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Keywords
Contents:
experime
DIC techn
technique
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Historyof
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diesin1492.
vianMan(Dra
ns of idealhu
ok III of his t
ofproportion
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image correla
resentations
and built an
on survey pho
ns [1], there
n to extract
the1960san
orithmsands
graphs. The a
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) photogramm
rements eithe
owth,mucho
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n, (b)
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image
hanics
was focused on applying recently developed laser technology. Holography, laser speckle, laser speckle
photography,laserspeckleinterferometry,speckleshearinginterferometry,holographicinterferometry,
moirinterferometry[224]andultrahighdensitymoirinterferometryaretypicalexamplesofthetype
ofmeasurementtechniquesdevelopedforusewithcoherentlightsources.
The two dimensional digital image correlation (2D DIC) was extensively used in the field of
experimental stress analysis from the year 1982 onwards. In the early stages people used developing
and digitally recording a fullfield pattern by subjecting an object to ultrasonic waves both before
loading (the reference image) and during the loading process (the deformed image). Using this
approach,in1983Suttonetal,developednumericalalgorithmsandperformedpreliminaryexperiments
usingopticallyrecordedimagestoshowthattheapproach,knowntodayas2DDigitalImageCorrelation
(2DDIC).
In 1984 Peters et al, applied 2DDIC to measure the velocity field in a seeded twodimensional
flowfielddemonstratingthattheapproachcanbeusedinfluidsystems.Inthefieldoffluidmechanics,
investigators used a variety of illumination sources and various high speed imaging concepts such as
rotating drum and rotating mirror (frame/streak) camera systems to extend the method into a wide
range of areas. Today, particle image velocimetry (PIV) and digital PIV are accepted methods for
extracting2Dmotionmeasurementsfromimagesoffluidparticles,providing localvelocityandmotion
measurementsinfluidsystems.
When relatively large deformations are expected, investigators have used a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) with 2DDIC. Recently, Sutton et al, have demonstrated that SEM images can be
acquiredwithahighcontrastrandompattern[50,255]undermechanicalorthermalloading,corrected
forspatialandtemporaldistortionsandusedwith2DDICtoextractelasticpropertiesforfieldsofview
on the order of 1010 m. In this work, the variation is small so that local strains on the order of
0.0005canbereliablydetermined.
Sincetwodimensionaldigitalimagecorrelationrequirespredominantlyinplanedisplacements
and strains, relatively small outofplane motion will change the magnification and introduce errors in
the measured inplane displacement. Combining stereovision principles with 2DDIC concepts
developed and used in single camera imaging, Chao et al, successfully developed, automated and
applied a twocamera stereo vision system for the measurement of threedimensional crack tip
deformations. 3D DIC is now possible to capture the complete full field displacement and motion
measurements of the objects. Volumetric imaging and image analysis has been an active area of
research and development within the medical community for decades, resulting in mature imaging
capabilities. Micro and Macro Computer Aided Tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI),
Confocal Imaging Microscopy (CIM) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) are examples of
technologythatarecurrentlyavailableforfullvolumeimagingofbiomaterialsystems.
3D DIC technique is coupled with finite element method to capture the deformations and
extractthefullfieldstresspatternonthecompleteobject.

Principles
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targetpat
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3D DIC)
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onent which
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roximationas
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lesince
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ct. This syste
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optical axis o
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Using
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oy an
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ut the
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transformationbetweenobjectpointandimagepointwithinasingleplane.
Objectpoint,M,withcoordinates(x,y,z)inthelenssystem
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Frontorobjectfocalpoint,F,locatedadistancez=+

fromC
Focallength,

forthethinlensusedinimaging
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fromC
Idealimagepoint,M,locatedatoptimalfocusofrays
Imagepointinsensorplane(metricunits),M,forobjectpointM
Distancebetweenthesensorplaneandlenscenter,.
The imaging process transforms an object point M located at (x, y, z) into an ideal image point
Mat(x,y,z),usingthefollowingequations.
y
|CN|
=
-y
|CN|

Where y in the image plane is positive when inverted. The relation can be related to the focal
lengthofthelensusingthefollowingrelation.
1
|CN|
+
1
|CN|
=
1
f

lensmakei
i
sequation
TheapproachisextendedtoincludethexdistanceforMusingimagingisotropy,thefollowing
relationsarearrived.
x
i
=
-f

x
z - f

y
i
=
-f

y
z - f

z
i
=
-f

z
z - f

In order that the image point be well focused on the sensor plane, the sensor plane must be
locatedwheretheraysintersect.Thismeansthatthedistancebetweenthesensorplaneandthelens
center must equal the zcomponent of the ideal image point M, i.e., it is necessary that = z. This
leadstothefollowingequationtodefinethefocusplane
z =
f

- f

The image point location (x

i
,y
i
), in the sensor plane are positive and can be written using the
followingrelation.
Th
location.
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Th
vectoreq
he ideal ima
In practice, t
ed region ar
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ound point M
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N" = _
x"
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z"
_ =
theblurredim
ows
x
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i
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Figure5.Eff
=
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1
1
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mageofpoint
x _
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_ =
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_ =
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z
al point M m
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fectofdefocu
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i sin _1 +

u
tMonthese
x
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y
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may not corre
will be slightly
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(f

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z
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(f

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f

z
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1
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ensorplaneca
espond with
y blurred, enl
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blurs.
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`
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z
-
1
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1

anbeobtaine
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arged and sh
gure 5 show
edusingthea
plane
hifted.
ws the
above
2i
m
"
= y
"
( = 9u
o
) - y
"
( = 27u
o
)
= _i sin9u
o
+ i sin9u
o
_1 +
(f

- z)
f

z
__ - _i sin27u
o
+ i sin27u
o
_1 +
(f

- z)
f

z
__
i
m
"
= i
Icns
+ [1 +
(f

-z)
f

z
. TheMcanbewrittenas
N" =
`
1
1
1
1-
x
z
-
y
z
-
1
1
1
1
1

IfweuseathicklenstheequationforMwillbecomeas
N" = _
-
yx
z
-
yy
z
- - i
_.
ImageMatching
Imagematchingisadisciplineofcomputervisionthatisofcentralimportancetoalargenumber
of practical applications, to solve problems in industrial process control, automatic license plate
recognition in parking garages, biological growth phenomena, geological mapping, stereo vision, video
compression and autonomous robots for space exploration. Since the applications are so varied, there
are a wide variety of approaches and algorithms in use today, many specialized to a given task. For
instance,highlyspecializedalgorithmsexisttodeterminemotionvectorsofsmalltracerparticlesusedin
thestudyoffluidflows.Digitalimagecorrelationisnoexception,andalgorithmsareemployedthattake
thephysicsoftheunderlyingdeformationprocessesintoaccount.Inoneregard,however,digitalimage
correlationissomewhatunique.Duetotheminisculemotionsthatareoftenofinterestinengineering
applications, the resolution requirements are much higher than for most other applications. To
accuratelymeasurethestressstraincurveformanyengineeringmaterials,lengthchangesontheorder
of10
5
m/mhavetoberesolved.Theserequirementshaveledtothedevelopmentofmanyalgorithms
targetedtowardsprovidinghighresolutionwithminimalsystematicerrors.
There are many situations in which a unique correspondence between features in two images
cannotbeestablishedwhenviewingthroughasmallaperture.Forarepeatingstructuresuchasagridof
small dots, motion can only be resolved up to an unknown multiple of the grid constant. This can be
solved by considering the entire grid by increasing the aperture size. The correspondence problem
becomesevenmoredifficulttoresolveinrigidmotion. Tosolvethecorrespondenceproblemuniquely,
the object surface has to exhibit certain properties. The ideal surface texture should therefore be
isotropic, i.e., it should not have a preferred orientation. Furthermore, repeating textures can lead to
misregistration problems. The preferred surface texture should therefore be nonperiodic. These
requirementsnaturallyleadtotheuseofrandomtextures,suchasthespecklepatternformedwhena
coherently illuminated surface is viewed through an aperture. The patterns used in digital image
correlatio
occursev
Figure6.
entiresur
not only o
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odel, wherea
ts taken from
C data of a
ed te
men are com
afromanLS
tion
sional
hod is
non
stress
que.It
as DIC
m DIC
thick,
ension
pared
DYNA
DisadvantagesofDIC
Sensiti
Measu
Mathe
Theca
Figu
Technique
ivetofluctua
uringoutofp
ematicsinvolv
alibrationpro
ure12.Appl
tionandnon
laindisplacem
vedischallen
cessistediou
icationsofDI
uniformityof
mentrequire
ging
us
ICtechnique.
flightintensit
smoreequip
Subset
Image
cracke
Crushi
Carbon
Arrays
Interac
instabi
oscillat
structu
Dynam
vibrati
flowfie

ty
pmentandex
t Splitting D
correlation
ed specimen
ng behavio
nNanoTube
ction of
ility
tions of
ure placed o
mic PIV in
on high s
eld
xpertise
Digital
on a
or of
(CNT)
flow
and
the
n the
Flow
speed
Summary
o DICisanoncontactmethodformeasuringwholefielddisplacement
o Method involves interpolation to smooth gray scale levels and then applies coefficient
tomaptheparameterstofindstrains
o Mathematicsinvolvedischallenging,butifcomputercodeisavailable,mappingprocess
becomesautomatic
o Accuracy is often quoted as 0.02 pixels for each displacement component. Accuracy
dependson:
Interpolationschemes
Lensdistortion
Uniformityoflightdistribution
Qualityofspecklepattern
References:
[1]: MichaelA.Sutton,JeanJosOrteuandHubertW.SchreierImageImageCorrelationforShape,
MotionandDeformationMeasurements.
[2]: www.correlatedsolutions.com
[3]: ADEELZAFAR,PresentationonDigitalImageCorrelation
[4]: http://opticalengineering.spiedigitallibrary.org/article.aspx?articleid=1183301%20
[5]: http://www.dantecdynamics.com/Default.aspx?ID=1030