next hop, and so on until a node that was previously a member of the multicast tree is reached. AODV maintains routes for as long as the route is active. AODV. This includes maintaining a multicast tree for the life of the multicast group. Because the network nodes are mobile, it is likely that many link breakages along a route will occur during the lifetime of that route [30].

The counting to infinity problem is avoided by AODV [31] from the classical distance vector algorithm by using sequence numbers for every route. The counting to infinity problem is the situation where nodes update each other in a loop.

Figure 16 Counting to infinity problem [9]

Consider nodes A, B, C and D making up a MANET as illustrated in Figure. A is not updated on the fact that its route to D via C is broken. This means that A has a registered route, with a metric of 2, to D. C has registered that the link to D is down, so once node B is updated on the link breakage between C and D, it will calculate the shortest path to D to be via A using a metric of 3.C receives information that B can reach D in 3 hops and updates
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its metric to 4 hops. A then registers an update in hop-count for its route to D via C and updates the metric to 5. So they continue to increment the metric in a loop.

The way this is avoided in AODV, for the example described, is by B noticing that as route to D is old based on a sequence number. B will then discard the route and C will be the node with the most recent routing information by which B will update its routing table. 5.4 Characterstics of AODV Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast communication. On-demand route establishment with small delay. Multicast trees connecting group members maintained for lifetime of multicast group. Link breakages in active routes efficiently repaired. All routes are loop-free through use of sequence numbers. Use of Sequence numbers to track accuracy of information. Only keeps track of next hop for a route instead of the entire route. Use of periodic HELLO messages to track neighbours. 5.5 Advantages Because it is a flat routing protocol it does not need any central administrative system to handle the routing process. Reactive protocols like AODV tend to reduce the control traffic messages overhead at the cost of increased latency in finding new routes (32). routes are established on demand and destination sequence numbers are used to find the latest route to the destination. The connection setup delay is less Tries to keep the overhead of the messages small. If host has the route information in the Routing Table about active routes in the network, then the overhead of the routing process will be minimal. AODV reacts relatively quickly to the topological changes in the network and updating only the hosts that may be affected by the change, using the RRER message. The Hello messages, which are responsible for the route maintenance, are also limited so that they do not create unnecessary
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overhead in the network (33). Loop free and avoids the counting to infinity problem, which were typical to the classical distance vector routing protocols, by the usage of the sequence numbers (34).

5.6 Limitations/Disadvantages of AODV The algorithm expects/ requires that the nodes in the broadcast medium can detect each others broadcast. AODV lacks support for high throughput routing metrics: AODV is designed to support the shortest hop count metric. This metric favors long, low bandwidth links over short, high-bandwidth links (35). AODV lacks an efficient route maintenance technique. During the AODV operation, a route that is discovered may not be the optimal route later on. This situation arises because the nodes are mobile and free to move randomly in any direction. Stale entries in the routes are also present in AODV because of the mobility of the intermediate nodes for old sequence number. Multiple route reply packets in response to single route request packet can lead to heavy control overhead[36]

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6. Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) In this section we will discuss about the working and characterstics, advantages and disadvantages of ZRP protocol to get familier with the protocol and its working. Protocol Overview Zone Routing Protocol [Haas, Z.J., Pearlman, M.R. and Samar, P. 2003] is a distributed routing protocol that combines both a proactive and a reactive scheme for route discovery and maintenance. The basic idea of the protocol is the creation of areas, or zones, where every node proactively maintains one route or multiple routes to any destination inside the zone and reactively obtains routing information for any node outside of the zone. The zone diameter may be defined in advance, before nodes form the network, or it may be optimized by every node, based on ZRP traffic measurements. The radius of a nodes zone plays a significant role in the proper behavior of the protocol. If the network consists of a large number of nodes with medium to low mobility or the demand for routes is high, a large value for the radius is preferable to avoid the frequent dissemination of routing requests and reply messages. On the other hand, if the network consists of a small number of nodes with high mobility or the demand for routes is small, the radius value should also be small to avoid overhead of periodic routing update messages.

Structure of ZRP It can be seen that the Zone Routing Protocol composed of several components, which combinely together provide the full routing benefit to ZRP. Each component works independently of the other and they may use different technologies in order to maximize efficiency in their particular area. For example, a reactive protocol such as AODV might be used as the IARP, while the IERP is most commonly a pro-active protocol such as OLSR [A].

Figure17 Structure of ZRP protocol

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Following are the main parts of ZRP: Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP) Interzone Routing Protocol(IERP) Bordercast Routing Protocol(BRP)

ZRP consists of two main routing protocols. The Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP) is responsible for finding and maintaining valid routes in the internal zones between any source/destination pair at all times. Any proactive routing protocol can be used as the ZRP IARP. The Interzone Routing Protocol (IERP), is responsible for finding any available route outside of the nodes internal zone. The scope behind this implementation is to reduce routing overhead and delay and to respond better in the topological changes of the network. The Bordercast Routing Protocol(BRP) is used to direct the route request in the ZRP to direct the route request initiated by the global reactive IERP to the peripheral nodes, thus removing redundant queries and maximizing efficiency. It utilizes the map provided by the local proactive IARP such as OLSR to construct a broadcast tree. Here it is not acting as a routing protocol but as a packet delivery service and it is used to direct the route

Working of ZRP Protocol Figure 18 shows the routing zones of node 10 with two different values for the radius. In the first case, where radius = 2 , node 10 maintains a small number of available routes in its routing table.

Figure18. Route Discovery in ZRP

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. In the second case, where radius = 3, node 10 maintains more routes available in its routing table, in exchange for a larger number of routing update messages. When radius = 1, ZRP behaves like a pure proactive protocol. As node 8 is located outside the node 10 intra-zone, the BRP underlying protocol border-casts the RREQ messages to the peripheral nodes 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 13, 16, 18 and 20. However, as nodes 3, 4, 9, and 14 already have a route to node 8, they initiate a RREP message without further forwarding the RREQ message. When node 10 receives multiple routes to the same destination, it stores the routes in its routing table and selects the shortest one, based on the number of hops. We observe in the Figure 24 that there is a possibility of collisions when multiple nodes transmit the RREP messages back to the source. However, the border-casting scheme minimizes the propagation of RREQ messages within a small region, except when the source/destination pair is located at opposite edges of the network. When a peripheral node does not have a route to the destination node, it originates a RREQ message and border-casts the message to its peripheral nodes. That procedure continues until a route to the destination is found. Route maintenance takes place when a node in an active route detects a link failure in the route: the node employs a local reconfiguration of the path by searching for an alternate route to the destination. If such a route exists, the node originates an update message to inform all other nodes in the path and the source node of a change in the path. The source node may continue sending data packets in the new non-optimized route. If the source node wants to obtain a new optimal route, it regenerates a RREQ message, as previously discussed.

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7. Performance Metrics Performance Metrics of a system are the parameters or the grounds on which the performance is supposed to be evaluated. There are many performance metrics for an evaluation. Different performance metrics are used in the evaluation of the routing protocols. They represent different characteristics of the overall network performance. Routing protocols in MANET are judged on 2 classes of metrices: qualitative metrices and quantitative metrices. These 2 metrices defines the suaitablity and performance of a protocol. Suitability responds in way as which protocol to choose and performance tells the way protocol is working under different conditions. These metrices are defined in IETF RFC-2501 and should be independent of any given protocol[a] In this report, we evaluate the qualitative metrics used to study the effect on the overall network performance. 7.1.Qualitatuve metrices The qualitative metrices include Approach, Distrbuted operations, Loop freedom, Routing schemes, Unidirectional link support,Security,Sleep mode, Multicasting, Routing metric and Frequency of updates. 7.1.1. Approach This indicates the routing approach of a protocol whether it has pro-active behavior or reactive or hybrid approach for routing. AODV works on On-Demand operations and ZRP protocol is working on hybrid approach i .e. both on demand as well as pro active. 7.2.2. Distributed Operation This is a special property of MANETs protocol. It defines the way of interconnection of nodes under distributed environment. It states that a node can enter or exit form the network or from the communication whenever it wants t o. Aodv and ZRP both the protocols support distributed operations. 7.2.3. Loop Freedom Mostly protocols calculates their routing information through bellmon fords algorithm. In the environment like MANET the bandwidth constraint is very high. There sould be no looping around a certain node while calculating or maintaining a routing table. As the network has high probability of collision, a protocol thus avoid the looping of packets to save time and bandwidth both. AODV and ZRP both the protocols are loop free. 7.2.4. Routing scheme
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It indicates the scehem of routing whether the protcols works on flat routing or heirarcial routing. AODV has flat routing scheme whereas ZRP protocol has hierarchical routing scheme. 7.2.5. Unidirectional link support One way communication or two way communication. Many algorithms are designed to work with bidirectional links and they do not work properly with uni directional links. At times required number of duplex links are available and hence uni directional links has got limited value but the time when the pair of unidirectional links are available to connect the two MANET regions which may looks like bi directional link, there the ability to use them is valuable. The unidirectional link support is available in ZRP protocol but in AODV it is not. 7.2.6. Security MANET are exposed to different type of attacks as there is no security at network and link level. They can easily be attacked by snooping attacks, pavket retranmissions attacks, manipulate packet headers and redirect routing messages. A routing protocol is always desired to to possess some security or support some security measures so that there vulnerabilities can be addressed. Security is absent in AODV and ZRP both the protocols and hence it is an important field for further research. 7.2.7. Sleep MANET has got a limited power source for their operations and they usually woks with little batteries. A protocol should be able to operate when some of the nodes are inactive and not taking part in sending and receiving for arbitrary time periods in order to conserve their energy. A protocol should work in such conditions without affecting the protocols performance. ZRP protocol partially supports sleep mode but ODV does not supports it. 7.2.8. Multicasting While transmitting the real time data link multimedia data, it is necessary to multicast the data through different nodes and a protocol should possess this property according to the requirement of the network. Multicasting is present in AODV but ZRP supports partial multicasting of the data packets. 7.2.9. Routing Metric
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Routing Metric provides the path defining how the nodes are connected to each other and sending or receiving the packets. AODV has shortest path routing metrics and ZRP has local shortest path. 7.2.10. Frequency of updates Frequency of updates defines how fast the routing table is updating and how fast a node is creating a route to other nodes. There is no frequency of update in AODV protocol as it uses on demand routing approach on the other hand in ZRP frequency of updates is present locally. 7.2. Quantitative Metrics Quantitative metrics are Routing Ovehead, Packet Delivery Ratio, Packet Loss, Packet end-to end delay, Aggeregate Goodput, Throughput, Path optimality and Energy.

7.2.1. Routing Overhead Ad hoc networks are designed to be scalable. As the network grows, the amount of traffic grows and various routing protocols perform differently. An important measure of the scalability of the protocol, and thus the network, is its routing overhead. It is defined as the total number of routing packets transmitted over the network, expressed in bits per second or packets per second. Some sources of routing overhead in a network are cited in [39] as the number of neighbors to the node and the number of hops from the source to the destination. Other causes of routing overhead are network congestion and route error packets. Most routing protocols rely on their neighbors to route traffic and the increase in the [24] number of neighbors causes even more traffic in the network due to multiplication of broadcast traffic. Contention for transmission slots among various nodes in a MANET also become more pronounced as the network grows. The frequency of broadcasts is increased due to frequent link failures caused by node mobility. How effective a routing protocol is in dealing with these challenges under the constraints of network congestion and low bandwidth is therefore paramount in MANETs. Routing overhead is thus used as a measure to gauge the effectiveness of routing protocols.

7.2.2. Packet Delivery Ratio Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) is the ratio between the number of packets transmitted by a traffic source and the number of packets received by a traffic sink. It measures the loss rate as
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seen by transport protocols and as such, it characterizes both the correctness and efficiency of ad hoc routing protocols. It represents the maximum throughput that the network can achieve. A high packet delivery ratio is desired in a network.

7.2.3 Packet loss Because of the mobility of nodes in MANET, routes are forming and changing continuously and this result in loss of some data packets for which the route has expired. This is the number of packets lost due to incorrect or unavailable routes and MAC layer collisions.

7.2.4 Packet End-to-End Delay The packet end-to-end delay is the average time that packets take to traverse the network. This is the time from the generation of the packet by the sender up to their reception at the destinations application layer and is expressed in seconds. It therefore includes all the delays in the network such as buffer queues, transmission time and delays induced by routing activities and MAC control exchanges. Various applications require different levels of packet delay. Delay sensitive applications such as voice require a low average delay in the network whereas other applications such as FTP may be tolerant to delays up to a certain level. The end-to-end delay is therefore a measure of the how well a routing protocol adapts to the various constraints in the network and represents the reliability the routing protocol [40].

7.2.5 Aggregate Good Put Good Put is the application level throughput, i.e. the number of useful information bits, delivered by the network to a certain destination, per unit of time. The amount of data considered excludes protocol overhead bits as well as retransmitted data packets. This is related to the amount of time from the first bit of the first packet is sent (or delivered) until the last bit of the last packet is delivered. It is the total amount of application layer data in bps that is successfully transmitted in the network

7.2.6 Throughput The ratio of the total amount of data that reaches a receiver from a sender to the time it takes for the receiver to get the last packet is referred to as throughput [24]. It is expressed in bits per second or packets per second. Factors that affect throughput in MANETs include frequent

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topology changes, unreliable communication, limited bandwidth and limited energy [24]. A high throughput network is desirable.

7.2.7 Path Optimality In manet the transfer of packet takes place from source node to destination node or through intermediate node which acts as a router and when a message travels from source to destination it travels hop by hop and reaches the destination. Path optimality is therefore an impotant parameter for a protocol. Path optimality is defined as the ration between the no of hops of the shortest path to the no. of hops in the actual path taken by the packets. Since the nodes are mobile and routes are changing, this creates difference in the shortest path and the actual path taken by the packet.

7.2.8 Energy In ad hoc mobile wireless networks, energy consumption is an important issue as most mobile hosts operate on limited battery resources. Existing models for evaluating the energy consumption behavior of a mobile ad hoc network have shown that the various components of energy related costs include transmission power as well as the power of reception. Nodes are spending their batteries not only by sending their own packets, but also by just overhearing packets from other nodes. As ad hoc network is based on multi-hop communication, energy is also spent by forwarding packets for others. The uniqueness of this decentralized network requires different energy management strategies. Design of an Ad-hoc network while considering their energy limitation issue has become a great deal of research interest in recent times.

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Comparision on the basis of Qualitative metrics Parameters Approach AODV On Demand Routing ZRP On demand and Pro active both Distributed Operations Loop Freedom Routing Scheme Unidirectional Link Support Security Sleep Multicasting Routing Metric Frequency of Updates No No Yes Shortest path No No Partial Partial Local shortest path Locally yes Yes Yes Flat No Yes Yes Hierarchical Yesh

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