Unit 5.

3 Chemicals in control Know that chemical neurotransmitters are secreted from nerve endings resulting in rapid, short-lived and localised responses. Understand how mammalian hormones are substances that stimulate their target cells via the blood system. This results in slow, long-lasting and widespread responses. Know that mammalian oestrous cycle is controlled by FSH, LH, progesterone and oestrogen. The secretion of these hormones is controlled by interacting negative and positive feedback loops. Be able to interpret graphs showing the blood concentrations of FSH, LH, progesterone and oestrogen during a given oestrous cycle. Know that histamine and prostaglandins are local chemical mediators released by some mammalian cells and affect only cells in their immediate vicinity. Know that in flowering plants, specific growth factors diffuse from growing regions to other tissues. They regulate growth in response to directional stimuli. The role of indoleacetic acid (IAA) in controlling tropisms in flowering plants. Key terms: Hormone, endocrine gland, FSH, oestrogen, LH, progesterone, menstrual cycle, chemical mediator, histamine, prostaglandin; Chemical mediators: Chemicals that are released from certain mammalian cells and have an effect on cels in their immediate vicinity. They are typically released by infected or injured cells and cause small arteries and arterioles to dilate. This leads to a rise in temperature and swelling to the affected area the so-called inflammatory response. Two examples of chemical mediators are: o Histamine This is stored in certain white blood cells and released following injury or in response to an allergen, such as pollen. It causes dilation of small arteries and arterioles and increased permeability of capillaries, leading to localised swelling, redness and itching. o Prostaglandins Which are found in cell membranes and also cause dilation of small arteries and arterioles. Their release following injury increases the permeability of capillaries. They also affect blood pressure and neurotransmitters (substances involved in the transmission of nerve impulses). In so doing, they affect pain sensation.

Control of the oestrous cycle Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary, which contain eggs, and stimulates the follicles in the ovaries to produce oestrogen. o Luteinising hormone (LH) causes ovulation to occur, and stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone from the corpus luteum. The remaining 2 hormones are produced in the ovaries: o Oestrogen causes the rebuilding of the uterus lining after menstruation and stimulates the pituitary gland to produce LH. o Progesterone maintains the lining of the uterus in readiness to receive the fertilised egg and inhibits the production of FSH from the pituitary gland.

These four hormones control the menstrual cycle by their negative and positive feedback loops. The menstrual cycle is begins when the uterus lining is shed, along with some blood (1-5 day). From day 1, the pituitary gland releases FSH into the blood which stimulates follicles in the ovary to grow and mature. Each follicle contains an egg. The growing follicles secrete small amounts of oestrogen into the blood. This low level of oestrogen causes the uterus lining to build up again and also inhibits the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland (=negative feedback). As the follicles grow, more oestrogen is produced. The level of oestrogen increases until, at around day 10, it reaches a critical point where it stimulates the pituitary gland to release more FSH and LH (=positive feedback) There is a surge in FSH and LH production. The surge in LH causes one of the follicles in the ovary to release its egg. This is called ovulation and occurs on day 14. After ovulation LH stimulates the empty follicle to develop into a structure called the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone (and smaller amounts of oestrogen). Progesterone maintains the thick lining of the uterus and also inhibits the release of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland (=negative feedback)

If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum degenerates and so no longer produces progesterone. With less progesterone, the lining of the uterus is no longer maintained and so breaks down (menstruation). Less progesterone also means that FSH release is no longer inhibited. FSH release therefore resumes and the cycle repeats itself.

Hormones and their action Hormones are grouped into three classes based on their structure o Steroids Lipids derived from cholesterol o Peptides Peptide are short chains of amino acids; most hormones are peptides Peptide hormones are synthesised as precursor molecules and processed by the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi where they are stored in secretory granules. When needed, the granules are dumped into the bloodstream. Different hormones can often be made from the same precursor molecule by cleaving it with a different enzyme. o Amines Are derived from the amino acid tyrosine.

Mechanisms of hormone action The endocrine system acts by releasing hormones that in turn trigger actions in specific target cells. Receptors on target cell membranes bind only to one type of hormone. More than fifty human hormones have been identified; all act by binding to receptor molecules. The binding hormone changes the shape of the receptor causing the shape of the receptor causing the response to the hormone. There are two mechanisms of hormone action on all target cells.

Nonsteroid hormones (e.g. adrenaline affecting blood glucose concentrations) Nonsteroid hormones (water soluble) do not enter the cell but bind to plasma membrane receptors, generating a chemical signal (second messenger) inside the target cell. Five different second messenger chemicals, including cyclic AMP have been identified. Second messengers activate other intracellular chemicals to produce the target cell response.

Steroid hormones The second mechanism involves steroid hormones, which pass through the plasma membrane and act in a two-step process. Steroid hormones bind, once inside the cell, to the nuclear membrane receptors, producing an activated hormone-receptor complex. The activated hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and activates specific genes, increasing production of proteins.

Communication is by; Transmission is by; Speed of transmission; Target; Spread of response; Speed of response; Duration of response; Duration of effect;

Hormonal system Hormones Blood Slow All over the body only target organs respond Widespread Slow Long lasting Permanent and irreversible

Nervous system Nerve impulses Neurones Rapid Nerve impulses travel to specific parts of the body Localised Rapid Response is short lived in the nervous system Temporary and reversible

Feedback mechanisms The set point A receptor Controller Effector Feedback loop

Negative feedback Brings the environment back to normal. E.g. temperature of blood.

Positive feedback Causes more deviation from the norm. E.g. oestrous cycle