International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research (IJASR) ISSN 2250-0057 Vol.

3 Issue 2, Jun 2013, 175-186 TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

MORPHOLOGY CHARACTERIZATION OF CORDIA AFRICANA POPULATIONS AT SIX PROVENANCES IN NORTHERN ETHIOPIA

ETEFA GUYASSA1, SAMUALE TESFAYE2, ANTONY JOSEPH RAJ3, ABDU ABDULKADIR4 & ABDELA GURE5
1,2&3

Department of Land Resource Management and Environmental Protection, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia 4&5 Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa University, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT
Cordia africana is one of the most important indigenous timber trees of Ethiopia. An understanding of how the tree performs in the wild and under domestication will have a far- reaching impact on the proper management and utilization of this important species. To this end, the study was carried out to investigate the morphological growth performance of C. africana population in natural forests and on farmlands (under domestication processes). Six provenances in northern Ethiopia (Mekelle, Kemisie, Zegie, Finote-selam, Dejen and Tikil-dingay) were selected, taking 16 to 20 individuals with DBH > 10 cm, from both forest and farmland populations. Sample trees were measured for branching height (B), total height (H), diameter at breast height (DBH) and crown diameter (CD) and ratios B:H, H:DBH and CD:DBH were computed and analyzed by one-way ANOVA. There were significant differences between the provenances of forest grown trees in B:H and CD:DBH ratios while H:DBH ratio was not. Within most provenances all ratios were significantly varied between forest and farmland grown trees in which forest trees were superior in bole length and total tree height with smaller crown size. This suggests that the current domestication process of the tree is not adequate to obtain a best tree for timber. Therefore, identifying the best provenances and appropriate managements during domestication process of C. africana would improve the morphology of the species.

KEYWORDS: Cordia Africana, Farmland, Forest Site, Provenance, B: H Ratio, H:DBH Ratio, Cd: DBH Ratio INTRODUCTION
Cordia africana (Lam.) which belongs to the family of Boraginaceae (Warfa, 1988) is a deciduous forest tree widely distributed from South Africa to Saudi Arabia and Yemen at altitudes between 550 - 2600 m.a.s.l. and with an annual rainfall of 700 - 2000 mm (Friis, 1992). It occurs in primary or secondary forests and woodlands (Legesse, 1992). In Ethiopia, it grows well in the dry, moist and wet weyna dega agro-ecological zone (Azene, 2007). A severe natural forest destruction in Ethiopia particularly in the northern part of the country has forced the tree to have scattered occurrences in patchy natural forest, on farmlands, in graveyards and church compounds (Jarvholm & Tivell, 1987; Alemayehu, 2004; Abayneh, 2007). Cordia africana is a multipurpose tree species and it has good attributes as an agroforestry species (ICRAF, 1998), for soil conservation (Abebe et al., 2001), as fodder plant for honeybees (Friis, 1992) and used for its high-quality timber (Fichtle & Admasu, 1994; Haftom, 2005; Azene, 2007). Like many other deciduous trees species, C. africana exhibit repeated branching and problem of straightness (Spurr & Barness, 1980; Pohjonen, 1989; Legesse, 1995). Although these problems can be overcome and the growth performance can be modified by adopting appropriate silvicultural treatment (Smith et al., 1997), no special silvicultural treatment is designed for this tree to improve its stem form. Instead, the utilization and management of the trees is well known by the farmers who deliberately plant or retain this tree species on farmlands (Assegid, 1996; Atakilti, 1996;

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Tesfay, 1996; Million, 2001). The selection, retention or deliberately planting and management of C. africana by farmers indicate the beginning of the domestication process of the species. However, still the tree is being given less attention due to the lack of silvicultural requirements of the tree (Kidane, 2002), unlike many exotic tree species like Eucalyptus spp., Pinus spp. and Juniperus procera. Many of the resultant morphological characteristics which are necessary to timber value, including bole length/branching height, total height, stem diameter are all-important features. However, the morphological performances of the trees at different provenances (geographical locations) and in natural forests and on the farmland have not been yet reported in Ethiopia, which contributes to the future management of the species. This study therefore aims at characterizing and comparing the growth performances of C. africana grown in natural forests with that grown and managed on farmlands in different locations or provenances on the basis of ratios of tree dimensions, as well as presenting information on the species requirements for silvicultural treatments, site and provenance for successful domestication.

METHODOLOGY
Study Site The research was carried out in northern Ethiopia at six provenances/locations between latitude 10 0 03' N to 130 33' N and longitude 370 18' E to 390 55' E, where large populations of C. africana are thought to be found: Mekelle, Kemisie, Zegie, Finote-selam, Dejen and Tikil-dingay. The detailed description of the study locations is in Table 1 and Figure 1. Table 1: Provenances and Corresponding Environment Factors of C. Africana Sampled from Northern Ethiopia Provenances FinoteZegie selam Zeg Fin Gojjam Gojjam B/ Dar Liyu Western Zone Gojam 110211003011041 10041 0 37 18370070 37 19 37015 1803-1812 Weyna-dega Continuous 18.5 1618 Chromic and arthic luvisols Dense 1848-1855 Weyna-dega Scattered 20 1157 Dystric nitosols Dense

Categories Code Province Zone Northing Easting Altitude (m) Agro-ecological Zone (Azene, 2007) Population of the species (Abayneh, 2007) Average Temp. (0c)* Average Rain Fall (mm)* Soil types(NAE, 1988) Forests stand density

Mekelle Mek Tigray Mekelle 1302813033 3902639028' 20802109 Weynadega Scattered 18.5 603 Eutric and calcic cambisol Sparse

Kemisie Kem Wollo Oromia 1004310050 3905139055 1450-1480 Moist kolla Scattered 21.5 1025 Eutric and calcic cambisol Sparse

Dejen Dej Gojjam Eastern Gojam 10003-10011 38015-38021 2020-2080 Weyna- dega Scattered 21.5 1380 Eutric nitosols Sparse

Tikildingay Tik Gondar North Gondar 1204512047 3702437037 2095-2105 Weyna dega Scattered 20 1366 Dystric nitosols Sparse

- Scattered = trees on farmlands, homesteads, church compounds, graveyards; Weyna-dega= areas with elevation between 1500-2300 m.a.s.l; Moist kolla= areas with altitude between 500-1500 m.a.s.l and high rain fall; Eutric & calcic cambisol = often occur dominantly on sloppy, are shallow and have many stone or rocks; Chromic and arthic luvisols = permeability might be low, drainage and root distribution can be hindered; Dystric nitosols = they

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are deep, good physical property, mostly found on flat to sloppy terrain in high rain fall; Eutric nitosols = often occur on flat to sloppy terrain in high rain fall, good physical property; NAE = National Atlas of Ethiopia; Sparse estimated stand basal area less than 150 m2 /ha; Dense estimated stand basal area greater than 150 m2/ha * denotes source from National Meteorology of Ethiopia

Figure 1: Study Sites Sampling Technique To assess the morphology of the tree, 16 to 20 individuals from natural forest and 20 trees from farmland, with10cm DBH (diameter at breast height) were sampled. In this paper, natural forest represents church forest, mosque forest, patches of natural forest while 'domesticated' C. africana are those found on farmlands (backyards, cropland, grazing land). Domesticated C. africana and forest-grown C. africana are used interchangeably with farmland C. africana and wild C. africana respectively throughout this paper. Trees in the forest were randomly sampled from forests stands selected at each provenance. The forest stands were selected purposefully which were thought to have large population size of the species. A multi-stage sampling method was used to sample C. africana from farmlands. First, House holds those owned C. africana on their farmland were identified through surveying and with the help of key informants (District Agents and elders). The households sorted based on the highest number of the trees they owned. Tree Measurement For each tree selected for sampling 10 cm DBH, the following data were recorded in each of the study sites for both forest grown and farmlands C. africana: DBH, total tree height (H), branching height (B) (height of the lowest living branch) and crown diameter (CD). Stem diameter at breast height was measured by diameter tape, total height and branching height/bole height of each tree was calculated from measurements taken by a hypsometer at a known distance from the base of the trunk. Crown diameter of a tree was estimated by the arithmetic mean of two perpendicular directional measurement of the crown, whereby the direction of the first diameter was selected at random and the second was lied out at right angle to it (Philip, 1994). The vertical projections of the edge of the crowns down to the ground were made by Suunto clinometer (Hemery et al., 2005). The projections were marked with pegs and the horizontal distances measurements taken with a tape. Data Analysis The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS ver. 13.0) was used to analyze the data. The ratios for

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branching height to total height, total height to stem diameter and crown diameter to stem diameter for each population were computed. The differences in the ratios across the provenances and within the provenances (between forest and farmland trees) were tested by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). When ANOVA showed significant differences (P 0.05) among the various provenance and between forest and farmland for each ratio, a mean separ ation for each parameter was made using a Least Significance Difference mean comparisons (LSD).

RESULTS
Variation of the Ratios among Provenances Farmland grown trees (trees under domestication process) were exposed to different interferences of human beings (pruning at different height and intensity, pollarding, marking the tree) and domestic animals, which could affect the morphology of this tree species. Mean values for branching height to total height ratio (B : H), total height to stem diameter at breast height ratio (H : DBH) and crown diameter to stem diameter at breast height ratio (CD : DBH) are presented in Table 2 and Figure 2-4. Branching Height to Total Height Ratio A one-way ANOVA showed significant variations in B : H ratio of C. africana between provenances of both forest sites and farmland sites (p<0.05) (Table 3). For forest populations the highest mean ratio was observed at Finoteselam (0.445) while the lowest mean ratio was observed at Kemisie (0.301) (Table 2, Figure 2). The Least Significant Difference (LSD) test of treatment means depicted a significantly smaller B : H ratio at Mekelle (0.314) than at Finoteselam (0.445), Dejen (0.438) and Tikil-dingay (0.412) provenances and very similar ratios at Mekelle (0.314) and Kemisie (0.301) (Table 2). Table 2: Data on Growth Parameters, Mean Ratios of B: H, H: DBH and CD: DBH of C. Africana (Values within a Row for the Ratios Sharing a Common Superscript Letter do Not Differ Significantly at =0.05) Sites Categories N DBH(cm) H(m) B(m) CD(m) B:H H : DBH CD : DBH n DBH(cm) H(m) B(m) CD(m) B:H H : DBH CD : DBH Provenances Zeg Fin 20 19 29.68 27.04 14.1 12.45 5.13 5.54 6.28 5.84 0.364bc 0.445d 47.0a 46.1a 20.9b 21.6b 20 20 23.67 24.31 8.48 10.04 2.87 3.57 6.48 6.55 ac 0.338 0.356bc 35.3ac 41.8c a 27 27.3a

Data Forest Sites Ratios

Data Farm Land Sites Ratios n= sample size

Mek 20 32.9 13.05 4.1 7.96 0.314ab 39.5a 24.1a 20 26.45 7.17 1.97 6.99 0.275ae 27.6a 26.9a

Kem 20 28.12 12.09 3.64 7.2 0.301a 43.2a 25.7a 20 26.81 8.63 2.71 9.59 0.314abf 32.0ab 35.5a

Dej 20 24.32 11.12 4.87 5.37 0.438d 46.3a 22.4b 20 27.91 9.81 2.72 6.29 0.277ad 35.0bc 22.5a

Tik 16 23.2 10.4 4.28 5.33 0.412cd 45.2a 23.2ab 20 23.05 10.3 2.59 6.73 0.251def 44.8c 29.3a

Among the farmlands Finote-selam exhibited the highest B : H ratio (0.356) followed by Zegie (0.338), and the smallest ratio was recorded at Tikil-dingay (0.251). A pair-wise means comparison using LSD indicated that the ratio at Finote-selam (0.356) was significantly greater than the ratio at Mekelle (0.275), Dejen (0.277) and Tikil-dingay (0.251). A

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significant difference also found between Zegie (0.338) and Tikil-dingay (0.251) in which the former is significantly greater (Table 2, Figure 2). There was no evidence that show a statistically significant difference of B : H ratio between Kemisie and other provenances. A significant variation of B : H ratio between forest C. africana and farmland C. africana were observed at Dejen, Tikil-dingay and Finote-selam provenances (Table 4). However, variations of ratios were observed between forest grown C. africana and domesticated C. africana at all locations, except at Kemisie, in which the ratio of forest grown was greater than those on farmlands (Table 2, Figure 3).

Figure 2: Relative Differences in the Mean B: H ratios of C. africana in the Forests and on Farmlands at the six Provenances Total Tree Height to Diameter at Breast Height Ratio For forest grown trees the differences of ratios of H: DBH were not significant across all the provenances while it was significant across the farmland sites (Table 3). There was however some relative variations among the different locations for forest grown trees with the highest mean ratio being recorded at Zegie (47) followed by Dejen (46.3) and Finote-selam (46.1) and the lowest ratios were observed at Mekelle (40) and Kemisie (43)(Table 2, Figure 3). Among the farmland trees Tikil-dingay and Mekelle had the highest and smallest mean H : DBH ratio (44.8 and 27.6, respectively) as compared to other provenances (Figure 3). The result showed a significantly lower H: DBH ratio at Mekelle (27.6) as compared to those ratios at Finote-selam (41.8), Tikil-dingay (44.8) and Dejen (35). It was also observed that Kemisie had a significantly smaller ratio (32) as compared to the ratio at Finote-selam (41.8) and Tikil-dingay (44.8) (Table 2). Three provenances namely Mekelle, Kemisie and Zegie exhibited a significant difference for H: DBH ratio between forest and farmland grown trees while at Finote-selam, Dejen and Tikil-dingay there was no statistical evidences showing significant differences of the ratios between forest and farmland trees at a significance level of =0.05 (Table 4). Mean total heights to diameter at breast height ratios were similar for forest trees and farmland trees at Tikil-dingay and Finote-selam provenances (Figure 3.) Table 3: One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Ratio B: H, H : DBH, and CD : DBH of C. africana Sites Forest Sites Farmland Sites Response Variables B:H H : DBH CD : DBH B:H H : DBH CD : DBH Sum of Squares 0.409 0.014 0.023 0.184 0.323 0.038 Degrees of Freedom 5 5 5 5 5 5 Mean Square 0.082 0.003 0.005 0.037 0.065 0.008 FCal 8.379 0.290 2.328 2.657 3.836 1.303 P-Value 0.000 0.929 0.025 0.026 0.016 0.940

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Table 4: A One-way ANOVA for B: H Ratio, H: DBH Ratio and CD : DBH Ratio of C. africana Provenance Mek Response Variables B:H H : DBH CD : DBH B:H H : DBH CD : DBH B:H H : DBH CD : DBH B:H H : DBH CD : DBH B:H H : DBH CD : DBH B:H H : DBH CD : DBH Sum of Squares 0.007 0.184 0.031 0.004 0.100 0.027 0.009 0.085 0.057 0.064 0.005 0.037 0.234 0.046 0.012 0.269 0.001 0.055 Mean Square 0.007 0.184 0.031 0.004 0.100 0.027 0.009 0.085 0.057 0.064 0.005 0.037 0.234 0.046 0.012 0.269 0.001 0.055 F-Cal. 0.598 10.699 4.976 0.458 8.215 11.253 0.714 9.272 25.031 5.050 0.257 16.710 30.316 3.781 2.746 14.402 0.078 8.564 P-Value 0.444 0.002 0.032 0.503 0.007 0.002 0.403 0.004 0.000 0.031 0.615 0.000 0.000 0.059 0.106 0.001 0.782 0.006

Kem

Zeg

Fin

Dej

Tik

Figure 3: Relative Differences in the Mean H: DBH Ratios of C. africana Crown Diameter to Diameter at Breast Height Ratio The results of the study showed a slightly significant difference in CD : DBH ratios among the forests grown trees at =0.05(Table 5). The ratio CD : DBH at Kemisie and Mekelle with values of 25.7 and 24.1 respectively were significantly higher than the ratios at Zegie and Finote-selam provenances (21.6 and 20.9, respectively) (Table 2 , Figure 4). Across the farmland sites no significant difference of CD : DBH ratios was observed (Table 2). However, some relative differences were observed between the ratios of the trees under domestication/ in farmland. The highest ratio was encountered at Kemisie (35.5) followed by Tikil-dingay (29.3) provenance (Figure 4). Crown diameter to diameter at breast height ratios varied significantly between forests and farm land trees at e ach provenance except at Dejen (P 0.05) (Table 4).

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Figure 4: Relative Differences in the Mean CD: DBH Ratios of C. africana

DISCUSSIONS
The Variations of Parameter Ratios across the Provenances and within the Provenances The growth of trees is determined by several factors, such as climate, geographic variations, site difference, elevation, soil type, management activities and genetic factors (Daniel et al., 1979; Smith et al., 1997; Zobel & Talbert, 1984; Evans & Turnbull, 2004). The growth of some trees is limited to a specific geographic variation, whereas others, such as C. africana, are adapted to a wide range, and can grow between altitude 550 2600 m.a.s.l., and under an annual rainfall from 7002600 mm (Friis, 1992). This results in wide morphological variation in the species (Abayneh, 2007), as depicted in the following sections. Branching Height to Total Height Possession of the highest B : H ratio is an indication of a tree owning the smallest live-crown ratio or the longest bole length of a tree. As indicated in Table 3, in both forest and farmland sites, the B : H ratios of C. africana varied significantly between provenances, in which the differences in the ratios observed were larger across forest sites than farmland sites. The reason for the difference of the two highest ratios of forest trees at Finote-selam (0.445) and Dejen (0.438) from the lowest two ratios at Kemisie (0.301) and Mekelle (0.314) may be ascribed primarily to the presence of high precipitation, deep soil and relatively high stocking stand density at Finote-selam and Dejen. This is an indication that high rainfall, deep soil and dense forest may favor the development of bole length of a tree. Several studies showed that stand density affects the branch height to total height ratio of a tree by encouraging natural pruning, owing to high competition in the lower part of the crown (Smith et al., 1997). Although significant differences in B : H ratios were also observed among farmland trees', every pair of provenances that showed significant differences in farm lands did not coincide with that of forest tree rovenances' except between Finote-selam and Mekelle. This might be related to the land use types and management activities practiced on the trees. Although the soil type at Zegie is less permeable than that of Tikil-dingay, the ratio was significantly higher at Zegie (0.338) farmland than at Tikil-dingay (0.251) farmland trees which might have occurred due to environmental differences between the provenances (Table 1). This could entail that the bole length of C. africana is better at medium Weyna-dega with a high rain fall distribution which is similar with Azene (2007). Within each provenances, forest-grown trees of C. africana had a greater B : H ratio than trees on farmland, particularly at Dejen, Tikil-dingay and Finote-selam provenances where the differences were significant (Figure 1, Table 4). These differences could have resulted from high competition from other vegetation in the forest and the absence of substantial competition on the farmland suggesting that trees growing in high stocking of a stand have longer bole length than trees in lower stocking. This result is in line with the

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principle that trees in the forest have many branches near the top, because the lower branches die owing to high competition (natural pruning) (Daniel et al., 1979). An increase in branching height would be attained at the cost of shedding lower branches (Alves & Santos, 2002). In contrast, trees growing in open areas retain many large branches, which start from the lower part of the main trunk of the tree. This reduces the ratio of bole length/ branching height of such trees (Daniel et al., 1979) Total Tree Height to Diameter at Breast Height Ratio Most of the measured sample trees were naturally regenerated and it was difficult to determine their age, hence to draw conclusion about the total height and diameter growth performance of the species of different provenances. Therefore, the H : DBH ratio was used to determine the height and diameter growth performance of the species on different site and provenances. The highest mean H : DBH ratio indicates a greater height growth and reduced stem diameter growth and the reverse for a smallest ratio. Ratios of total tree heights to diameter at breast height ratios of C. africana on the forest sites were similar for all provenances regardless of environmental factors. This suggests that neither height growth nor diameter growth was significantly affected by location differences, although different mean height and diameter of the trees were recorded at different provenances (Table 2, Fig 2). Rather both parameters increased almost proportionately in all locations. On the other hand, the significant differences in the H : DBH for domesticated trees among the provenances of farmland, might be due to management activities, land-use types or cropping differences. The low ratio for both domesticated trees and forest-grown trees indicated at Mekelle (27.6 and 39.5, respectively) and Kemisie (32 and 43.2, respectively) might be due to the impact of shallow soil type and low amount of rain fall of these provenances (Table 1), relative to the other provenances. The results of the study have showed variations of H : DBH within provenances, in which C. africana trees grown in the forest had higher ratios than those grown on the farmland (Table 4, Figure 2). This could be attributed to the stand density of trees on the sites or to a combination of human activities/interferences and competition. C. africana grown on farmland was free of competition, as compared to that grown in the forest, because of higher stand density of trees in the forest. This suggested that trees in open areas are favored in diameter growth and limited in height growth, compared to those trees in the relatively dense forest. Stand density / level of competition can affect tree height growth and stem diameter increment, though its effect on height growth is not as significant as its effect on diameter (Daniel et al., 1979; Drew & Flewelling, 1979; Smith et al., 1997). In the report of Hummel (2000), the height growth of Cordia allidora was not associated with density, while diameter growth was significantly associated. The higher ratio of H : DBH in the forest than on farmland in present result is consistent with the result of Holbrook & Putz (1989) for Sweet gum trees ( Eucalyptus spp.), in which crowded trees had a larger ratio of height to diameter at breast height. The biological reason for the impact of stand density on diameter growth and height growth is the fact that trees in the crowded forest develop smaller branches, and thereby diameter is affected while height growth is encouraged, particularly when the age of the tree increases (Daniel et al., 1979; Mehari & Habte, 2006). Crown Diameter to Diameter at Breast Height Ratio The width of a tree crown is influenced by various factors. For example, Bella (1997) concluded that genetic or climatic variation, or both, influence the crown width, Daniel et al. (1979) has explained that crown size and shape are controlled by a combination of inherent genetic and environmental factors and Paine & Hann (1982) also found out that geographic location influences crown width. In the results of the current study, the differences observed in the CD : DBH among forest populations were

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significant, and the ratio was similar for all farmland populations (Table 2, Table 3, Figure 3). A significant difference among provenances in the ratio of forest-grown C. africana may have resulted from environmental factors (e.g., precipitation, stand density). The ratio was highest at Kemisie (25.7) followed by Mekelle (24.1) although these provenances are characterized by shallow soil and low amount of rain fall as well as found at different agro-ecological zone (Table 1). The results of this study disagree with the principles that trees growing in low precipitation and shallow soil areas show reduced shoot growth for the strategy of water conservation (Kimmins, 2004). The difference may be due to low stand density (large free space) at Kemisie and Mekelle, because the development of tree crown is influenced by spacing and competition (Daniel et al., 1979). When the ratio of crown diameter to stem diameter in C. africana grown in the forest is compared with that of trees grown on the farmlands (domesticated trees), significant differences were observed at each location (Table 4), which suggested that CD : DBH is controlled by density (competitions). This is in agreement with the finding of Daniel et al. (1979) and Smith et al. (1997), which maintain that high stand densities help to keep the branch and crown of a tree small. But it is contradicting with the report of Hummel (2000), on the relationships between crown dimensions and density for C. allidora. He concluded that the ratio between CD : DBH was not associated with the stand density.

CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the effects of both provenance and domestication process (tree grown on farmlands) on the selected morphological features of C. africana were demonstrated. Most of the ratios of C. africana investigated varied significantly across the provenances of both forest and farmland sites and within the provenances as well. Forest grown trees, where human and domestic animal interferences were less or absent, are better to compare the variation of the ratios among the provenances. There were significant differences between the provenances of forest grown trees in B: H and CD: DBH ratios while H: DBH ratio was not. Finoteselam supported the highest B : H ratio ( larger bole length) with small crown size while the ratio was smallest at Kemise followed by Mekelle suggesting the potential of the provenances (geographical locations) which to select and / or where to grow the trees with larger bole length. Within most provenances all ratios were significantly varied between forest and farmland grown trees in which forest trees were superior in bole length and total tree height with smaller crown size. This suggests that the current domestication process of C. africana is not adequate to obtain a best timber tree. It would be very important to carryout provenance trial with different management activities to identify the best provenances and appropriate managements for the improvement of the morphology of the species during domestication process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was financed by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), and partially by NORAD II (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation) which are gratefully acknowledged. We thank Debub University Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural resource for logistic support. We are grateful to Dr. Jeremy Flower-Ellis for editing this manuscript.

REFERENCES
1. Abayneh, D. (2007). Genetic variation in Cordia africana Lam. in Ethiopia. Ph.D. Thesis. Georg-AugustUniversitt Gttingen, Gttingen. 105 p. 2. Abebe, Y., Fisseha, I. and Olsson, M. (2001). Contribution of indigenous trees to soil properties: The case of scattered trees of Cordia africana Lam. in croplands of western Oromia. Ethiopian Journal of Natural Resources

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