Food Additives

Papain,bulk Sodium Ascorbate PHOSPHATES- all Calcium Citrate Sodium Gluconate food grade Calcium Ascorbate Potassium Citrate
Sorbic Acid Calcium Gluconate Potassium Gluconate Thaimine mononitrate Citric Acid Potassium Sorbate Thiamine HCL L-Cysteine Pyroxidine Trisodium Citrate Erythritol Riboflavin Trimagnesium Citrate Glucono delta Rochelle Salt Vitamin B 2 Lactone Glycerine Xanthan Gum Monosodium Citrate Xylose
AscorbicAcid
We have a good position on many other specialty gums and vitamins. We purchase gums from high quality processors from around the world. We have the product quality and viscosity to fit all your applications. Give us a call. Here is a small sampling of what is available!
Gum Acacia Carrageenan TaraGum CMC UltraGuar GuarGum, 100 Xanthan mesh Gum GuarGum, 200 mesh Agar Agar Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) is used as a vitamin supplement in food and beverages, as a dough conditioning agent as well as an antioxidant in canned and frozen prepared foods.
Caffeine is a material with a strongly bitter taste. It is used in beverages and pharmaceutical applications as a flavor and/or as a general nervous system stimulant.
Calcium Citrate is used as a calcium supplement, especially in acidic or slightly acidic beverages and juices, tablets or other nutritional supplements.
Citric Acid is the most widely used acid and pH control agent in the food industry. Citric acid is characterized by a pleasant tart flavor easy solubility and stability. It is suitable for a wide range of food and industrial applications including beverages, confectionery canned foods and as a basic chemical.
Cream of Tartar (COT) is the acid potassium salt of L(+) tartaric acid. It functions to complex heavy metals and regulate pH, It is largely used in chemical leavening to release carbon dioxide as well as in metal coloring and galvanic tinning. It also functions as a taste regulator in sugar icing and in the controlled crystallization of toffees and fondants by the regulated inversion of sucrose.
Fumaric Acid is nonhygroscopic and guards against moisture pickup and caking. It is used in dry mix beverages, fruit juice drinks,
gelatin desserts, pie fillings, refrigerated biscuit doughs, rye bread souring agents, jelling aids, wine, maraschino cherries and other products
Gluconic Acid 50% is an excellent chelating agent in alkaline solutions and is stable even in 1 5% caustic soda. It is mainly used for technical applications, e.g. for surface finishing of metals, in the textile industry for inhibiting precipitates on fibers and removing encrustations.
Malic Acid is the principal acid contained in apples and many other fruits and vegetables. Malic acid has a clean, mellow, smooth, lingering tart taste. Compared to citric acid, malic acid has a prolonged taste effect which can help mask the aftertaste of low calorie sweeteners.
Monosodium Citrate, an anhydrous acid salt, occupies an intermediate position between citric acid and the neutral trisodium citrate. It is used as a buffering agent in solutions, emulsions, beverage and food stuffs as well as an antioxidant. It is approved by the FDA CFR 181.29 as an indirect additive.
Na4EDTA (Tetrasodium Ethylenediaminetetraacetate) is the tetrasodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Na4EDTA forms watersoluble coordination compounds with multivalent metal ions over a wide pH
range.
Potassium Benzoate replaces sodium benzoate in applications where the preserving power of benzoic acid is required and a low sodium content is desirable.
Potassium Gluconate has applications similar to sodium gluconate and is also used as a potassium source in diabetic food and pharmaceuticals.
Potassium Sorbate is the very soluble salt of sorbic acid. It is used in many food products as a preservative with an effective pH range up to approximately 5.5 making it useful over a wider range than benzoates. Many dairy products with standards of identity allow the use of potassium sorbate as an optional ingredient, especially to check mold growth in certain kinds of cheese.
Rochelle Salt is the crystalline mixed sodium/potassium salt of tartaric acid used in medicine as a cathartic, in the preparation of mirrors, as a component of Fehlings Solution, in metal finishing, in leavening agents, as a buffering agent and as a chelating agent.Sodium Benzoate, the sodium salt of benzoic acid, is most suitable for use as an antimicrobial agent in foods and beverages which are naturally in the pH range below 4.5 or can be brought there by addition of a
suitable acidulant.
Sorbic Acid is used as a preservative effective against yeast and mold spoilage primarily up to pH 6.5 Sorbic acid is used in cheese making, pickles and other food applications.
Sorbitol is a multifunctional polyol (polyhydric alcohol) which can be used as a nutritive sugar substitute. Mainly used for its humectant properties in various food products, it also is used in sugarfree confections for crystallization control. Noncarinogenic and approximately 6O% as sweet as sugar Sorbitol is used in dietetic foods as a sugar substitute. Sorbitol is used for example in toothpaste, pet foods, surimi, chewing gum, bakery products and sugarfree candy.
Tartaric Acid is used as an acidulant in beverages, especially grape and lime flavored still beverages, as a leavening agent and a sequestrant. It also acts as a synergist with antioxidants to prevent rancidity in fats and oils.
Tripotassium Citrate shows a similar functionality to trisodium citrate, but provides easier solubility It is recommended in all diabetic food products which require a low sodium content. It finds pharmaceutical applications as a potassium and citrate source as well as in several
technical applications.
Trisodium Citrate is a unique buffering salt for pH control in beverages, confectionery and numerous food products. Together with citric acid it ensures a precise pHadjustment over a wide range. As a sequestrating agent it complexes cations like Ca, Mg and heavy metals, thus supporting the efficacy of anti oxidants.
Xanthan Gum is a stabilizer and thickener for aqueous systems with outstanding characteristics such as temperature, pH and salt stability and pseudoplastic flow behavior It is widely used in the food industry, but also finds numerous technical applications.
General Specifications and Considerations for Enzyme Preparations Used in Food Processing
The following general specifications were prepared by the Committee at its sixty-seventh meeting (2006) for publication in FAO JECFA Monographs 3 (2006), superseding the general specifications prepared at the fifty-seventh meeting (1) and published in FAO JECFA Monographs 1 (2). These specifications were originally prepared by the Committee at its twenty-fifth meeting (3) and published in FAO Food and Nutrition Papers No. 19 and No. 31/2 (4,5). Subsequent revisions were made by the Committee at its thirty-fifth meeting and published in FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 52 (6). Additional amendments were made at the fifty-first meeting and published in FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 52 Add. 6 (7), and at the fifty-third meeting (8) and partially published in FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 52 Add. 7 (9). Classification and nomenclature of enzymes Enzymes are proteins that catalyse chemical reactions. The Enzyme Commission of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (formerly the International Union of Biochemistry) classified enzymes into six main classes: oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases (10). Based on the type of reaction catalysed, enzymes are assigned to one of these classes and given an Enzyme Commission (EC) number, a systematic name, and a common name. Other names are
also provided, if available. Enzymes used in food processing are often referred to by their common or traditional names such as protease, amylase, malt, or rennet. For enzymes derived from microorganisms, the name of the source microorganism is usually specified, for example, -amylase from Bacillus subtilis. For enzymes derived from microorganisms modified by using recombinant DNA techniques (referred to as recombinant-DNA microorganisms or genetically modified microorganisms), the names of both the enzyme source (donor organism) and the production microorganism are provided, for example, -amylase from Bacillus licheniformis expressed in Bacillus subtilis. Enzyme preparations Enzymes are used in food processing as enzyme preparations. An enzyme preparation contains an active enzyme (in some instances a blend of two or more enzymes) and intentionally added formulation ingredients such as diluents, stabilizing agents, and preserving agents. The formulation ingredients may include water, salt, sucrose, sorbitol, dextrin, cellulose, or other suitable compounds. Enzyme preparations may also contain constituents of the source organism (i.e. an animal, plant, or microbial material from which an enzyme was isolated) and compounds derived from the manufacturing process, for example, the residues of the fermentation broth. Depending on the application, an enzyme preparation may be formulated as a liquid, semi-liquid or dried product. The colour of an enzyme preparation may vary from colourless to dark brown. Some enzymes are immobilized on solid support materials. Active components Enzyme preparations usually contain one principal enzyme that catalyses one specific reaction during food processing. For example, -amylase catalyses the hydrolysis of 1,4-D-glucosidic linkages in starch and related polysaccharides. However, some enzyme preparations contain a mixture of enzymes that catalyse two or more different reactions in food. Each principal enzyme present in an enzyme preparation is characterized by its systematic name, common name, and EC number. The activity of each enzyme is measured using an appropriate assay and expressed in defined activity units per weight (or volume) of the preparation. Source materials Enzymes used in food processing are derived from animal, plant, and microbial sources. Animal tissues used for the preparation of enzymes should comply with meat inspection requirements and be handled in accordance with good hygienic practice. Plant material and microorganisms used in the production of enzyme preparations should not leave any residues harmful to health in the processed finished food under normal conditions of use.
Microbial strains used in the production of enzyme preparations may be native strains or mutant strains derived from native strains by the processes of serial culture and selection or mutagenesis and selection or by the application of recombinant DNA technology. Although nonpathogenic and nontoxigenic microorganisms are normally used in the production of enzymes used in food processing, several fungal species traditionally used as sources of enzymes are known to include strains capable of producing low levels of certain mycotoxins under fermentation conditions conducive to mycotoxin synthesis (11 15). Enzyme preparations derived from such fungal species should not contain toxicologically significant levels of mycotoxins that could be produced by these species. Microbial production strains should be taxonomically and genetically characterized and identified by a strain number or other designation. The strain identity may be included in individual specifications, if appropriate. The strains should be maintained under conditions that ensure the absence of genetic drift and, when used in the production of enzyme preparations, should be subjected to methods and culture conditions that are applied consistently and reproducibly from batch to batch. Such conditions should prevent the introduction of microorganisms that could be the source of toxic and other undesirable substances. Culture media used for the growth of microbial sources should consist of components that leave no residues harmful to health in the processed finished food under normal conditions of use. Enzyme preparations should be produced in accordance with good food manufacturing practice and cause no increase in the total microbial count in the treated food over the level considered to be acceptable for the respective food. Substances used in processing and formulation Substances used in processing and formulation of enzyme preparations should be suitable for their intended uses. In the case of immobilized enzyme preparations, leakage of active enzymes, support materials, crosslinking agents and/or other substances used in immobilization should be kept within acceptable limits established in the individual specifications. To distinguish the proportion of the enzyme preparation derived from the source material and manufacturing process from that contributed by intentionally added formulation ingredients, the content of total organic solids (TOS) is calculated as follows: % TOS = 100 - (A + W + D) where: A = % ash, W = % water and D = % diluents and/or other formulation ingredients. Purity Lead: Not more than 5 mg/kg
Determine using an atomic absorption spectroscopy/inductively coupled atomic-emission spectroscopy (AAS/ICP-AES) technique appropriate to the specified level. The selection of the sample size and the method of sample preparation may be based on the principles described in the Compendium of Food Additive Specifications, Volume 4. Microbiological criteria: Salmonella species: absent in 25 g of sample Total coliforms: not more than 30 per gram Escherichia coli: absent in 25 g of sample Determine using procedures described in Volume 4. Antimicrobial activity: Absent in preparations from microbial sources. Other considerations Safety assessment of food enzyme preparations has been addressed in a number of publications and documents. Pariza & Foster (11) proposed a decision tree for determining the safety of microbial enzyme preparations. Pariza & Johnson (16) subsequently updated this decision tree and included information on enzyme preparations derived from recombinant-DNA microorganisms. The Scientific Committee on Food (17) issued guidelines for the presentation of data on food enzymes. The document includes a discussion on enzymes from genetically modified organisms including microorganisms, plants, and animals. Several international organizations, government agencies, and expert groups have also published discussion papers or guidelines that address safety assessment of food and food ingredients derived from recombinant-DNA plants and microorganisms (1828). Certain information in these documents may be applicable to enzyme preparations derived from recombinant sources. An overall safety assessment of each enzyme preparation intended for use in food processing should be performed. This assessment should include an evaluation of the safety of the production organism, the enzyme component, side activities, the manufacturing process, and the consideration of dietary exposure. Evaluation of the enzyme component should include considerations of its potential to cause an allergic reaction. For enzyme preparations from recombinant-DNA microorganisms, the following should also be considered: 1. The genetic material introduced into and remaining in the production microorganism should be characterized and evaluated for function and safety, including evidence that it does not contain genes encoding known virulence factors, protein toxins, and enzymes involved in the synthesis of mycotoxins or other toxic or undesirable substances. 2. Recombinant-DNA production microorganisms might contain genes encoding proteins that inactivate clinically useful antibiotics. Enzyme preparations derived from such microorganisms should contain neither antibiotic inactivating proteins at concentrations that would interfere with antibiotic treatment nor transformable DNA that could potentially contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance.
References 1. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants (Fifty-seventh report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). WHO Technical Report Series, No. 909, 2002. 2. Combined compendium of food additive specifications, volume 1-3. FAO JECFA Monographs 1, 2005. 3. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants (Twenty-fifth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). WHO Technical Report Series, No. 669, 1981. 4. Specifications for identity and purity of food additives (carrier solvents, emulsifiers and stabilizers, enzyme preparations, flavouring agents, food colours, sweetening agents, and other food additives). FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, No. 19, 1981. 5. Specifications for the identity and purity of food additives. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, No. 31/2, 1984. 6. Compendium of food additive specifications, addendum 1. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, No. 52, 1992. 7. Compendium of food additive specifications, addendum 6. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, No. 52, Add. 6, 1998. 8. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants (Fifty-third report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). WHO Technical Report Series, No. 896, 2000. 9. Compendium of food additive specifications, addendum 7. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, No. 52, Add. 7, 1999. 10. International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Enzyme nomenclature. Recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology on the Nomenclature and Classification of Enzymes by the Reactions they Catalyse (http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/, accessed 20 July 2006). 11. Pariza MW, Foster EM. Determining the safety of enzymes used in food processing. Journal of Food Protection, 1983, 46:453468. 12. Barbesgaard P, Heldt-Hansen HP, Diderichsen B. On the safety of Aspergillus oryzae: a review. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 1992, 36:569572. 13. van Dijck PWM, Selten GCM, Hempenius RA. On the safety of a new generation of DSM Aspergillus niger enzyme production strains. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2003, 38:2735. 14. Blumenthal CZ. Production of toxic metabolites in Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Trichoderma reesei: justification of mycotoxin testing in food grade enzyme preparations derived from the three fungi. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2004, 39:214228. 15. Olempska-Beer ZS et al. Food-processing enzymes from recombinant microorganisms a review. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2006, 45:144158.
16. Pariza MW, Johnson EA. Evaluating the safety of microbial enzyme preparations used in food processing: update for a new century. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2001, 33:173186. 17. Scientific Committee on Food. Guidelines for the presentation of data on food enzymes (opinion expressed 11 April 1991). Report of the Scientific Committee for Food: Twenty-seventh series, Catalogue No. EUR 14181, 1992, p. 1322 (http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/reports_en.html, accessed 20 July 2006). 18. International Food Biotechnology Council. Biotechnologies and food: assuring the safety of foods produced by genetic modification. Chapter 4: safety evaluation of foods and food ingredients derived from microorganisms. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 1990, 12:S1S196. 19. Food and Drug Administration. Statement of Policy: Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties. Federal Register, 1992, Vol. 57, No. 104, May 29. (http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/biotechm.html, accessed 20 July 2006). 20. Safety evaluation of foods derived by modern biotechnology. Concepts and principles. Paris, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1993 (http://www.oecd.org/publications/, accessed 20 July 2006). Biotechnology and food safety. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Consultation, Rome, Italy,
Why Use Additives?

Many people enjoy making bread, cakes, wine, beer, and ice cream at home. However, most of today's food is bought from shops and supermarkets. Food made at home is always at its best when eaten straight away. Food produced on the large scale that is needed to supply supermarkets and other food shops has to be transported and stored before it is consumed. It has to stay in top condition over a much longer period of time than home-cooked food. Additives are used so that these foods still have a consistently high quality. In some products, they are so essential that
Additives are used in a range of foods
additives are used even in certain organic foods. In some countries, lots of food is lost because it 'goes off' due to microbial growth before it can be eaten. Food poisoning also shows the dangers of contaminated food and without the use of preservatives, it would quite likely be more common. Preservatives, colours and flavours are the best known additives but in fact there are many categories of additives, each tailored to a specific purpose.
21. 30 September
-Numbers and Colours

Colours that are allowed to be used in foods are strictly tested (see Safety and Regulation). Some common food colourings are shown in the table. Some common food colourings E Number E100
Riboflavin
Name
Curcumin
Description
Orange-yellow colour that is extracted from the roots of the turmeric plant.
Foods
Curry, fats and oils, processed cheese.
E101
Riboflavin is also known as vitamin Sauces, processed cheese B2. It can be obtained by fermenting and foods with added yeast or synthesised artificially. In vitamins such as bread. foods, it is used as an orange-yellow colour. Yellow coloured synthetic azo dye. Is no longer widely used. This colouring sparks controversy as Now rarely used in curries some groups suggest it causes and some ready-meals. behavioural problems in children (see food issues ).
Tartrazine
E102
E160a
Betacarotene Plain caramel
Orange-yellow colour found in plants Soft drinks, margarine, such as carrots, tomatoes and butter, yoghurt. oranges. Dark brown to black colour. The most Cola drinks, confectionery, common colouring. 90% of all baked-foods, ice cream, colouring used is caramel. Obtained chocolate, beers, vinegar by the heating of sugars. and whisky. Dark purple coloured synthetic colour. Similar in colour to blackcurrants. Powdered soup, jam, ice cream, instant gravy.
E150a
Amaranth
E123
Find out where food colours come from
Food Additives
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home food and diet additives safety E-numbers food issues for teachers glossary
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Why use additives? Colours Emulsifiers Flavourings Gelling agents Preservatives Sweeteners Anti-caking agents Antioxidants Acidulants
Emulsifiers
Emulsions in food are mixtures of oil and water. These normally do not mix and will separate if left without an emulsifier. Roll over the photograph of the mayonnaise to see the effects when the emulsifier is not added. Mayonnaise contains oil and water. The emulsifier keeps these mixed and without it the oil and water separate. Roll over the picture to see mayonnaise without emulsifier.
What are emulsions?

There are two types of emulsions. An oil-in-water emulsion contains small droplets of oil that are dispersed in water. Alternatively, a water-in-oil emulsion has small droplets of water that are dispersed in an oil. Usually the water and oil will not mix and the emulsifier, or emulsifying agent, keeps the mixture stable and prevents the oil and water from separating into two layers.
Emulsifiers in food
Emulsifiers are among the most frequently used types of food additives. They are used for many reasons. Emulsifiers can help to make a food appealing. The example of the mayonnaise without the emulsifier shows how unappealing it would be if the oil and water separated before it was used. Emulsifiers have a big effect on the structure and texture of many foods. They are used to aid in the processing of foods and also to help maintain quality and freshness. In low fat spreads, emulsifiers can help to prevent the growth of moulds which would happen if the oil and fat separated. The table shows foods in which emulsifiers are most commonly used. Foods that Commonly Contain Emulsifiers
Biscuits Extruded snacks Breakfast cereals Toffees Chewing gum Frozen desserts Bread Margarine / low fat spreads Coffee whiteners
Cakes Desserts / mousses Soft drinks
Ice-cream Dried potato Chocolate coatings
Topping powders Peanut butter Caramels
Find out how emulsifiers work
Food Additives

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Flavourings
The acceptability of any food product greatly depends on the impression of taste when it is eaten. Our sense of taste is really a combination of two of our senses, taste and smell . Both of these sense respond to certain chemicals.
How do we taste?
Taste is a complex mixture of flavours and aroma, or smell. The receptors for the human sense of taste are located on the tongue and on the soft palate. There are just five stimuli to which these receptors respond. These are:
sweet (as in sugar) sour (as in acidic substances like lemon Location of the taste receptors juice) as shown on a traditional bitter (strong coffee or quinine in tonic water) 'taste map'. salt (table salt) umami (monosodium glutamate, Receptors for umami are savouries, soya sauce, crisps) thought to be spread evenly across the surface of the The traditional view is that tastes are detected on tongue. different parts of the tongue (see the taste map opposite). Receptors for each taste are located in taste buds in specific areas of the tongue and each area can only detect one particular taste.
However, more recent research suggests that this may not be the case. The taste buds are still found in the same areas on the tongue but each one can detect all five tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salt and umami). The brain is able to recognise which receptors are being stimulated and this goes towards the flavour sensation that we experience. The way in which we taste foods and perceive flavours is clearly very complex. Our sense of smell also makes up a big part of how well we 'taste' food. Flavour molecules in the food enter the air in the nose and are detected by millions of receptors that feed
information to the brain. Chewing helps to transfer more odour from the mouth to the back of the nose. The area which is sensitive to smell is located at the back of the nose where several million receptor cells per square centimetre respond to thousands of chemicals in the food. Sight plays an unexpectedly important role in our perception of flavours. The taste of a colourless, shapeless food is extremely difficult to recognise. We may need visual "clues" to enable us to identify taste and flavour accurately. The brain interprets signals from taste, smell and even vision before turning them into an impression of the food's taste. Different people will find different tastes nice or unpleasant. Flavourings are added to food products to give, enhance or intensify flavour. Find out about flavourings in food
Food Additives

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Why use additives? Colours Emulsifiers Flavourings Gelling agents Preservatives Sweeteners Anti-caking agents
Antioxidants Acidulants
Sweeteners
The desire for sweet taste is inborn. The use of honey dates back to 2000 BC but it is sugar which has been the sweetener of choice for centuries. Sugar is a most important flavouring substance. It gives the sensation of sweetness and provides a source of energy. However, excessive sugar intake is linked with a number of health problems Intense sweeteners are many times sweeter than sugar. A small amount including tooth decay, obesity and of intense sweetener replaces a diabetes. large amount of sugar Alternatives to sugar have therefore been developed which provide the sweetness without the energy content. Saccharin was discovered in 1878 but it was not until the 1950's, when consumers became interested in low calorie foods, that sweeteners came into significant use. Alternative sweeteners can be divided into two main categories: artificial or intense sweeteners Many times sweeter than sugar and are therefore typically used at very low levels to replace the sweetness normally provided by sugar bulk sweeteners Provide both bulk and sweetness. Depending on the individual sweetener, they are 35% to 100% as sweet as sugar and so have similar bulk to sugar
Sweeteners in food
Obviously sweeteners provide the sweet taste! However, sugar also has other functions in food:

provide texture in baked goods is a humectant in cakes (stops them from drying out)
lowers the freezing point in ice creams it acts as a preservative in jams it strengthens "mouthfeel" in soft drinks adds bulk to baked goods.
Intense sweeteners cannot provide all of these properties. For example, they cannot replace sugar in cakes because the sugar also adds bulk and stiffness. Possibly the main use of intense sweeteners is in the production of low calorie, or low energy foods. These are especially suitable to people suffering from diabetes. Bulk sweeteners, such as xylitol and malitol, are less sweet but can be used to regulate the texture of the food.
Slimming and sweeteners

The energy in foods is measured in calories . On food labels 1 Calorie (with a capital 'C') is equivalent to 1,000 calories or 4.2 kiloJoules (kJ). Foods and drinks that have fewer calories (kcal or kJ) than their traditional counterparts can help prevent obesity or aid people who are trying to lose weight. One way to do this is to replace sugar with a sweet tasting, non-calorific or reduced-calorie sweetener. Another reason for using sweeteners is in foods and drinks for diabetics. They cannot regulate their blood sugar levels properly and eating a sugary meal could be dangerous. Artificial sweeteners allow diabetics to have sugar-free but sweet-tasting foods. Foods that typically contain alternative sweeteners include: drinks (carbonated, non- carbonated, milk-based and alcoholic) breakfast cereals Low calorie confectionery (including chewing gum) drinks use desserts, fillings and toppings (ice-cream, sweet whipped sweeteners to cream) replace sugar processed fruit and vegetable products (jams, jellies, baked beans, canned fruit) medicines syrups salad dressings and condiments baked goods
Find out about the chemistry of sweeteners
Preservatives
Microbe Attack
Microbes are all around us, in the air, on our hands and in food from the farm. Usually, they are in small enough numbers so that they do not cause any harm. However, a single bacterium, given suitable conditions of warmth, air and moisture, can grow to many millions in just a few hours. Microbes will grow quickly when they are in the right conditions; warm, moist, correct pH and a supply of food to grow on. Preservation tries to alter the conditions to slow or stop the microbe growth. When this is not possible, or convenient, preservatives may be added to stop the food from going 'off'. Different microbes are sensitive to different types of preservatives and so a wide range of preservatives are in use today.
Bread will quickly go mouldy under the attack of microbes
Food Preservatives
Most preservatives today are actually fungistatic in their action. That means they prevent the growth of fungi, moulds and yeasts. They have little effect on bacteria but using a combination of preservatives, with antibacterial properties, can give good all round protection. Food preservatives help to control the spread of bacteria which can cause life threatening illnesses such as salmonellosis or botulism. preservatives
Are Preservatives Safe?
Food preservatives have to be safe for human consumption. They can stop the fooddecay microbes from growing but must not not harm the cells of the human body. There are also maximum levels of preservatives allowed, so that high concentrations of preservatives in food are not permitted.
There is much concern about the increasing incidence of the phenomenon of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics. Over the decades in which preservatives have been used, there has been no need to increase the dosage to maintain their effectiveness. This suggests that the use of these substances has not resulted in the development of bacteria that are resistant to preservatives. More about food preservation
Food Additives

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Preserving Food
The greatest threat to the quality and safety of our food comes from microbial spoilage. Food is a valuable source of nutrients for certain microbes. As they grow on the food, they may cause problems such as bad taste, unpleasant smell and poor appearance. More importantly, the growth of microbes may lead to dangerous levels of toxins in the food. This makes the food unfit to be eaten.
Smoking fish is a traditional method of preservation
The greatest threat to the quality and safety of our food comes from microbial spoilage. Food is a valuable source of nutrients for certain microbes. As they grow on the food, they may cause problems such as bad taste, unpleasant smell and poor appearance. More importantly, the growth of microbes may lead to dangerous levels of toxins in the food. This makes the food unfit to be eaten.
Reducing the growth of microbes

Many methods of food preservation are used. Processes such as freezing, canning, pickling and drying all attempt to remove one or more of the factors necessary for the growth of food-spoiling microbes. Methods of Food Preservation Preservation
Canning
How it Works
Foods are sealed into cans and then heated to a high temperature (above 100C). This kills any microbes in the food and the sealed can prevents fresh contamination Lowering the temperature slows enzyme activity in the food spoiling microbes. This slows cellular respiration and therefore growth. The colder the temperature, the slower the growth. However, microbes are not killed when they are chilled. Foods heated up may still contain microbes that are alive and need to be thoroughly cooked before being eaten Removes water from the food and so dehydrates the microbes. This prevents their growth but does not remove any toxins that may already be present Vinegar is acidic and lowering the pH of the food can prevent the growth of microbes. The acidic environment reduces the enzymeactivity of the food-spoiling microbes Jams contain high concentrations of sugar. This effectively draws water
Freezing / chilling
Drying
Pickling
Jam-making
out of any microbes in the food and dehydrates them. This method of preservation is traditionally used to make jams Smoking Possibly the oldest known method of food preservation. Foods are hung in wood smoke and chemicals in the smoke act to kill microbes in the food and also give it a distinctive flavour. This ancient method survives into our modern times. Some meat, particularly bacon, and fish, such as haddock and salmon, are smoked Some methods of preserving food depend on the use of additives. These substances reduce the growth of microbes but must not be seen as an alternative to proper food hygiene and cooking. Preservatives play their part in clean and hygienic methods of food production
Preservatives
Read more on the application of preservatives
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Using Preservatives
Preservatives are often present in nature but they are in such small quantities that it makes them difficult to obtain. To obtain commercially-useful amounts of the preservative, they are produced as synthetic copies of the natural products. Other preservatives are made in the food factory using a series of chemical reactions. Typically, preservatives attack the enzymes inside the microbes and this stops their cell reactions. Some can disrupt the microbe's cell wall so that substances cannot enter or leave the cell. These two processes kill or seriously slow the growth the food-spoiling microbes. Probably the most important use of preservatives from the food safety point of view is in processed meats such as ham, bacon, salami and sausages. Bacteria like clostridium botulinum can produce deadly poisons and the use of preservatives in such products is absolutely essential. For example, most cured and cooked meats contain the preservative potassium nitrate (Saltpetre).
The Range of Preservatives

There are over 80 substances which have permitted use as preservatives. The list below shows some important preservatives, click on the names to get more information. Sorbic acid (E200-203) Benzoic acid (E210-213) Sulfur dioxide (E220-228) Potassium and sodium nitrate (E249 and E250)
Propionic acid (E280-283)
Sorbic acid and its salts (E200-203) Sorbic acid (and its salts) are naturally occurring substances and they are among the most important food preservatives for industrialised countries. Sorbic acid has two main advantages:

it is effective over a wide range of foods and beverages it gives no taste or flavour to products
Sorbic acid is used in beverages, dairy products, fish and seafood, fat-based products, fruit and vegetable products, baked goods and confectionery products. Benzoic acid and its salts (E210-E213) A widely used preservative that is important in developing countries. It is only used in acidic situations which include non-alcoholic beverages, products prone to spoilage by bacteria and fruit-based products. Sulfur dioxide and sulfites (E220-E228) This preservative was known to the Romans, Ancient Greeks and Egyptians who used the gas to preserve wine. These preservatives are multifunctional food ingredients which act as preservatives, antioxidants and colour stabilisers. They have a much more pronounced antibacterial effect than other preservatives and are therefore used when control of bacterial growth is essential. Sulfur dioxide is used in a wide range of products including packet soup, dried bananas and apricots, tinned crabmeat, sausage meat, beer, wine, quick frozen chips and jams. Potassium nitrite and sodium nitrite (E249 and E250) These synthetic additives are capable of performing many functions in food preparation. They act as preservatives, stabilisers and flavours.
There are health concerns about their use. However, without their contribution there would undoubtedly be many more deaths from botulism which is caused by the bacterium clostridium botulinum. Potassium and sodium nitrite are particularly important in the preservation of cured meat products. Propionic acid and its salts (E280-E283) The propionates are other examples of naturally occurring preservatives. They work better in the more alkaline conditions of bakery products and may be used, for example, to delay the green mould growth on bread.
Food Additives

Anti-Caking Agents
Processed foods often contain ingredients that are mixed as powders. Anti-caking agents are added to allow them to flow and mix evenly during the food production process. They rarely have nutritional value and only a small proportion of the additives find their way into the food. Some anti-caking agents may be found in foods. For example, magnesium carbonate is used in table salt to improve its flow during manufacture. It is left in the salt so that it flows well when being sprinkled onto food.
Examples of foods that contain anti-caking agents include: vending machine powders (coffee, cocoa, soup) milk and cream powders grated cheese icing sugar baking powder cake mixes instant soup powders drinking chocolate
table salt
Magnesium carbonate is added to salt to make it flow easily
What would happen without anti-caking agents?

Powders can form clumps because the particles become sticky when they absorb water. Lumpy powders do not flow evenly. Some powders, such as grated cheese for pizza toppings, can stick together and this again prevents them from being spread evenly. Anti-caking agents modify the contact between the powder's particles and are added to prevent these problems. Without anti-caking agents, vending machine powders such as coffee or chocolate would not flow regularly. They could block the various tubes in the vending machine and the taste of the drinks would not be consistent enough. Powdered milk can clump together during processing, packing and storage. Sugar absorbs water and incorporating a free-flow aid before grinding prevents it sticking to the processing equipment.
The range of anti-caking agents

One of the most important anti-caking agents is silicon dioxide (E551). It is manufactured to have physical properties that are tailored to meet the food producer's specific requirements. Other manufactured anti-caking agents include: calcium silicate (E552), sodium aluminosilicate (E554) and dicalcium phosphate (E341). Natural products such as talc, kaolin, potato starch and microcrystalline cellulose (E460) are also used.
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Acidulants
Acidulants are additives that give a sharp taste to foods. They also assist in the setting of gels and to act as preservatives. The pH of a food is a measure of its acidity, alkalinity or neutrality. Living tissues contain solutions called buffers which help to keep a constant pH inside cells. Many natural foods are acidic. For example, oranges, lemons, apples, tomatoes, cheese and yoghurt contain natural acids, such as citric acid, that give them their characteristically sharp taste.
Many fruits contain natural acids that give them a sharp taste
Acids, alkalis and buffers have important roles in the food industry. Acids have been used for centuries as important contributors to flavour and the acid environment they produce prevents the growth of many microorganisms. Bicarbonates, particularly bicarbonate of soda, are used as mild alkalis whilst phosphates are used for their buffering action as well as for their characteristic taste. As the food industry has developed, so has the growth in production of processed foods. Many of these need the inclusion of an acidulant to give an acidic or sour taste.
Acids and Applications in Food

By far the most important, versatile and widely used organic acid is citric acid. It is used in food products, drinks and the pharmaceutical industry. Each year about 320,000 tonnes of citric acid is used in the production of foods and beverages. The list below shows some common acidulants. Click on each acidulant to see more details. Acetic acid Citric acid Fumaric acid Lactic acid Malic acid Phosphoric acid Tartaric acid
Acetic acid This is the acid found in vinegar and has a characteristic pungent smell. Acetic acid is widely used, particularly in the pickling industry. Naturally fermented vinegar has a variable pH and so acetic acid is added to this to form a pickling liquor with a specified acidity.
It can also be used in confectionery goods and flavourings. The flavouring sodium diacetate is commonly known as 'salt 'n' vinegar' and is widely used in crisps. Acetic acid has excellent bacteriostatic properties and hence has considerable importance as a preservative. Only acetic acid produced naturally by fermentation can legally be called vinegar. In Britain the main carbohydrate used is usually malt and so the vinegar it produces is called Malt Vinegar. Acetic acid can also be manufactured synthetically by various methods. Citric acid Citric acid is widely used in the food industry to:

provide sharp taste in soft drinks and sweets generate the optimum conditions for the formation of gels in jams, jellies, confectionary and desserts help give the conditions for the stabilisation of emulsions (e.g. processed cheese and dairy products) prevent the browning of salads enhance the action of antioxidants and prevent deterioration in frozen food act as an antioxidant in fats and oils preserve meat products and help modify their texture during their processing
Citric acid was originally extracted from lemons and limes but it is now produced commercially by a fermentation process. The mould Aspergillus niger is used to ferment a carbohydrate source such as molasses. Fumaric acid Fumaric acid is the strongest tasting food acidulant. It has limited applications due to its very low solubility. In the main, it is used in gelatin dessert powders, cheesecake mixes and some powdered drinks. A substantial amount of fumaric acid is used in animal feedstuffs mainly because of its strong flavour and favourable price. It is manufactured synthetically from malic acid. Lactic acid Lactic acid is widely used in the production of boiled sweets, pickled foods and as a raw material in the manufacture of important emulsifiers for the the baking industry.
It is produced during anaerobic respiration and is commonly manufactured by a fermentation process, although it can be produced synthetically. Malic acid Malic acid is found naturally in apples, pears, tomatoes, bananas and cherries. It has similar applications to citric acid and is the preferred acid in low calorie drinks, cider and apple drinks. However, it has the disadvantage of being slightly more expensive than citric acid. It is produced commercially from maleic anhydride. Phosphoric acid Is the acidulant used in the second largest amounts by the food industry. This is because of its use in one single product that is produced in massive amounts: cola drinks. Cola drinks are the best selling flavoured soft drink in the world. The acid used in these drinks is exclusively phosphoric acid. This has a harsh, biting taste which complements the cola flavour. Salts of phosphoric acid have many uses in the food industry. They can act as buffers, acidulants for baking powders and emulsifying salts in the production of processed cheese. Phosphoric acid is manufactured commercially from phosphate rock mined principally in North Africa and North America. Tartaric acid This was the first food acidulant to be used in significant quantities although its use has now been mostly replaced by citric acid. The largest single application for tartaric acid is as a raw material for the manufacture of the emulsifiers bread improvers . Tartaric acid can be manufactured by natural and synthetic routes. The natural route involves the recovery of tartaric acid from wine. The synthetic route involves the chemical reactions of maleic anhydride. An important salt of tartaric acid, potassium hydrogen tartrate (or cream of tartar), has applications as an acidulant for baking powder and sugar confectionery.
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Gelling Agents, Thickeners and Stabilisers

The functions of these substances is fairly self explanatory: Gelling agents gel foods, i.e. they give shape and structure Thickeners or thickening agents make foods thicker Drinks, like this chocomilk, Stabilisers help to maintain the physical and contain cocoa powder that textural properties of foodstuffs through can form a sediment when their production, transport, storage and cooking the drink is on the supermarket shelf. Roll the mouse over the image to see how a Stabilisers help to prevent stabiliser can help when drinks are stored. this.
Applications
Gelling agents, thickeners and stabilisers are used in many foods. Move the mouse over the picture for more information.
Thickeners Many reduced sugar products, such as low sugar jam, require gelling agents or thickeners to substitute the effects of the sugar in the traditional product Reduced fat or low fat versions of traditional products are now being produced. When a quantity of fat or oil is removed from a product, it is often replaced by adding water and either a gel, thickener or stabiliser to restore the texture Thick milk shakes require the addition of a thickener Gelling agents Jams and marmalade often use naturally-occuring pectin as a stabiliser. Fruit preparations used in dairy desserts and water based jellies would remain liquid without the assistance of gelling agents. Without a gelling agent, the fillings of fruit pies would boil out during cooking or soak through the crust while the pie is stored before being eaten. Desserts and confectionery jellies - to enable them to set. Vegetarian foods are becoming more popular. The protein used in vegetarian burgers and sausages is often based on soya protein. Such products would disintegrate during cooking without the use of special gelling agents which help to keep them together at high temperatures. Stabilisers Ice cream and ice lollies. Stabilisers prevent the appearance of large, grainy ice crystals or lumps that would make the ice cream feel gritty. They help to maintain a firm texture, smooth taste and good storage qualities. Many reduced fat or low fat products require stabilisers in their manufacture. In sauces and dressings, stabilisers avoid the separation of the oil and aqueous components. Long-life yogurts would not be possible without a stabiliser to protect the milk protein.
Stabilisers are often confused with preservatives. Stabilisers maintain the physical characteristics of a product whereas preservatives help to prevent food spoilage by microbes. Stabilisers improve the stability of a mixture, such as an emulsion, by locking together large molecules to make it thicker. This helps to prevent the dispersed droplets coming together and coalescing. Find out more about the origins of gelling agents, thickeners and stabilisers
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Gelling Agents, Stabilisers and Thickeners: Origins and Uses

The substances belonging to this group are high molecular weight compounds. They are usually proteins, such as gelatin, or complex carbohydrates like pectins , starches, alginates and gums. Most are long chain molecules (polymers) that are made up of hundreds of linked units called monomers. They can be divided into a number of categories depending on their source of origin. Many gelling agents, stabilisers and thickeners occur naturally in foods. Source
Seeds The outside of the seeds are removed and the inner part (endosperm) is ground into a powder which can be used as a stabiliser, thickener or gelling agent Some plants ooze out sticky substances that can be harvested and used
Compound
Guar gum Locust bean gum Tara gum Gum arabic (acacia gum) Karaya gum Tragacanth gum
E Number
E412 E410 E417 E414 E416 E413 E440 E460
Plant exudates
Citrus fruits Pectin is dissolved out from fruits, filtered and and apples then precipitated from the solution Plant materials Seaweed Plant cells are made up of cellulose. It is isolated and used as the raw material for a series of modified cellulose compounds Seaweeds are often farmed commercially and used to obtain a variety of thickeners, gelling agents and stabilisers Starch is obtained from maize and potatoes before being modified
Pectin Cellulose
Agar Alginates Carrageenan Starches
E406 E400-404 E407 E14041451
Maize and potato
Use in Foods
Many foods can be made at home without the addition of gelling agents, thickeners or stabilisers. So why are these additives used so widely in the food industry? Food cooked at home is often produced in small quantities. It is usually eaten shortly after it has been prepared and cooked. Processed foods, on the other hand, are produced in comparatively large quantities. They are expected to have a far longer shelf life, which could even be years in some cases. This may require processes such as freezing or high temperatures in canning or UHT processing. Gelling agents, stabilisers or thickeners need to be added to commercially-produced food to maintain their structure and physical properties during this processing. Fruits such as currants, damsons, gooseberries, lemons and bitter oranges are rich in both acid and pectin. These can easily be made into jams. However, fruits such as strawberries, raspberries and cherries need the addition of a small amount of pectin to form a jam. The current use of many of these agents in food may seem unnecessary. However, the modern variety of foods eaten have specific requirements. These include: different processing and cooking techniques, various storage methods and the needs of shops.
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Antioxidants
Oxidation reactions happen when chemicals in the food are exposed to oxygen in the air. In natural conditions, animal and plant tissues contain their own antioxidants but in foods, these natural systems break down and oxidation is bound to follow. Oxidation of food is a destructive process, causing loss of nutritional value and changes in chemical composition. Oxidation of fats and oils leads to rancidity and, in fruits such as apples, it can result in the formation of compounds which discolour the fruit. Roll over the picture to see the effects of oxidation on cut apple. Antioxidants are added to food to slow the rate of oxidation and, if used properly, they can extend the shelf life of the food in which they have been used. Move the mouse over the picture to see how oxidation makes cut apples go brown
Oxidation of Fats
Fats and oils, or foods containing them, are the most likely to have problems with oxidation. Fats react with oxygen and even if a food has a very low fat content it may still need the addition of an antioxidant. They are commonly used in: vegetable oil snacks (extruded) animal fat meat, fish, poultry margarine dairy products Fats are broken downwhen mayonnaise / salad dressing they react with oxygen. This baked products makes the food containing the fats go off potato products (instant mashed potato) As the fat decomposes and reacts with oxygen, chemicals called peroxides are produced. These change into the substances characteristic of the smell and soapy flavour of a rancid fat. Antioxidants prevent the formation of peroxides and so slow the process of the food 'going off'. Some antioxidants react with oxygen itself and so prevent the formation of peroxides. Air-tight packaging, using inert gases like nitrogen, vacuum packing and refrigeration can all be used to delay the oxidation process. However, these can still be inefficient and adding antioxidants can be an effective way of extending the shelf life of a product. Find out more about why antioxidants are used in food
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Antioxidants in Food
People want to eat more healthily and this includes eating unsaturated and polyunsaturated fats rather than saturated animal fats. Unfortunately, unsaturated fats are more susceptible to oxidation. Antioxidants are added to foods that contain unsaturated fats to make them last longer and prevent them from turning rancid . Processing techniques have also been developed to reduce the risk of oxidation. For example, many snack food manufacturers fry crisps under a blanket of steam to reduce the amount of oxygen that can get into the frying oil. This extends the life of both the oil itself and the crisps.
Consumers now want foods containing more unsaturated and polyunsaturated fats
The range of antioxidants
The number of antioxidants available to the food technologist is small. Synthetic and natural antioxidants give similar performance and they are often used in combination. This gives a more effective action. The table shows some typical antioxidants: Antioxidant
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
Enumber
E300
Typical foods
Beers, cut fruits, jams, dried potato. Helps to prevent cut and pulped foods from going brown by preventing oxidation reactions that cause the discolouration. Can be added to foods, such as potato, to replace vitamin C lost in processing. Oils, meat pies. Obtained from soya beans and maize. Reduces oxidation of fatty acids and some vitamins. Oils, margarine, cheese, crisps. Helps to prevent the reactions that break down fats and cause the food to go rancid . Jam, tinned fruit, biscuits, alcoholic drinks, cheese, dried soup. Naturally-occuring in citrus fruits like lemons. Helps to increase the anti-oxidant effects of other substances. Helps to reduce the reactions that can discolour fruits. May also be used to regulate pH in jams and jellies.
Tocopherols Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) Citric acid
E306 E320
E330
Antioxidants and health benefits

There may be health benefits from the use of antioxidants. Oxidation reactions in the body could be linked to the build-up of fatty deposits that cause blockages in arteries that can cause heart attacks. Antioxidants may be important in preventing this and there could also be a link with the prevention of certain cancers, arthritis and other conditions. The picture is not yet clear and a great deal of research needs to be undertaken.
Sequestrant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search A sequestrant is a food additive whose role is to improve the quality and stability of the food products. Sequestrants form chelate complexes with polyvalent metal ions, especially copper, iron and nickel, which serve as catalysts in the oxidation of the fats in the food. Sequestrants are a kind of preservative. The name comes from Latin and means "to withdraw from use"[citation needed].
Common sequestrants are:

Calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate (E385) Glucono delta-lactone (E575) Sodium gluconate (E576) Potassium gluconate (E577) Sodium tripolyphosphate Sodium hexametaphosphate (E452i)
Sodium and calcium salts of EDTA are also commonly used in many foods and beverages. Industrially, sodium tripolyphosphate is prepared by heating a stoichiometric mixture of disodium phosphate, Na2HPO4 and monosodium phosphate, NaH2PO4 under carefully controlled conditions.[2] 2Na2HPO4 + NaH2PO4 Na5P3O10 + 2H2O
[edit] Uses
It is used in various applications such as a preservative for seafood, meats, poultry and pet foods. It is also used in toothpaste and as a builder in soaps and detergents, improving their cleansing ability. The United States Food and Drug Administration lists STPP as "generally recognized as safe", along with salt, vinegar, and baking powder. STPP is a solid inorganic compound used in a large variety of household cleaning products, mainly as a builder, but also in human foodstuffs, animal feeds, industrial cleaning processes and ceramics manufacture. STPP is widely used in regular and compact laundry detergents and automatic dishwashing detergents (in powder, liquid, gel and/or tablet form), toilet cleaners, surface cleaners, and coffee urn cleaners [3]. It also provides a number of chemical functions including: sequestration of "water hardness", enabling surfactants to function effectively; pH buffering; dirt emulsification and prevention of deposition; hydrolysis of grease; and dissolving-dispersing dirt particles.
[edit] Food Applications

In foods, STPP is used to retain moisture. Many governments regulate the quantities allowed in foods, as it can substantially increase the sale weight of seafood in particular. Many people find STPP to add an unpleasant taste to food, particularly delicate seafood. The taste tends to be slightly sharp and soapy and is particularly detectable in mildtasting foods. The increased water holding properties can also lead to a more diluted flavor in the food.
es. Glucono delta-lactone

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D-Gluconic acid -lactone[1][2]

IUPAC name CAS number PubChem EC-number SMILES InChI ChemSpider ID
[show]
Identifiers 90-80-2 736 202-016-5

[show] [show]
6760 Properties Molecular formula C6H10O6 Molar mass 178.14 g/mol (what is this?) (verify) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa) Infobox references
Glucono delta-lactone (GDL) E575 is a naturally-occurring food additive used as a sequestrant, an acidifier, or a curing, pickling, or leavening agent. It is a lactone (cyclic ester) of D-gluconic acid. Pure GDL is a white odorless crystalline powder. GDL is commonly found in honey, fruit juices, and wine. GDL is neutral, but hydrolyses in water to gluconic acid which is acidic, adding a tangy taste to foods, though it has roughly a third of the sourness of citric acid. It is metabolized to glucose; one gram of GDL yields roughly the same amount of metabolic energy as one gram of sugar. Upon addition to water, GDL is partially hydrolysed to gluconic acid, with the balance between the lactone form and the acid form established as a chemical equilibrium. The rate of hydrolysis of GDL is increased by heat and high pH.[3] GDL may also be useful in controlling termites by weakening their immune system.[4]
Sodium gluconate is a compound with formula NaC6H11O7. It is the sodium salt of gluconic acid. It has E number "E576".
Sodium hexametaphosphate
Sodium hexametaphosphate[1]
Other names
CAS number Molecular formula Molar mass Appearance Density Melting point Boiling point
Calgon S; Glassy sodium; Graham's Salt; Hexasodium metaphosphate; Metaphosphoric acid, hexasodium salt Identifiers 10124-56-8 Properties (NaPO3)6 611.77 g/mol White, odorless, crystalline powder 2.484 g/cm3 550 C 1500 C
Solubility in soluble water Solubility in insoluble organic solvents MSDS EU Index Main hazards Flash point LD50 Hazards External MSDS Not listed Irritant Non-flammable 3053 mg/kg Related compounds Trisodium phosphate Tetrasodium pyrophosphate Pentasodium triphosphate Sodium trimetaphosphate
Other anions Related compounds
(what is this?) (verify) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa) Infobox references
Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) is a hexamer of composition (NaPO3)6.[2] Sodium hexametaphosphate of commerce is typically a mixture of polymeric metaphosphates, of which the hexamer is one, and is usually the compound referred to by this name. It is more correctly termed sodium polymetaphosphate. It is prepared by melting monosodium orthophosphate, followed by rapid cooling. SHMP hydrolyzes in aqueous solution, particularly under acidic conditions, to sodium trimetaphosphate and sodium orthophosphate.
[edit] Uses
SHMP is used as a sequestrant and has applications with in a wide variety of industries, including as a food additive in which it is used under the E number E452i. Sodium carbonate is sometimes added to SHMP to raise the pH to 8.0-8.6, which produces a number of SHMP products used for water softening and detergents. Also used as a dispersing agent to break down clay and other soil types. One of the lesser-known uses for sodium hexametaphosphate is as a deflocculant in the making of Terra sigillata, a ceramic technique using a fine particled slip. The sodium hexametaphosphate causes the heavy particles in the slip to drop to the bottom allowing the fine particles to be siphoned off and applied to a green ware ceramic surface. Sodium hexametaphosphate is also a whitening ingredient included in some whitening toothpastes and mouthwashes.[3]
EDTA
IUPAC name
Other names
[show] 2,2',2'',2'''-(ethane-1,2-diyldinitrilo)tetraacetic acid EDTA, Y, H4EDTA, Diaminoethanetetraacetic acid, Edetic acid, Edetate, Ethylenedinitrilotetraacetic acid, Versene, Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, ethylenediaminetetraacetate, 2-[2(Bis(carboxymethyl)amino) ethyl(carboxymethyl)amino]acetic acid 60-00-4 Y, [6381-92-6] (disodium dihydrate), [139-33-3] (disodium), [64-02-8] (tetrasodium), [62-33-9] (calcium disodium) 6049 AH4025000 [show] O=C(O)CN(CC(=O)O)CCN(CC(=O)O)CC(=O)O [show] 1/C10H16N2O8/c13-7(14)3-11(4-8(15)16)1-212(5-9(17)18)6-10(19)20/h1-6H2,(H,13,14)
Identifiers CAS number PubChem RTECS number SMILES InChI
(H,15,16)(H,17,18)(H,19,20) InChI key KCXVZYZYPLLWCC-UHFFFAOYAG ChemSpider 5826 ID Properties Molecular C10H16N2O8 formula Molar mass 292.24 g mol1 Density 0.86 g/cm3 Melting 237245 C (dec.) point pK1=0.0 (CO2H) (=1.0) pK2=1.5 (CO2H) (=0.1) Acidity pK3=2.00 (CO2H) (=0.1) (pKa) pK4=2.69 (CO2H) (=0.1) pK5=6.13 (NH+) (=0.1) pK6=10.37 (NH+) (=0.1)[1] Hazards MSDS External MSDS R-phrases R36 S-phrases S26 0 NFPA 704 1 0 Y (what is this?) (verify) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa) Infobox references EDTA is a widely used initialism for the chemical compound ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (which has many other names, see Table). EDTA is a polyamino carboxylic acid with the formula [CH2N(CH2CO2H)2]2. This colourless, water-soluble solid is widely used to dissolve scale. Its usefulness arises because of its role as a chelating agent, i.e. its ability to "sequester" metal ions such as Ca2+ and Fe3+. After being bound by EDTA, metal ions remain in solution but exhibit diminished reactivity. EDTA is produced as several salts, notably disodium EDTA and calcium disodium EDTA. Contents [hide] 1 Synthesis 2 Nomenclature 3 Coordination chemistry principles 4 Uses 4.1 Industry 4.2 Medicine
4.3 Laboratory applications 5 Toxicity and environmental considerations 6 Methods of detection and analysis 7 See also 8 Notes & References 9 External links [edit] Synthesis The compound was first described in 1935 by Ferdinand Munz, who prepared the compound from ethylenediamine and chloroacetic acid.[2] Today, EDTA is mainly synthesised from ethylenediamine (1,2-diaminoethane), formaldehyde (methanal), and sodium cyanide.[3] This route yields the sodium salt, which can be converted in a subsequent step into the acid forms: H2NCH2CH2NH2 + 4 CH2O + 4 NaCN + 4 H2O (NaO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2Na)2 + 4 NH3 (NaO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2Na)2 + 4 HCl (HO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2H)2 + 4 NaCl In this way, about 80M kilograms are produced each year. Impurities cogenerated by this route include glycine and nitrilotriacetic acid; they arise from reactions of the ammonia coproduct.[4] [edit] Nomenclature To describe EDTA and its various protonated forms, chemists distinguish between EDTA4, the conjugate base that is the ligand, and H4EDTA, the precursor to that ligand. At very low pH (very acidic conditions) the fully protonated H6Y2+ forms predominates (where Y denotes EDTA), whereas at very high pH or very basic condition, the fully deprotonated Y4 form is prevalent. In this article, the term EDTA is used to mean H4-xEDTAx-, whereas in its complexes edta4- stands for the tetra-deprotonated ligand. [edit] Coordination chemistry principles Metal-EDTA chelate In coordination chemistry, EDTA4- is a member of the polyamino carboxylic acid family of ligands. EDTA4- usually binds to a metal cation through its two amines and four carboxylates. Many of the resulting coordination compounds adopt octahedral geometry. Although of little consequence for its applications, these octahedral complexes are chiral. The anion [Co(edta)] has been resolved into enantiomers.[5] Many complexes of EDTA4- adopt more complex structures due to (i) the formation of an additional bond to water, i.e. seven-coordinate complexes, or (ii) the displacement of one carboxylate arm by water. Early work on the development of EDTA was undertaken by Gerold Schwarzenbach in the 1940s.[6] EDTA forms especially strong complexes with Mn(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), Pb (II) and Co(III).[7] Several features of EDTA's complexes are relevant to its applications. First, because of its high denticity, this ligand has a high affinity for metal cations: [Fe(H2O)6]3+ + H4EDTA [Fe(EDTA)]- + 6 H2O + 4 H+ (Keq = 1025.1) Written in this way, the equilibrium quotient shows that metal ions compete with protons for binding to EDTA. Because metal ions are extensively enveloped by EDTA, their
catalytic properties are often suppressed. Finally, since complexes of EDTA4- are anionic, they tend to be highly soluble in water. For this reason, EDTA is able to dissolve deposits of metal oxides and carbonates. [edit] Uses [edit] Industry In industry, EDTA is mainly used to sequester metal ions in aqueous solution. In the textile industry, it prevents metal ion impurities from modifying colours of dyed products. In the pulp and paper industry, EDTA inhibits the ability of metal ions, especially Mn2+, from catalyzing the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide, which is used in "chlorine-free bleaching." In similar manner, EDTA is added to some food as a preservative or stabilizer to prevent catalytic oxidative decolouration, which is catalyzed by metal ions.[8] In personal care products, it is added to cosmetics to improve their stability toward air.[9] In Soft drinks containing ascorbic acid and sodium benzoate, EDTA mitigates formation of benzene (a carcinogen).[10] The reduction of water hardness in laundry applications and the dissolution of scale in boilers both rely on EDTA and related complexants to bind Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions as well as other metal ions. Once bound to EDTA, these metal centers tend not to form precipitates or to interfere with the action of the detergents. For similar reasons, cleaning solutions often contain EDTA. The solubilization of ferric ions near neutral pH is accomplished using EDTA. This property is useful in agriculture including hydroponics, especially in calcareous soils. Otherwise, at near-neutral pH, iron(III) forms insoluble salts, which are less bioavailable. Aqueous [Fe(edta)]- is used for removing ("scrubbing") hydrogen sulfide from gas streams. This conversion is achieved by oxidizing the hydrogen sulfur to elemental sulfur, which is non-volatile: 2 [Fe(edta)]- + H2S 2 [Fe(edta)]2- + S + 2 H+ In this application, the ferric center is reduced to its ferrous derivative, which can then be reoxidized by air. In similar manner, nitrogen oxides are removed from gas streams using [Fe(edta)]2-. The oxidizing properties of [Fe(edta)]- are also exploited in photography, where it is used to solubilize silver particles.[4] EDTA was an most important chelating agents used in the separation of the lanthanide metals by ion-exchange chromatography. Perfected by F.H. Spedding et al. in 1954, the method relies on the steady increase in stability constant of the lanthanide EDTA complexes with atomic number. Using sulfonated polystyrene beads and copper(II) as a retaining ion, EDTA causes the lanthanides to migrate down the column of resin while separating into bands of pure lanthanide. The lanthanides elute in order of decreasing atomic number. Due to the expense of this method, relative to counter-current solvent extraction, ion-exchange is now used only to obtain the highest purities of lanthanide (typically greater than 4N, 99.99%).[citation needed] [edit] Medicine EDTA is used to bind metal ions in chelation therapy, e.g., for mercury (performs poorly) and lead poisoning.[11] It is used in a similar manner to remove excess iron from the body. This therapy is used to treat the complication of repeated blood transfusions, as would be applied to treat thalassaemia. EDTA acts as a powerful antioxidant to prevent free radicals from injuring blood vessel walls.[12] [13]
Dentists use EDTA solutions to remove inorganic debris (smear layer) and prepare root canals for obturation. It serves as a preservative (usually to enhance the action of another preservative such as benzalkonium chloride or thiomersal) in ocular preparations and eyedrops.[14] In evaluating kidney function, the complex [Cr(edta)]- is administered intravenously and its filtration into the urine is monitored. This method is useful for evaluating glomerular filtration rate[citation needed]. EDTA is used extensively in the analysis of blood. It is an anticoagulant for blood samples for CBC/FBEs (complete blood count also known as full blood examination). Laboratory studies also suggest that EDTA chelation may prevent collection of platelets on the lining of the vessel [such as arteries] (which can otherwise lead to formation of blood clots, which itself is associated with atheromatous plaque formation or rupture, and thereby ultimately disrupts blood flow). These ideas are theoretical, and have so far been proven ineffective;[15] however a major clinical study of the effects of EDTA on coronary arteries is currently (2008) proceeding.[16] EDTA played a role in the O.J. Simpson trial when the defense alleged that one of the blood samples collected from Simpson's estate was found to contain traces of the compound.[17] [edit] Laboratory applications In the laboratory, EDTA is widely used for scavenging metal ions: In biochemistry and molecular biology, ion depletion is commonly used to deactivate metal-dependent enzymes, either as an assay for their reactivity or to suppress damage to DNA or proteins. In analytical chemistry, EDTA is used in complexometric titrations and analysis of water hardness or as a masking agent to sequester metal ions that would interfere with the analyses. EDTA is added to some buffer solutions. EDTA finds many specialized uses in the biomedical laboratories, such as in veterinary ophthalmology as an anticollagenase to prevent the worsening of corneal ulcers in animals. In tissue culture EDTA is used as a chelating agent that binds to calcium and prevents joining of cadherins between cells, preventing clumping of cells grown in liquid suspension, or detaching adherent cells for passaging. In Histopathology, EDTA can be used as a decalcifying agent making it possible to cut sections using a microtome once the tissue sample is demineralised [edit] Toxicity and environmental considerations EDTA is in such widespread use that it has emerged as a persistent organic pollutant.[18] Its degradation entails conversion to ethylenediaminetriacetic acid, which then cyclizes. Alternative, more readily degradable chelating agents are being developed such as ethylenediamine-N,N'-disuccinic acid. EDTA exhibits low acute toxicity with LD50 (rat) of 2.0 2.2 g/kg.[4] It has been found to be both cytotoxic and weakly genotoxic in laboratory animals. Oral exposures have been noted to cause reproductive and developmental effects.[9] The same study by Lanigan[9] also found that both dermal exposure to EDTA in most cosmetic formulations and inhalation exposure to EDTA in aerosolized cosmetic formulations would produce systemic effects below those seen to be toxic in oral dosing studies. [edit] Methods of detection and analysis The most sensitive method of detecting and measuring EDTA in biological samples is selected-reaction-monitoring capillary-electrophoresis mass-spectrometry (abbreviation SRM-CE/MS) which has a detection limit of 7.3 ng/mL in human plasma and a
quantitation limit of 15 ng/mL.[19] This method works with sample volumes as small as ~7-8 nL.[19] EDTA has also been measured in non-alcoholic beverages using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of 2.0 g/mL.[20][21] [edit] See also EGTA BAPTA [show] vde Antithrombotics (thrombolytics, anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs) (B01) Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors Abciximab Eptifibatide Tirofiban ADP receptor/P2Y12 inhibitors (Thienopyridines) Clopidogrel Ticlopidine Prasugrel Beraprost Prostacyclin Iloprost Treprostinil Acetylsalicylic acid/Aspirin # Aloxiprin Carbasalate calcium Ditazole Cloricromen Dipyridamole Indobufen Picotamide Triflusal coumarins: Acenocoumarol Coumatetralyl Dicoumarol (Dicumarol) Ethyl biscoumacetate Phenprocoumon Warfarin 1,3-Indandiones: Clorindione Diphenadione Phenindione other: Tioclomarol low molecular weight heparin (Bemiparin, Heparin group/ Certoparin, glycosaminoglycans/Dalteparin, (bind antithrombin) Enoxaparin, Nadroparin, Parnaparin, Reviparin,
Prostaglandin analogue (PGI2) Antiplatelet drugs COX inhibitors
Other
Vitamin K antagonists (inhibit II, VII, IX, X)
Anticoagulants
Factor Xa inhibitors (with some II inhibition)
Tinzaparin) oligosaccharides (Fondaparinux, Idraparinux) heparinoid (Danaparoid, Sulodexide, Dermatan sulfate) xabans (Apixaban, Direct Xa inhibitors Otamixaban, Rivaroxaban) bivalent: Hirudin (Bivalirudin, Lepirudin, Desirudin) Direct thrombin (II) inhibitors univalent: Argatroban Dabigatran Melagatran Ximelagatran Defibrotide Ramatroban Antithrombin III Protein C (Drotrecogin alfa)
Other
Thrombolytic drugs/ fibrinolytics
plasminogen activators: TPA (Alteplase, Reteplase, Tenecteplase) UPA (Urokinase, Saruplase) Streptokinase # Anistreplase Monteplase other serine endopeptidases: Ancrod Fibrinolysin Brinase Citrate EDTA Oxalate
Non-medicinal
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Food coloring
Food coloring spreading on a thin water film. Food coloring (colouring) is any substance that is added to food or drink to change its color. Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Due to its safety and general availability, food coloring is also used in a variety of non-food applications, for example in home craft projects and educational settings.
[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]

1 Purpose of food coloring 2 Regulation 3 Natural food dyes 4 Artificial coloring in United States o 4.1 Current seven o 4.2 Delisted 5 Dyes and lakes 6 Other uses 7 Criticism and health implications 8 See also 9 References 10 External links
[edit] Purpose of food coloring

People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine. [1] For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glac cherries (which would otherwise be beige), but sometimes it is for effect, like the green ketchup that Heinz launched in 2000. While most consumers are aware that food with bright or unnatural colors (such as the green ketchup mentioned above, or children's cereals such as Froot Loops) likely contain food coloring, far fewer people know that seemingly "natural" foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes also dyed to mask natural variations in color.[2] Color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. Some of the primary reasons include:

Offsetting color loss due to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture, and storage conditions. Masking natural variations in color. Enhancing naturally occurring colors. Providing identity to foods. Protecting flavors and vitamins from damage by light. Decorative or artistic purposes such as cake icing.
[edit] Regulation
Food colorings are tested for safety by various bodies around the world and sometimes different bodies have different views on food color safety. In the United States, FD&C numbers (which generally indicates that the FDA has approved the colorant for use in foods, drugs and cosmetics) are given to approved synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature, while in the European Union, E numbers are used for all additives, both synthetic and natural, that are approved in food applications. Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors which can be used in various applications, including maximum daily intake limits. Natural colors are not required to be tested by a number of regulatory bodies throughout the world, including the United States FDA. The FDA lists "color additives exempt from certification" for food in subpart A of the Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 Part 73. However, this list contains substances which may have synthetic origins.
[edit] Natural food dyes

A growing number of natural food dyes are being commercially produced, partly due to consumer concerns surrounding synthetic dyes. Some examples include:

Caramel coloring (E150), made from caramelized sugar, used in cola products and also in cosmetics. Annatto (E160b), a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the Achiote. A green dye made from chlorella algae (chlorophyll, E140) Cochineal (E120), a red dye derived from the cochineal insect, Dactylopius coccus. Betanin extracted from beets. Turmeric (curcuminoids, E100) Saffron (carotenoids, E160a) Paprika (E160c) Elderberry juice
To ensure reproducibility, the colored components of these substances are often provided in highly purified form, and for increased stability and convenience, they can be formulated in suitable carrier materials (solid and liquids)
[edit] Artificial coloring in United States

Seven dyes were initially approved under the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, but several have been delisted and replacements have been found. [3]
[edit] Current seven

In the USA, the following seven artificial colorings are permitted in food (the most common in bold) as of 2007:

FD&C Blue No. 1 Brilliant Blue FCF, E133 (Blue shade) FD&C Blue No. 2 Indigotine, E132 (Dark Blue shade) FD&C Green No. 3 Fast Green FCF, E143 (Bluish green shade) FD&C Red No. 40 Allura Red AC, E129 (Red shade) FD&C Red No. 3 Erythrosine, E127 (Pink shade) [4] FD&C Yellow No. 5 Tartrazine, E102 (Yellow shade) FD&C Yellow No. 6 Sunset Yellow FCF, E110 (Orange shade)
The above are known as "primary colors"; when they are mixed to produce other colors, those colors are then known as "secondary colors".
[edit] Delisted

FD&C Red No. 2 Amaranth (dye) FD&C Red No. 4 [5] FD&C Red No. 32 was used to color Florida oranges. [3] [5] FD&C Orange No. 1, was one of the first water soluble dyes to be commercialized, and one of seven original food dyes allowed under the Pure Food and Drug Act of June 30, 1906.[3] [5] FD&C Orange No. 2 was used to color Florida oranges. [3] FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4 [5] FD&C Violet No. 1 [5]
[edit] Dyes and lakes

Color additives are available for use in food as either "dyes" or lake pigments (commonly known as "lakes"). Dyes dissolve in water, but are not soluble in oil. Dyes are manufactured as powders, granules, liquids or other special purpose forms. They can be used in beverages, dry mixes, baked goods, confections, dairy products, pet foods, and a variety of other products. Dyes also have side effects which lakes do not, including the fact that large amounts of dyes ingested can color stools. Lakes are made by combining dyes with salts to make insoluble compounds. Lakes tint by dispersion. Lakes are not oil soluble, but are oil dispersible. Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for coloring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes. Typical uses include coated tablets, cake and doughnut mixes, hard candies and chewing gums, lipsticks, soaps, shampoos, talc, etc.
[edit] Other uses

Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artistic dyes and pigments, some artists have used food coloring as a means of making pictures, especially in forms such as body-painting. Food colorings can be used to dye fabric, but are usually not wash-fast when used on cotton, hemp and other plant fibers. Some food dyes can be fixed on Nylon and animal fibers. Red food dye is often used as theatrical blood.
[edit] Criticism and health implications

Though past research showed no correlation between Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and food dyes,[6][7] new studies now point to synthetic preservatives and artificial coloring agents as aggravating ADD and ADHD symptoms, both in those affected by these disorders and in the general population.[8][9] Older studies were inconclusive quite possibly due to inadequate clinical methods of measuring offending behavior. Parental reports were more accurate indicators of the presence of additives than clinical tests.[10] Several major studies show academic performance increased and disciplinary problems decreased in large non-ADD student populations when artificial ingredients, including artificial colors, were eliminated from school food programs.[11][12]
Norway banned all products containing coal tar and coal tar derivatives in 1978. New legislation lifted this ban in 2001 after EU regulations. As such, many FD&C approved colorings have been banned. Tartrazine causes hives in less than 0.01% of those exposed to it.[2] Erythrosine is linked to thyroid tumors in rats.[13] Cochineal, also known as carmine, is derived from insects and therefore is neither vegan nor vegetarian. It has also been known to cause severe, even lifethreatening, allergic reactions in rare cases.[14]
This criticism originated during the 1950s. In effect, many foods that used dye (such as red velvet cake) became less popular. Brilliant Blue (BBG) food coloring was cited in a recent study in which rats that had suffered a spinal injury were given an injection of the dye immediately after the injury, and were able to regain or retain motor control. BBG helps protect spine from ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which the body sends to the area after a spinal injury, which further damages the spine by killing motor neurons at the site of the injury [15]
[edit] See also

Food portal Azo compound Color retention agent E number
Food additive
[edit] References
1. ^ Jeannine Delwiche (2004). "The impact of perceptual interactions on perceived flavor". Food Quality
and Preference 15: 137146. doi:10.1016/S0950-3293(03)00041-7. 2. ^ a b "FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts". Food and Drug Administration. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/colorfac.html. Retrieved 2006-09-07.
3. ^ a b c d "News of Food; U.S. May Outlaw Dyes Used to Tint Oranges and Other Foods". New York Times.
January 19, 1954, Tuesday. "The use of artificial colors to make foods more attractive to the eye may be sharply curtailed by action of the United States Food and Drug Administration. Three of the most extensively used coal tar dyes are being considered for removal from the Government's list of colors certified as safe for internal and external use and consumption." 4. ^ "Red No. 3 and Other Colorful Controversies". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00063.html. Retrieved 2007-08-26. "FDA terminated the
provisional listings for FD&C Red No. 3 on January 29, 1990, at the conclusion of its review of the 200 straight colors on the 1960 provisional list. Commonly called erythrosine, FD&C Red No. 3 is a tint that imparts a watermelon-red color and was one of the original seven colors on Hesse's list." ^ a b c d e "Food coloring". Encyclopdia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9034796. Retrieved 2007-08-21. "Among the colours that have been delisted, or disallowed, in the United States are FD&C Orange No. 1; FD&C Red No. 32; FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4; FD&C Violet No. 1; and FD&C Reds No. 2 and 4. Many countries with similar food colouring controls (including Canada and Great Britain) also ban the use of Red No. 40, and Yellow No. 5 is also undergoing testing."
5.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
15.
^ Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Annual Review of Medicine, 2002:53:113131 ^ The MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Archives of General Psychiatry, 1999;56:1073 1086 ^ "Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial", Lancet, Sept 2007 ^ 1997 Graduate Student Research Project conducted at the University of South Florida. Author: Richard W. Pressinger M.Ed. ^ "Food Additives May Affect Kids' Hyperactivity", WebMD Medical News, May 24, 2004. ^ "A different kind of school lunch", PURE FACTS, October 2002 ^ "The Impact of a Low Food Additive and Sucrose Diet on Academic Performance in 803 New York City Public Schools," Schoenthaler SJ, Doraz WE, Wakefield JA, Int J Biosocial Res., 1986, 8(2); 185195 ^ Jpn J Cancer Res. 1988 Mar; 79(3):3149 ^ "Bugs in your snacks." The Week, Jan 23, 2009 ^ http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/07/28/spinal.injury.blue.dye/index.html
[edit] External links

Food coloring at Encyclopdia Britannica FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts Natural Food Colors (Food-Info)
[hide]
vde
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_coloring" Categories: Food additives | Food science | Food colorings Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008 | Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007 | All articles containing potentially dated statements
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Food coloring
Food coloring spreading on a thin water film. Food coloring (colouring) is any substance that is added to food or drink to change its color. Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Due to its safety and general availability, food coloring is also used in a variety of non-food applications, for example in home craft projects and educational settings.
[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]

1 Purpose of food coloring 2 Regulation 3 Natural food dyes 4 Artificial coloring in United States o 4.1 Current seven o 4.2 Delisted 5 Dyes and lakes 6 Other uses 7 Criticism and health implications 8 See also 9 References 10 External links
[edit] Purpose of food coloring

People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine. [1] For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glac cherries (which would otherwise be beige), but sometimes it is for effect, like the green ketchup that Heinz launched in 2000.
While most consumers are aware that food with bright or unnatural colors (such as the green ketchup mentioned above, or children's cereals such as Froot Loops) likely contain food coloring, far fewer people know that seemingly "natural" foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes also dyed to mask natural variations in color.[2] Color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. Some of the primary reasons include:

Offsetting color loss due to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture, and storage conditions. Masking natural variations in color. Enhancing naturally occurring colors. Providing identity to foods. Protecting flavors and vitamins from damage by light. Decorative or artistic purposes such as cake icing.
[edit] Regulation
Food colorings are tested for safety by various bodies around the world and sometimes different bodies have different views on food color safety. In the United States, FD&C numbers (which generally indicates that the FDA has approved the colorant for use in foods, drugs and cosmetics) are given to approved synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature, while in the European Union, E numbers are used for all additives, both synthetic and natural, that are approved in food applications. Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors which can be used in various applications, including maximum daily intake limits. Natural colors are not required to be tested by a number of regulatory bodies throughout the world, including the United States FDA. The FDA lists "color additives exempt from certification" for food in subpart A of the Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 Part 73. However, this list contains substances which may have synthetic origins.
[edit] Natural food dyes

A growing number of natural food dyes are being commercially produced, partly due to consumer concerns surrounding synthetic dyes. Some examples include:

Caramel coloring (E150), made from caramelized sugar, used in cola products and also in cosmetics. Annatto (E160b), a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the Achiote. A green dye made from chlorella algae (chlorophyll, E140) Cochineal (E120), a red dye derived from the cochineal insect, Dactylopius coccus. Betanin extracted from beets. Turmeric (curcuminoids, E100)
Saffron (carotenoids, E160a) Paprika (E160c) Elderberry juice
To ensure reproducibility, the colored components of these substances are often provided in highly purified form, and for increased stability and convenience, they can be formulated in suitable carrier materials (solid and liquids)
[edit] Artificial coloring in United States

Seven dyes were initially approved under the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, but several have been delisted and replacements have been found. [3]
[edit] Current seven

In the USA, the following seven artificial colorings are permitted in food (the most common in bold) as of 2007:

FD&C Blue No. 1 Brilliant Blue FCF, E133 (Blue shade) FD&C Blue No. 2 Indigotine, E132 (Dark Blue shade) FD&C Green No. 3 Fast Green FCF, E143 (Bluish green shade) FD&C Red No. 40 Allura Red AC, E129 (Red shade) FD&C Red No. 3 Erythrosine, E127 (Pink shade) [4] FD&C Yellow No. 5 Tartrazine, E102 (Yellow shade) FD&C Yellow No. 6 Sunset Yellow FCF, E110 (Orange shade)
The above are known as "primary colors"; when they are mixed to produce other colors, those colors are then known as "secondary colors".
[edit] Delisted

FD&C Red No. 2 Amaranth (dye) FD&C Red No. 4 [5] FD&C Red No. 32 was used to color Florida oranges. [3] [5] FD&C Orange No. 1, was one of the first water soluble dyes to be commercialized, and one of seven original food dyes allowed under the Pure Food and Drug Act of June 30, 1906.[3] [5] FD&C Orange No. 2 was used to color Florida oranges. [3] FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4 [5] FD&C Violet No. 1 [5]
[edit] Dyes and lakes

Color additives are available for use in food as either "dyes" or lake pigments (commonly known as "lakes").
Dyes dissolve in water, but are not soluble in oil. Dyes are manufactured as powders, granules, liquids or other special purpose forms. They can be used in beverages, dry mixes, baked goods, confections, dairy products, pet foods, and a variety of other products. Dyes also have side effects which lakes do not, including the fact that large amounts of dyes ingested can color stools. Lakes are made by combining dyes with salts to make insoluble compounds. Lakes tint by dispersion. Lakes are not oil soluble, but are oil dispersible. Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for coloring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes. Typical uses include coated tablets, cake and doughnut mixes, hard candies and chewing gums, lipsticks, soaps, shampoos, talc, etc.
[edit] Other uses

Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artistic dyes and pigments, some artists have used food coloring as a means of making pictures, especially in forms such as body-painting. Food colorings can be used to dye fabric, but are usually not wash-fast when used on cotton, hemp and other plant fibers. Some food dyes can be fixed on Nylon and animal fibers. Red food dye is often used as theatrical blood.
[edit] Criticism and health implications

Though past research showed no correlation between Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and food dyes,[6][7] new studies now point to synthetic preservatives and artificial coloring agents as aggravating ADD and ADHD symptoms, both in those affected by these disorders and in the general population.[8][9] Older studies were inconclusive quite possibly due to inadequate clinical methods of measuring offending behavior. Parental reports were more accurate indicators of the presence of additives than clinical tests.[10] Several major studies show academic performance increased and disciplinary problems decreased in large non-ADD student populations when artificial ingredients, including artificial colors, were eliminated from school food programs.[11][12]
Norway banned all products containing coal tar and coal tar derivatives in 1978. New legislation lifted this ban in 2001 after EU regulations. As such, many FD&C approved colorings have been banned. Tartrazine causes hives in less than 0.01% of those exposed to it.[2] Erythrosine is linked to thyroid tumors in rats.[13] Cochineal, also known as carmine, is derived from insects and therefore is neither vegan nor vegetarian. It has also been known to cause severe, even lifethreatening, allergic reactions in rare cases.[14]
This criticism originated during the 1950s. In effect, many foods that used dye (such as red velvet cake) became less popular.
Brilliant Blue (BBG) food coloring was cited in a recent study in which rats that had suffered a spinal injury were given an injection of the dye immediately after the injury, and were able to regain or retain motor control. BBG helps protect spine from ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which the body sends to the area after a spinal injury, which further damages the spine by killing motor neurons at the site of the injury [15]
[edit] See also

Food portal Azo compound Color retention agent E number Food additive
[edit] References
Colour retention agent

Jump to: navigation, search Colour retention agents are food additives that are added to food to prevent the color from changing. Many of them work by absorbing or binding to oxygen before it can damage food (antioxidants). For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is often added to brightly colored fruits, such as peaches during canning[citation needed].
[edit] List of colour retention agent

E Common number name Max permitted level Sources Application
GMP
[1]
Standard 1.3.1 - Food Wine, sparkling wine Additives (Australian) and fortified wine [2] Fruit and vegetablebased drinks, juices and baby foods Fat-containing cerealbased foods including biscuits and rusks
E300
Ascorbic acid
0.03% (w/w), or 0.02% (w/w) depending on the matrix [3]
The Miscellaneous Food Additives Regulations 1995 [4]
[edit] Notes
Sugar substitute
(Redirected from Artificial sweetener) Jump to: navigation, search "Sugar free" redirects here. For other uses, see Sugar free (disambiguation).
Packets of Assugrin, a brand of cyclamate. A sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, but usually has less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are not natural are, in general, referred to as artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes are known as high-intensity sweeteners. These are compounds with sweetness that is many times that of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required, and energy contribution often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds (the "sweetness profile") is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose (or other sugar) replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen in soft drinks labeled as "diet" or "light," which contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably different mouthfeel, or in table sugar replacements that mix maltodextrins with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture sensation. In the United States, six intensely-sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are saccharin, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, and stevia. There is some ongoing controversy over whether artificial sweetener usage poses health risks. The US Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives.[1] Food Additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list of additives.[2] To date, the FDA has not been presented with scientific information that would support a change in conclusions about the safety of the six approved artificial sweeteners. The safe conclusions are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including hundreds of toxicological and clinical studies.[3]
There is also an herbal supplement, stevia, used as a sweetener. Controversy surrounds lack of research on stevia's safety and there is a battle over its approval as a sugar substitute.[4] The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially-synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables, and mushrooms. It is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, and glucose to sorbitol. Still other natural substitutes are known, but are yet to gain official approval for food use. Some non-sugar sweeteners are polyols, also known as "sugar alcohols." These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is 'fine-tuned' by mixing high-intensity sweeteners. As with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process.
Contents
[hide]

1 Food industry usage of artificial sweeteners 2 Reasons for use 3 Sugar substitute health issues o 3.1 Controversy over health o 3.2 Cyclamate o 3.3 Saccharin o 3.4 Aspartame o 3.5 Sucralose o 3.6 Lead acetate 4 List of sugar substitutes o 4.1 Natural sugar substitutes o 4.2 Artificial sugar substitutes 5 See also 6 References 7 External links
[edit] Food industry usage of artificial sweeteners

The food and beverage industry is increasingly replacing sugar or corn syrup with artificial sweeteners in a range of products traditionally containing sugar. Artificial sweeteners cost the food industry only a fraction of the cost of natural sweeteners in spite of the extremely high profit margins for manufacturers of artificial sweeteners. So it is not surprising that the food industry is promoting its "diet" or "light"
products heavily, thus moving the customers over to its even more profitable artificiallysweetened products.[citation needed] According to market analysts Mintel, a total of 3,920 products containing artificial sweeteners were launched in the U.S. between 2000 and 2005. In 2004 alone, 1,649 artificially-sweetened products were launched. According to market analysts Freedonia, the United States artificial sweetener market is set to grow at around 8.3% per year to $189 million in 2008.[5] Aspartame is currently the most popular sweetener in the U.S. food industry, as the price has dropped significantly since the Monsanto Company patent expired in 1992. However, sucralose may soon replace it, as alternative processes to Tate & Lyle's patent seem to be emerging. According to Morgan Stanley, this can mean that the price of sucralose will drop by 30%.[6]
[edit] Reasons for use

Sugar substitutes are used for a number of reasons including:
To assist in weight loss; some people choose to limit their food energy intake by replacing high-energy sugar or corn syrup with other sweeteners having little or no food energy. This allows them to eat the same foods they normally would, while allowing them to lose weight and avoid other problems associated with excessive caloric intake. Dental care sugar substitutes are tooth-friendly, as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. Diabetes mellitus people with diabetes have difficulty regulating their blood sugar levels. By limiting their sugar intake with artificial sweeteners, they can enjoy a varied diet while closely controlling their sugar intake. Also, some sugar substitutes do release energy, but are metabolized more slowly, allowing blood sugar levels to remain more stable over time. Reactive hypoglycemia individuals with reactive hypoglycemia will produce an excess of insulin after quickly absorbing glucose into the bloodstream. This causes their blood glucose levels to fall below the amount needed for proper body and brain function. As a result, like diabetics, they must avoid intake of highglycemic foods like white bread, and often choose artificial sweeteners as an alternative. Avoiding processed foods individuals may opt to substitute refined white sugar with less-processed sugars such as fruit juice or maple syrup. (See List of unrefined sweeteners). Cost many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar.
[edit] Sugar substitute health issues

This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)
[edit] Controversy over health

This section contains weasel words, vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (May
2009)
A 2005 study by the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio showed that increased weight gain and obesity was associated with increased use of diet soda in a population based study. The study did not establish whether increased weight leads to increased consumption of diet drinks or whether consumption of diet drinks could have an effect on weight gain.[7] Animal studies have indicated that artificial sweeteners can cause body weight gain. A sweet taste induces an insulin response, which causes blood sugar to be stored in tissues (including fat), but because blood sugar does not increase with artificial sugars, there is hypoglycemia and increased food intake the next time there is a meal. After a while, rats given sweeteners have steadily increased caloric intake, increased body weight, and increased adiposity (fatness). Furthermore, the natural responses to eating sugary foods (eating less at the next meal and using some of the extra calories to warm the body after the sugary meal) are gradually lost.[8]
[edit] Cyclamate
In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the sale of cyclamate in 1970 after lab tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate and saccharin indicated that large amounts of cyclamates causes bladder cancer, a disease to which rats are particularly susceptible. The findings of these studies have been challenged[by whom?] and some companies are petitioning to have cyclamates reapproved[citation needed]. Cyclamates are still used as sweeteners in many parts of the world, and are used with official approval in over 55 countries.[citation needed]
[edit] Saccharin
Aside from Sugar of lead, Saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg. Its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had been created in an experiment with toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin from phthalic anhydride was developed in 1950, and, currently, saccharin is created by this process as well as the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300 to 500 times as sweet as sugar (sucrose) and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods, and dietary beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by blending it with other sweeteners. Fear about saccharin increased when a 1960 study showed that high levels of saccharin may cause bladder cancer in laboratory rats. In 1977, Canada banned saccharin due to the animal research. In the United States, the FDA considered banning saccharin in 1977, but Congress stepped in and placed a moratorium on such a ban. The moratorium required a warning label and also mandated further study of saccharin safety.
Subsequently, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not found in humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This precipitate damages the cells lining the bladder ("urinary bladder urothelial cytotoxicity") and a tumor forms when the cells regenerate ("regenerative hyperplasia"). According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, part of the World Health Organization, "Saccharin and its salts was downgraded from Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans, to Group 3, not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans, despite sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity to animals, because it is carcinogenic by a non-DNA-reactive mechanism that is not relevant to humans because of critical interspecies differences in urine composition." In 2001, the United States repealed the warning label requirement, while the threat of an FDA ban had already been lifted in 1991. Most other countries also permit saccharin but restrict the levels of use, while other countries have outright banned it.
[edit] Aspartame
Main article: aspartame controversy Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at the G.D. Searle company (later purchased by Monsanto). He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and spilled some aspartame on his hand by accident. When he licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste. It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is about 200 times as sweet as sugar and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or in frozen desserts, gelatins, beverages, and chewing gum. Its chemical name is L-alpha-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine methyl ester and its chemical formula is C14H18N2O5. Though it has no bitter aftertaste as does saccharin, its drawback is that it might not taste exactly like sugar because it reacts with other food flavors. When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its original amino acids and has a relatively low food energy. Initial safety testing suggested that aspartame caused brain tumors in rats[citation needed]; as a result, the additive was held up in the United States for many years in the FDA's approval process. In 1980, the FDA convened a Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) consisting of independent advisors charged with examining the purported relationship between aspartame and brain cancer. The PBOI's conclusions were unclear as to whether aspartame causes brain damage, and recommended against approving aspartame at that time, citing unanswered questions about cancer in laboratory rats. In 1981, FDA Commissioner Arthur Hull Hayes, newly appointed by President Ronald Reagan, approved aspartame as a food additive. Hayes cited data from a single Japanese study that had not been available to the members of the PBOI, as his reason for approval.[9] Since the FDA approved aspartame for consumption, some researchers have suggested that a rise in brain tumor rates in the United States may be at least partially related to the increasing availability and consumption of aspartame.[10] Some research, often supported by companies producing artificial sweeteners, has failed to find any link between aspartame and cancer or other health problems.[11] Recent research showed a clear link
between this substance and cancer; leading some experts to call for the FDA to pull aspartame from the market.[12][13] This research has led the Center for Science in the Public Interest to classify aspartame as a substance to be avoided in its Chemical Cuisine Directory.[14] However, the EFSA's press release about the study,[15] published on 5 May 2006, concluded that the increased incidence of lymphomas/leukaemias reported in treated rats was unrelated to aspartame, the kidney tumors found at high doses of aspartame were not relevant to humans, and that based on all available scientific evidence to date, there was no reason to revise the previously established Acceptable Daily Intake levels for aspartame.[16] Several European Union countries approved aspartame in the 1980s, with EU-wide approval in 1994. The European Commission Scientific Committee on Food reviewed subsequent safety studies and reaffirmed the approval in 2002. The European Food Safety Authority reported in 2006 that the previously established Adequate Daily Intake was appropriate, after reviewing yet another set of studies.[citation needed] It has also been investigated and approved by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives of the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization and World Health Organization.[citation needed]
[edit] Sucralose
Sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times as sweet as sugar. It is produced from sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace three hydroxyl groups. It is used in beverages, frozen desserts, chewing gum, baked goods, and other foods. Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is stable when heated and can therefore be used in baked and fried goods. Sucralose is minimally absorbed by the body and most of it passes out of the body unchanged.[17] The FDA approved sucralose in 1998.[18] Most of the controversy surrounding Splenda, a sucralose sweetener, is focused not on safety, but on its marketing. It has been marketed with the slogan, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." Sucralose is a chlorinated sugar prepared from either sucrose or raffinose. With either base sugar, processing replaces three oxygen-hydrogen groups in the sugar molecule with three chlorine atoms.[19] The "Truth About Splenda" website was created in 2005 by The Sugar Association, an organization representing sugar beet and sugar cane farmers in the United States,[20] in order to provide its view of sucralose. In December 2004, five separate false-advertising claims were filed by the Sugar Association against Splenda manufacturers Merisant and McNeil Nutritionals for claims made about Splenda related to the slogan, "Made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar". French courts ordered the slogan to no longer be used in France, while in the U.S. the case came to an undisclosed settlement during the trial.[19] Safety concerns pertaining to sucralose revolve around the fact that it belongs to a class of chemicals called organochlorides, some types of which are toxic or carcinogenic; however, the presence of chlorine in an organic compound does not in any way ensure
toxicity. The way sucralose is metabolized may suggest a reduced risk of toxicity. For example, sucralose is extremely insoluble in fat and thus does not accumulate in fat as do some other organochlorides; sucralose also does not break down and will dechlorinate only under conditions that are not found during regular digestion ( i.e. heavy heat applied to the powder form of the molecule).[17]
[edit] Lead acetate

Lead acetate (sometimes called sugar of lead) is an artificial sugar substitute made from lead that is of historical interest because of its widespread use in the past, such as by ancient Romans. The use of lead acetate as a sweetener eventually produced lead poisoning in any individual ingesting it habitually. Lead acetate was abandoned as a food additive throughout most of the world after the high toxicity of lead compounds became apparent.
[edit] List of sugar substitutes

The three primary compounds used as sugar substitutes in the United States are saccharin (e.g., Sweet'N Low), aspartame (e.g., Equal, NutraSweet) and sucralose (e.g., Splenda, Altern). In many other countries xylitol, cyclamate and the herbal sweetener stevia are used extensively.
[edit] Natural sugar substitutes

1. Brazzein Protein, 800 sweetness of sucrose (by weight) 2. Curculin Protein, 550 sweetness (by weight) 3. Erythritol 0.7 sweetness (by weight), 14 sweetness of sucrose (by food energy), 0.05 energy density of sucrose 4. Glycyrrhizin 50 sweetness (by weight) 5. Glycerol 0.6 sweetness (by weight), 0.55 sweetness (by food energy), 1.075 energy density, E422 6. Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates 0.40.9 sweetness (by weight), 0.5 1.2 sweetness (by food energy), 0.75 energy density 7. Inulin 8. Isomalt 0.450.65 sweetness (by weight), 0.91.3 sweetness (by food energy), 0.5 energy density, E953 9. Lactitol 0.4 sweetness (by weight), 0.8 sweetness (by food energy), 0.5 energy density, E966 10. Luo Han Guo - 300 sweetness (by weight) 11. Mabinlin Protein, 100 sweetness (by weight) 12. Maltitol 0.9 sweetness (by weight), 1.7 sweetness (by food energy), 0.525 energy density, E965 13. Maltooligosaccharide 14. Mannitol 0.5 sweetness (by weight), 1.2 sweetness (by food energy), 0.4 energy density, E421 15. Miraculin Protein, does not taste sweet by itself, but modifies taste receptors to make sour things taste sweet temporarily
16. Monatin naturally-occurring sweetener isolated from the plant Sclerochiton ilicifolius 17. Monellin Protein, 3,000 sweetness (by weight) 18. Pentadin Protein, 500 sweetness (by weight) 19. Sorbitol 0.6 sweetness (by weight), 0.9 sweetness (by food energy), 0.65 energy density, E420 20. Stevia 250 sweetness (by weight) - extracts known as rebiana, Truvia, PureVia; mainly containing rebaudioside A, a steviol glycoside 21. Tagatose 0.92 sweetness (by weight), 2.4 sweetness (by food energy), 0.38 energy density 22. Thaumatin Protein, 2,000 sweetness (by weight), E957 23. Xylitol 1.0 sweetness (by weight), 1.7 sweetness (by food energy), 0.6 energy density, E967
[edit] Artificial sugar substitutes

Note that because many of these have little or no food energy, comparison of sweetness based on energy content is not meaningful. E number Common name Max permitted level 0.05% (w/w) E950 Acesulfame potassium
[21]
Sources
Application
Standard 1.3.1 - Food Liquid milk products Additives (Australian) and flavoured liquid [22] milk N/A N/A
N/A
1. Acesulfame potassium 200 sweetness (by weight), Nutrinova, E950, FDA Approved 1988 2. Alitame 2,000 sweetness (by weight), Pfizer, Pending FDA Approval 3. Aspartame 160200 sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, E951, FDA Approved 1981 4. Salt of aspartame-acesulfame 350 sweetness (by weight), Twinsweet, E962 5. Cyclamate 30 sweetness (by weight), Abbott, E952, FDA Banned 1969, pending re-approval 6. Dulcin 250 sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950 7. Glucin 300 sweetness (by weight) 8. Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone 1,500 sweetness (by weight), E959 9. Neotame 8,000 sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, FDA Approved 2002 10. P-4000 4,000 sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950 11. Saccharin 300 sweetness (by weight), E954, FDA Approved 1958
Sucralose 600 sweetness (by weight),Kaltame, Splenda, Tate & Lyle, E955, Emulsifier
An emulsifier (also known as an emulgent) is a substance which stabilizes an emulsion by increasing their kinetic stability. One class of emulsifiers are known as surface active substances, or surfactants. Examples of food emulsifiers are egg yolk (where the main emulsifying chemical is lecithin), honey, and mustard, where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers; proteins and low-molecular weight emulsifiers are common as well. Soy lecithin is another emulsifier and thickener. In some cases, particles can stabilize emulsions as well through a mechanism called Pickering stabilization. Both mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauce are oil-in-water emulsions that are stabilized with egg yolk lecithin. Detergents are another class of surfactant, and will physically interact with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface between oil or water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in soap to remove grease for the purpose of cleaning. A wide variety of emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions such as creams and lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax, cetearyl alcohol, polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20.[9] Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and the result is nanoemulsion - the inner state disperses into nano-size droplets within the outer phase. A well-known example of this phenomenon, the ouzo effect, happens when water is poured in a strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, arak or raki. The anisolic compounds, which are soluble in ethanol, now form nano-sized droplets and emulgate within the water. The colour of such diluted drink is opaque and milky. FDA ApprFlavour enhancers are commonly added to commercially produced food products (eg. frozen dinners, instant soups, snackfoods) to make them taste more 'savoury'. The commonly used flavour enhancers are:
[edit] Australian

621 monosodium glutamate, MSG 622 monopotassium glutamate 623 calcium diglutamate 624 monoammonium glutamate 625 magnesium diglutamate
[edit] European (by E number)

Food portal
E620 Glutamic acid E621 Monosodium glutamate, MSG E622 Monopotassium glutamate E623 Calcium diglutamate
E624 Monoammonium glutamate E625 Magnesium diglutamate E626 Guanylic acid E627 Disodium guanylate, sodium guanylate E628 Dipotassium guanylate E629 Calcium guanylate E630 Inosinic acid E631 Disodium inosinate E632 Dipotassium inosinate E633 Calcium inosinate E634 Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides E635 Disodium 5'-ribonucleotides E636 Maltol E637 Ethyl maltol E640 Glycine and its sodium salt E641 L-Leucine
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavour_enhancer"
Flavor
Jump to: navigation, search This article is about flavor as a sensory impression. For the particle property, see Flavor (particle physics). For other uses, see Flavor (disambiguation). Flavor or flavour (see spelling differences) is the sensory impression of a food or other substance, and is determined mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, may also occasionally determine flavor. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants, which affect these senses. Flavorant is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc. Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. While the taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and savory (umami) the basic tastes the smells of a food are potentially limitless. A food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. Nowhere is this better exemplified than in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are typically created by flavorists. Although the terms "flavoring" or "flavorant" in common language denote the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same terms are usually used in the fragrance
and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell. Due to the high cost or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorants are nature-identical, which means that they are the chemical equivalent of natural flavors but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from the source materials.
Contents
[hide]
1 Flavorants or flavorings o 1.1 Regulations on natural flavoring o 1.2 Smell o 1.3 Taste 2 Dietary restrictions 3 Flavor creation 4 Determination 5 Scientific resources 6 See also 7 References 8 External links
[edit] Flavorants or flavorings

Flavorings are focused on altering or enhancing the flavors of natural food product such as meats and vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks. Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste. Few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors. There are three principal types of flavorings used in foods, under definitions agreed in the E.U. and Australia: [1]
Natural flavoring substances: Flavoring substances obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances. Nature-identical flavoring substances: Flavoring substances that are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances. Artificial flavoring substances: Flavoring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed. These are typically produced by fractional distillation and additional chemical manipulation naturally sourced chemicals or from crude oil or coal tar.
[edit] Regulations on natural flavoring

UK Food Law defines a natural flavor as:
a flavouring substance (or flavouring substances) which is (or are) obtained, by physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes, from material of vegetable or animal origin which material is either raw or has been subjected to a process normally used in preparing food for human consumption and to no process other than one normally so used. [2]
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavorant" as:
the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional. [3]
The European Union's guidelines for natural flavorants are slightly different. Certain artificial flavorants are given an E number, which may be included on food labels.
[edit] Smell
Smell flavorants, or simply, flavorants, are engineered and composed in similar ways as with industrial fragrances and fine perfumes. To produce natural flavors, the flavorant must first be extracted from the source substance. The methods of extraction can involve solvent extraction, distillation, or using force to squeeze it out. The extracts are then usually further purified and subsequently added to food products to flavor them. To begin producing artificial flavors, flavor manufacturers must either find out the individual naturally occurring aroma chemicals and mix them appropriately to produce a desired flavor or create a novel non-toxic artificial compound that gives a specific flavor. Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined together to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorist to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and the flavor chemist (flavorist) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorants are esters. Chemical Odor
Diacetyl Isoamyl acetate Benzaldehyde Cinnamic aldehyde Ethyl propionate Methyl anthranilate Limonene Allyl hexanoate Ethyl maltol Ethylvanillin Methyl salicylate
Buttery Banana Bitter almond Cinnamon Fruity Grape Orange Pineapple Sugar, Cotton candy Vanilla Wintergreen
[[Ethyl- (E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate]] Pear
The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally, and a natural origin for a substance does not necessarily imply that it is safe to consume. In fact, artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.[4] Natural flavors in contrast may contain toxins from their sources while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.[4] Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it.
[edit] Taste
While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors are considered taste flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants. Umami or "savory" flavorants, more commonly called taste or flavor enhancers are largely based on amino acids and nucleotides. These are typically used as sodium or calcium salts. Umami flavorants recognized and approved by the European Union include:
Glutamic acid salts: This amino acid's sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG) is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono and diglutamate salts are also commonly used. Glycine salts: A simple amino acid that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. Guanylic acid salts: Nucleotide salts that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. Inosinic acid salts: Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, it is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. 5'-ribonucleotide salts:
Certain organic acids can be used to enhance sour tastes, but like salt and sugar these are usually not considered and regulated as flavorants under law. Each acid imparts a slightly different sour or tart taste that alters the flavor of a food.

Acetic acid: gives vinegar its sour taste and distinctive smell Citric acid: found in citrus fruits and gives them their sour taste Lactic acid: found in various milk products and give them a rich tartness Malic acid: found in apples and gives them their sour/tart taste Tartaric acid: found in grapes and wines and gives them a tart taste
[edit] Dietary restrictions

Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant about informing consumers about the source from where the flavor is obtained and whether it has been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal by-products glycerin, gelatin, and the like, and the use of alcohol in the flavors. Orthodox Jews, Jains, Hindus, and Muslims adhere to religious laws, and vegans to personal morals, that restrict the use of animal byproducts and alcohol in foods unless subject to oversight and inspection by their respective religious authority or less-strict or circumstantial moral belief. In many western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewish Kosher Pareve certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish). The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies world wide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings)
[edit] Flavor creation

Most food and beverage companies do not create their own flavors but instead employ the services of a flavor company. Food and beverage companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products) or due to changes in formula or processing for existing products. The flavor creation is done by a specially trained scientist called a "flavorist." The flavorist's job combines extensive scientific knowledge of the chemical palette with
artistic creativity to develop new and distinctive flavors. The flavor creation begins when the flavorist receives a brief from the client. In the brief the client will attempt to communicate exactly what type of flavor they seek, in what application it will be used, and any special requirements (e.g., must be all natural). The communication barrier can be quite difficult to overcome since most people aren't experienced at describing flavors. The flavorist will use his or her knowledge of the available chemical ingredients to create a formula and compound it on an electronic balance. The flavor will then be submitted to the client for testing. Several iterations, with feedback from the client, may be needed before the right flavor is found. Additional work may also be done by the flavor company. For example, the flavor company may conduct sensory taste tests to test consumer acceptance of a flavor before it is sent to the client or to further investigate the "sensory space." The flavor company may also employ application specialists who work to ensure the flavor will work in the application for which it is intended. This may require special flavor delivery technologies that are used to protect the flavor during processing or cooking so that the flavor is only released when eaten by the end consumer.
[edit] Determination
Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors[5]. In chemical analysis of flavors, solid phase extraction (SPE), solid phase microextraction (SPME), and headspace gas chromatography are applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by various mass spectrometric techniques[6].
[edit] Scientific resources

12. oved 1998
Flavor
Jump to: navigation, search This article is about flavor as a sensory impression. For the particle property, see Flavor (particle physics). For other uses, see Flavor (disambiguation). Flavor or flavour (see spelling differences) is the sensory impression of a food or other substance, and is determined mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, may also occasionally determine flavor. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants, which affect these senses. Flavorant is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc.
Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. While the taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and savory (umami) the basic tastes the smells of a food are potentially limitless. A food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. Nowhere is this better exemplified than in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are typically created by flavorists. Although the terms "flavoring" or "flavorant" in common language denote the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same terms are usually used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell. Due to the high cost or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorants are nature-identical, which means that they are the chemical equivalent of natural flavors but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from the source materials.
Contents
[hide]
1 Flavorants or flavorings o 1.1 Regulations on natural flavoring o 1.2 Smell o 1.3 Taste 2 Dietary restrictions 3 Flavor creation 4 Determination 5 Scientific resources 6 See also 7 References 8 External links
[edit] Flavorants or flavorings

Flavorings are focused on altering or enhancing the flavors of natural food product such as meats and vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks. Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste. Few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors. There are three principal types of flavorings used in foods, under definitions agreed in the E.U. and Australia: [1]
Natural flavoring substances: Flavoring substances obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic processes. They can be
either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances. Nature-identical flavoring substances: Flavoring substances that are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances. Artificial flavoring substances: Flavoring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed. These are typically produced by fractional distillation and additional chemical manipulation naturally sourced chemicals or from crude oil or coal tar.
[edit] Regulations on natural flavoring

UK Food Law defines a natural flavor as:
a flavouring substance (or flavouring substances) which is (or are) obtained, by physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes, from material of vegetable or animal origin which material is either raw or has been subjected to a process normally used in preparing food for human consumption and to no process other than one normally so used. [2]
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavorant" as:
the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional. [3]
The European Union's guidelines for natural flavorants are slightly different. Certain artificial flavorants are given an E number, which may be included on food labels.
[edit] Smell
Smell flavorants, or simply, flavorants, are engineered and composed in similar ways as with industrial fragrances and fine perfumes. To produce natural flavors, the flavorant must first be extracted from the source substance. The methods of extraction can involve solvent extraction, distillation, or using force to squeeze it out. The extracts are then usually further purified and subsequently added to food products to flavor them. To begin producing artificial flavors, flavor manufacturers must either find out the individual naturally occurring aroma chemicals and mix them appropriately to produce a desired flavor or create a novel non-toxic artificial compound that gives a specific flavor.
Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined together to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorist to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and the flavor chemist (flavorist) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorants are esters. Chemical Diacetyl Isoamyl acetate Benzaldehyde Cinnamic aldehyde Ethyl propionate Methyl anthranilate Limonene Allyl hexanoate Ethyl maltol Ethylvanillin Methyl salicylate Buttery Banana Bitter almond Cinnamon Fruity Grape Orange Pineapple Sugar, Cotton candy Vanilla Wintergreen Odor
[[Ethyl- (E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate]] Pear
The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally, and a natural origin for a substance does not necessarily imply that it is safe to consume. In fact, artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.[4] Natural flavors in contrast may contain toxins from their sources while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.[4] Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it.
[edit] Taste
While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary
flavors are considered taste flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants. Umami or "savory" flavorants, more commonly called taste or flavor enhancers are largely based on amino acids and nucleotides. These are typically used as sodium or calcium salts. Umami flavorants recognized and approved by the European Union include:
Glutamic acid salts: This amino acid's sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG) is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono and diglutamate salts are also commonly used. Glycine salts: A simple amino acid that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. Guanylic acid salts: Nucleotide salts that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. Inosinic acid salts: Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, it is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer. 5'-ribonucleotide salts:
Certain organic acids can be used to enhance sour tastes, but like salt and sugar these are usually not considered and regulated as flavorants under law. Each acid imparts a slightly different sour or tart taste that alters the flavor of a food.

Acetic acid: gives vinegar its sour taste and distinctive smell Citric acid: found in citrus fruits and gives them their sour taste Lactic acid: found in various milk products and give them a rich tartness Malic acid: found in apples and gives them their sour/tart taste Tartaric acid: found in grapes and wines and gives them a tart taste
[edit] Dietary restrictions

Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant about informing consumers about the source from where the flavor is obtained and whether it has been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal by-products glycerin, gelatin, and the like, and the use of alcohol in the flavors. Orthodox Jews, Jains, Hindus, and Muslims adhere to religious laws, and vegans to personal morals, that restrict the use of animal byproducts and alcohol in foods unless subject to oversight and inspection by their respective religious authority or less-strict or circumstantial moral belief. In many western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewish Kosher Pareve certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish). The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies world wide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings)
[edit] Flavor creation

Most food and beverage companies do not create their own flavors but instead employ the services of a flavor company. Food and beverage companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products) or due to changes in formula or processing for existing products. The flavor creation is done by a specially trained scientist called a "flavorist." The flavorist's job combines extensive scientific knowledge of the chemical palette with artistic creativity to develop new and distinctive flavors. The flavor creation begins when the flavorist receives a brief from the client. In the brief the client will attempt to communicate exactly what type of flavor they seek, in what application it will be used, and any special requirements (e.g., must be all natural). The communication barrier can be quite difficult to overcome since most people aren't experienced at describing flavors. The flavorist will use his or her knowledge of the available chemical ingredients to create a formula and compound it on an electronic balance. The flavor will then be submitted to the client for testing. Several iterations, with feedback from the client, may be needed before the right flavor is found. Additional work may also be done by the flavor company. For example, the flavor company may conduct sensory taste tests to test consumer acceptance of a flavor before it is sent to the client or to further investigate the "sensory space." The flavor company may also employ application specialists who work to ensure the flavor will work in the application for which it is intended. This may require special flavor delivery technologies that are used to protect the flavor during processing or cooking so that the flavor is only released when eaten by the end consumer.
[edit] Determination
Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors[5]. In chemical analysis of flavors, solid phase extraction (SPE), solid phase microextraction (SPME), and headspace gas chromatography are applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by various mass spectrometric techniques[6].
Acids Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid. Acidity regulators Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods.
Anticaking agents Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking. Antifoaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Antioxidants Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on food, and can be beneficial to health. Bulking agents Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value. Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. Color retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color. Color retention agents are often used for restoring cow's milk to its natural white color as unhealthy cows may bleed into the milk.[citation needed] Emulsifiers Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk. Flavors Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially. Flavor enhancers Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources (through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially. Flour treatment agents Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking. Humectants Humectants prevent foods from drying out. Tracer gas Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life. Preservatives Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms. Stabilizers Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions. Sweeteners Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay and diarrhea. Thickeners
Thickeners are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.
Thickener
Jump to: navigation, search Thickeners or gravity sedimentation is the most widely applied dewatering technique used in mineral processing.[1] Thickeners separate minerals based on their settling velocities. They comprise of relatively shallow tanks where the clear liquid on top is the overflow, and the underflow is the sludge slurry found at the bottom of the tank. An emulsifier (also known as an emulgent) is a substance which stabilizes an emulsion by increasing their kinetic stability. One class of emulsifiers are known as surface active substances, or surfactants. Examples of food emulsifiers are egg yolk (where the main emulsifying chemical is lecithin), honey, and mustard, where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers; proteins and low-molecular weight emulsifiers are common as well. Soy lecithin is another emulsifier and thickener. In some cases, particles can stabilize emulsions as well through a mechanism called Pickering stabilization. Both mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauce are oil-in-water emulsions that are stabilized with egg yolk lecithin.
Dietary supplement
Jump to: navigation, search "Food supplement" redirects here. For food additions that alter the flavor, color or longevity of food, see food additive. For other uses, see Bodybuilding supplement. A dietary supplement, also known as food supplement or nutritional supplement, is a preparation intended to provide nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids or amino acids, that are missing or are not consumed in sufficient quantity in a person's diet. Some countries define dietary supplements as foods, while in others they are defined as drugs.
Supplements containing vitamins or dietary minerals are included in the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a guidebook on food safety sponsored by the United Nations.
[1]
Contents
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1 Regulation o 1.1 European Union 1.1.1 Legal challenge o 1.2 Russia o 1.3 United States 1.3.1 United States Regulation 1.3.2 Quality 1.3.3 Permissible claims 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links
[edit] Regulation
[edit] European Union
The Food Supplements Directive[2] requires that supplements be demonstrated to be safe, both in quantity and quality. Some vitamins are essential in small quantities but dangerous in large quantities, notably Vitamin A. Consequently, only those supplements that have been proven to be safe may be sold without prescription. A survey conducted in Ireland in 2001, of adults aged 18-64 years, suggested that with the possible exception of niacin (flushing) and vitamin B6 (neuropathy), there appears to be little risk of the occurrence of adverse effects due to excessive consumption of vitamins in this population, based on current dietary practices.[3] As a category of food, food supplements cannot be labeled with drug claims in the bloc but can bear health claims and nutrition claims.[4]
[edit] Legal challenge
The dietary supplements industry in the UK, one of the 27 countries in the European Union, strongly opposed the Directive. In addition, a large number of consumers throughout Europe, including over one million in the UK, and many doctors and scientists, have signed petitions against what are viewed by the petitioners as unjustified restrictions of consumer choice.[5] In 2004, along with two British trade associations, the Alliance for Natural Health had a legal challenge to the European Union's Food Supplements Directive[6] referred to the European Court of Justice by the High Court in London.[7] Although the European Court of Justice's Advocate General subsequently said that the EU's plan to tighten rules on the sale of vitamins and food supplements should be scrapped,[8] he was eventually overruled by the European Court, which decided that the measures in question were necessary and appropriate for the purpose of protecting public
health. ANH, however, interpreted the ban as applying only to synthetically produced supplementsand not to vitamins and minerals normally found in or consumed as part of the diet.[9] Nevertheless, the European judges did acknowledge the Advocate General's concerns, stating that there must be clear procedures to allow substances to be added to the permitted list based on scientific evidence. They also said that any refusal to add a product to the list must be open to challenge in the courts.[10]
[edit] Russia
Russian legislation, Ministry of Health's order number 117 dated as of 15 April 1997, under the title "Concerning the procedure for the examination and health certification of Biologically Active Dietary Supplements", provides the usage of the following terminology: As a rule, BADSs are foodstuffs with clinically proven effectiveness. BADSs are recommended not only for prophylactics, but can be included into a complex therapy for the prevention of pharmaceutical therapy's side effects and for the achievement of complete remission. The development of BADSs and their applications has been very fast moving. They were originally considered as dietary supplements for people who had heightened requirements for some normal dietary components (for example, sportsmen). Later, they were employed as preventive medicines against chronic diseases.
[edit] United States

In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994[11] (DSHEA) as a product that is intended to supplement the diet and contains any of the following dietary ingredients:

a vitamin a mineral an herb or other botanical (excluding tobacco) an amino acid a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any of the above
Furthermore, it must also conform to the following criteria:

intended for ingestion in pill, capsule, tablet, powder or liquid form not represented for use as a conventional food or as the sole item of a meal or diet labeled as a "dietary supplement"
The hormones DHEA (a steroid), pregnenolone (also a steroid) and the pineal hormone melatonin are marketed as dietary supplements in the US.[12][13]
[edit] United States Regulation
Pursuant to the DSHEA, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates dietary supplements as foods, and not as drugs. While pharmaceutical companies are required to obtain FDA approval proving the safety or effectiveness of their products prior to their entry into the market, dietary supplements, like food, do not need to be pre-approved by FDA before they can enter the market.[14] The DSHEA gave the FDA the express responsibility to regulate the manufacturing processes of dietary supplements, and the FDA issued its first proposed rule in 2003.[15] In June 2007 it issued its final rule,[16] which requires all dietary supplement manufacturers to ensure by June 2010 that production of dietary supplements complies with current good manufacturing practices, and be manufactured with "controls that result in a consistent product free of contamination, with accurate labeling."[17] In addition, the industry is now required to report to the FDA "all serious dietary supplement related adverse events." The new rules have been criticized, however, with skeptics arguing lack of FDA resources, loopholes, and an exception on quality assurance for raw material suppliers (with the burden placed on manufacturers) will lead to continued quality problems.[18] There's also concern that supplement manufacturers and retailers will hide behind the new regulations.[18] Prior to the rule supplements have had major quality problems, and the number of FDA investigators has declined.[19] The DSHEA, passed in 1994, was the subject of lobbying efforts by the manufacturers of dietary supplements.[20][21] At the time of its passage DSHEA received strong support from consumer grassroots organizations, and Members of Congress. In recognition of this, President Bill Clinton, on signing DSHEA into law, stated that "After several years of intense efforts, manufacturers, experts in nutrition, and legislators, acting in a conscientious alliance with consumers at the grassroots level, have moved successfully to bring common sense to the treatment of dietary supplements under regulation and law." He also noted that the passage of DSHEA "speaks to the diligence with which an unofficial army of nutritionally conscious people worked democratically to change the laws in an area deeply important to them" and that "In an era of greater consciousness among people about the impact of what they eat on how they live, indeed, how long they live, it is appropriate that we have finally reformed the way Government treats consumers and these supplements in a way that encourages good health."[22] Popular support may have been based on a misunderstanding of the situation after the deregulation of the supplement industry. A large survey by the AARP, for example, found that 77% of respondents (including both users and non-users of supplements) believed that the federal government should review the safety of dietary supplements and approve them before they can be marketed to consumers.[23] In an October 2002 nationwide Harris poll, 59% of respondents believed that supplements had to be approved by a government agency before they could be marketed; 68% believed that supplements had to list potential side effects on their labels; and 55% believed that supplement labels could not make claims of safety without scientific evidence. All of these beliefs were incorrect as a result of provisions of the DSHEA.[24]
A 2001 study, published in Archives of Internal Medicine, found broad public support for greater governmental regulation of dietary supplements than was currently permitted by DSHEA. The researchers found that a majority of Americans supported pre-marketing approval by the FDA, increased oversight of harmful supplements, and greater scrutiny of the truthfulness of supplement label claims.[25]
[edit] Quality
Under the FDA's final rule on good manufacturing practices, quality is defined as meaning "that the dietary supplement consistently meets the established specifications for identity, purity, strength, and composition and has been manufactured, packaged, labeled, and held under conditions to prevent adulteration under section 402(a)(1), (a)(2), (a)(3), and (a)(4) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act".[16] The new regulations allow FDA inspectors to look at a company's records upon request.[26] However, enforcement could be difficult given the number of supplement manufacturers and the 16% decline in FDA investigators from 2003 to 2006.[19] Much of the contamination is due to poor raw ingredients. Suppliers provide certificates of analysis stating that they have tested the material.[19] Under the 2003 proposed rule, manufacturers would have been required to retest the supplied ingredients. Under the final rule, testing for identity is always required. Other retesting is not required if the manufacturer has verified the reliability of the ingredient supplier.[26] In the U.S., contamination and false labeling are "not uncommon".[27] Independent certification programs exist, but these may have problems as well. United States Pharmacopeia manages the Dietary Supplement Verification Program (DSVP). Its USP Verified Mark seal indicates that the product has been tested for integrity, purity, dissolution, and safe manufacturing,[28] and it is the only certification program which conducts random off-the-shelf testing.[27] The USP program will not certify products which contain ingredients that the USP's Dietary Supplement Information Expert Committee determines have a safety risk.[29] ConsumerLab.com randomly tests some dietary supplements and makes the results available to subscribers. It has reported that 25% of the supplements it tests have problems, and for multivitamins about half had problems.[19] In 2008 ConsumerLab criticized the USP for proposing a 10 microgram perdaily serving limit on lead in dietary supplements and drugs. It noted that under the FDA's 2006 guidance on lead in candy, only 0.2 micrograms of lead per serving are allowed.[30] NSF International,[31] HFL Sport Science,[32] and the Natural Products Association[33] also have a dietary supplement certification programs.
[edit] Permissible claims
If a dietary supplement claims to cure, mitigate, or treat a disease, it would be considered to be an unauthorized new drug and in violation of the applicable regulations and statutes. As the FDA states it in a response to this question in a FAQ:
Is it legal to market a dietary supplement product as a treatment or cure for a specific disease or condition? No, a product sold as a dietary supplement and promoted on its label or in labeling* as a
treatment, prevention or cure for a specific disease or condition would be considered an unapproved--and thus illegal--drug. To maintain the product's status as a dietary supplement, the label and labeling must be consistent with the provisions in the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994.
*Labeling refers to the label as well as accompanying material that is used by a manufacturer to promote and market a specific product.
Dietary supplements are permitted to make structure/function claims. These are broad claims that the product can support the structure or function of the body (e.g., "glucosamine helps support healthy joints", "the hormone melatonin helps establish normal sleep patterns"). The FDA must be notified of these claims within 30 days of their first use, and there is a requirement that these claims be substantiated. In reality, misleading claims about supplements are common, particularly on poorly-regulated commercial websites.[34][35] For example, the compound hydrazine sulfate is sold as a dietary supplement in the USA and promoted as a treatment for cancer, despite little evidence that it is either safe or effective.[36][37] Other claims that required approval from FDA include health claims and qualified health claims. Health claims are permitted to be made if they meet the requirements for the claims found in the applicable regulations. Qualified health claims can be made through a petition process, including scientific information, if FDA has not approved a prior petition.
[edit] See also
Bodybuilding supplement
Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Dietary supplement. This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (May 2008)
Protein shakes, made from protein powder, (center) and water or milk (left), are a common bodybuilding supplement.
Bodybuilding supplements are substances taken by athletes or individuals involved in weight training or other physical activity to aid in the building of lean muscle mass or to cause fat loss. Bodybuilding supplements may also be used to improve sports performance and improve recovery from events and training. However, their potential effects remain controversial.
Contents
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1 Protein o 1.1 Branched chain amino acids 2 Glutamine 3 Essential Fatty Acids 4 Meal Replacement Products 5 Prohormones 6 Creatine 7 Thermogenic products 8 Testosterone boosters 9 See also 10 References
[edit] Protein
This bodybuilding supplement contains whey protein and creatine monohydrate, as well as vitamins and other supplements. Bodybuilders often take a powdered form of protein, the essential building blocks for muscle. Protein powder is generally consumed immediately before and after exercising, or in place of a meal. The theory behind this supplementation is that having a sufficient protein intake allows for efficient growth and repair of muscle tissue.
Whey protein is the most commonly used type of protein. It is absorbed by the body very quickly and easily. It contains high levels of all the essential amino acids, branched-chain amino acids and has the highest content of the amino acid cysteine which is important for the biosynthesis of glutathione; which has extremely important immune boosting properties for the body.[1] Casein protein (or Milk protein) is the richest in glutamine, an amino acid that aids in recovery[citation needed], and has casomorphin which helps the body to absorb the amino acids over a long time. Soy protein contains all essential amino acids, and is an alternative protein for vegetarians. Soybeans also contain isoflavones, a type of phytoestrogen, which have a weak estrogenic activity.[2][3] Egg white protein is a lactose- and dairy-free protein. Hemp seed contains complete and highly-digestible protein and hemp oil is high in essential fatty acids.
[edit] Branched chain amino acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of protein; the body breaks consumed protein into amino acids in the stomach and intestines. There are three branched chain amino acids (BCAAs): leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Each has numerous benefits on various biological processes in the body. Unlike other amino acids, BCAAs are metabolised in the muscle and have an anabolic/anti-catabolic effect on it.[4]
[edit] Glutamine
Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid found in human muscle and is supplemented because supplement manufacturers claim the body's natural glutamine levels are depleted during anaerobic exercise. It is argued that bodybuilders should supplement with glutamine, as deficiency may lead to a weakened immune system and wasting of muscle tissue.[citation needed] It is sold as a micronized, instantly soluble powder. Some studies [5][6] have shown there to be no significant effect of glutamine on bench press strength, kneeextension torque or lean muscle mass when compared to controls taking a placebo, though another study found that glutamine is beneficial in raising T-helper/suppressor cell ratio in long distance runners.[7]
[edit] Essential Fatty Acids

For a healthy diet Essential Fatty Acids are necessary nutrients especially while bodybuilding. Bodybuilders often go on such a low fat diet that they become fat deficient. [citation needed] There are foods and supplements available to fulfill these needs. Instead of low-fat fish, try salmon, trout, or mackerel. Fish fats cannot readily be made in the body, but are needed by organs (especially the brain).[citation needed] You can also take fish oils in supplement form.
Polyunsaturated vegetable oils, such as corn, sunflower, and safflower oils, cannot provide linoleic acid. Soybean oil is the only supermarket oil that contains linolenic acid. Flaxseed oil, which can also be found in walnuts and pumpkin seeds, is the ideal source of -Linolenic acid.[8] Obtained from coconut oil, MCTs have an unjustified reputation in the world of bodybuilding.[citation needed] It is commonly believed that MCTs cannot be deposited into fat cells, but research has shown this to be incorrect.[citation needed] Although MCTs are rapidly available to the bloodstream, they don't give an athlete more strength, size speed, or endurance.[citation needed] These are the most benign of fats in that they don't affect your cholesterol or protaglandins (regulators of harmone action) like some of the polyunsaturated fats.[citation needed] Monounsaturated fats are found in olive oil and macadamia nuts.[9][10] Various supplements in health food stores contain essential fatty acids derived from fish oils and other sources. [11].
[edit] Meal Replacement Products

Meal Replacement Products (MRPs) are either pre-packaged powdered drink mixes or edible bars. Both are consumed in the place of a whole-food meal. Generally MRPs are high in protein, low in fat, have a low to moderate amount of carbohydrates, and contain a wide array of vitamins and minerals. The majority of MRPs use whey protein, calcium caseinate or micellar casein, soy protein, and egg albumin as the protein source. Carbohydrates are typically derived from maltodextrin, oat fiber, brown rice, or wheat flour. Some also contain flax oil powder as a source of essential fatty acids. MRPs can also contain other ingredients that are deemed beneficial to bodybuilders. These can include, but are not limited to: creatine monohydrate, glutamine peptides, Lglutamine, calcium alpha-ketoglutarate, additional amino acids, lactoferrin, conjugated linoleic acid, and medium chain triglycerides.
[edit] Prohormones
Main article: Prohormone Prohormones are precursors to hormones and were most typically sold to bodybuilders as a precursor to the natural hormone testosterone. This conversion requires naturally occurring enzymes in the body. Side effects are not uncommon, as prohormones can also convert further into DHT and estrogen. To deal with this, many supplements also have aromatase inhibitors and DHT blockers such as chrysin and 4-androstene-3,6,17-trione. To date most prohormone products have not been thoroughly studied, and the health effects of prolonged use are unknown. Although initially available over the counter, in
2004 their purchase was made illegal without a prescription in the US, as it remains so in almost all countries and is proscribed by most sporting bodies.
[edit] Creatine
Main article: Creatine supplements Creatine is an organic acid naturally occurring in the body that supplies energy to muscle cells for short bursts of energy (such as lifting weights) via creatine phosphate replenishment of ATP. A number of scientific studies have shown that creatine can increase strength,[12] energy[13], muscle mass, and reduce recovery time. In addition, recent studies have also shown that creatine improves brain function[14] and reduces mental fatigue.[15] Unlike steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs, creatine can be found naturally in many common foods such as herring, tuna, salmon, and beef, making it difficult to ban it from sporting competitions[16]. It increases what is known as cell volumization by drawing water into muscle cells, making them larger. This intracellular retention should not be confused with the common myth that creatine causes bloating (or intercellular water retention). Creatine is sold in a variety of forms, including creatine monohydrate, and creatine ethyl ester, amongst others. Though all types of creatine are sold for the same purposes, there are subtle differences between them, such as price, and necessary dosage. Non-supplemental suppliers of creatine include various types of offal, red meat, and kidney meat. In response to claims that creatine can be stressful to the kidneys (due to primary renal elimination via creatinine), creatine proponents cite studies by universities and independent organizations showing no adverse effects.[17]
[edit] Thermogenic products

Main article: Thermogenics A thermogenic is a broad term for any supplement that the manufacturer claims will cause thermogenesis, resulting in an increased metabolic rate, increased body temperature and consequently an increased rate in the burning of body fat. Until recently almost every product found in this supplement category comprised the "ECA stack": ephedrine, caffeine and aspirin. However, on February 6, 2004 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the sale of ephedra and its alkaloid, ephedrine, for use in weight loss formulas. Several manufacturers replaced the ephedra component of the "ECA" stack with bitter orange or citrus aurantium (containing synephrine) instead of the ephedrine. To date the effectiveness of this new combination is not conclusive.
[edit] Testosterone boosters

There are several naturally occurring plants and vitamins as well as synthetic chemicals that supplement companies claim may produce an increase in testosterone levels. However, the validity of many of these products is questionable due to a lack of valid
scientific research showing their effectiveness, and even scientific evidence showing a lack of effectiveness. Some commonly taken supplements of this type are ZMA and Tribulus terrestris. The relatively new drug 4-androstene-3,6,17-trione may increase the testosteroneestrogen ratio.[citation needed] Excess testosterone can cause undesirable side effects, such as hair loss and acne,[citation needed] and may be converted into estrogens,[18] which can have undesirable effects on males, such as gynecomastia and testicular atrophy.[19]
Fish oil
A typical fish oil softgel Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. It is recommended[1] for a healthy diet because it contains the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), precursors to eicosanoids that reduce inflammation throughout the body. Fish do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them from either consuming microalgae that produce these fatty acids, as is the case with fish like herring and sardines, or, as is the case with fatty predatory fish, by eating prey fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids from microalgae. Such fatty predatory fish like mackerel, lake trout, flounder, albacore tuna and salmon may be high in omega-3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the food chain, these species can accumulate toxic substances (see biomagnification). For this reason, the FDA recommends limiting consumption of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g. albacore tuna, shark, and swordfish) due to high levels of toxic contaminants such as mercury, dioxin, PCBs and chlordane.[2] More than 50 percent of the world fish oil production is fed to farmed salmon.[3] There are DHA Omega-3 vegetarian products, made from algae, available if toxic contaminants are of concern.
Contents
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1 Supplements 2 Production 3 Benefits 4 References 5 External links
[edit] Supplements
Many people have turned to fish oil supplements to get adequate omega-3 fatty acids. Some supplement formulations include other fatty acids such as omega-6 and omega-9. However, omega-6 is found in many foods in our diets such as cereals, whole grain bread, baked goods, fried foods and margarine. Therefore supplementation with omega-6 is not required. As omega-6 has pro-inflammatory effects, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids can help to normalize the ratio of Omega-3 to Omega-6. Fish oil supplements have sometimes come under scrutiny in recent years. In early 2006, government agencies such as the Food Standards Agency in the UK and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland reported PCB levels that exceeded the strict new European maximum limits in several fish oil brands,[4][5] which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the growing concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards program, a voluntary review process, was created at University of Guelph. Patented production purification processes do however exist in order to remove pollutants and dioxins from fish oil to levels far below the EU limits.This patented technology is called stripping technology. EU regulations have set a limit on the percentage of toxins that can be present in the oil for it to still be beneficial to the consumer. Recently, concerns in the UK and Ireland with regards to upholding the limits set have resulted in some major manufacturers taking their products off the market on a temporary basis. Most of the fish oils used for omega purposes originate near Peru, Chile and Morocco, because the omega-3 levels in the fish caught in these areas are higher (around 30%) than in Scandinavian and other fish oils (around 20%). Fish oils are being used in the omega-3 industry to produce nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. However, the largest off-takers of the omega-3 fish oils are still the leading buyers with the big fish feed companies such as Ewos, Skretting and Biomar in the lead
Vitamin
Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the organic compound. For the nutritional supplement preparation, see multivitamin.
Fruits and vegetables are often a good source of vitamins. A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. [1] The term 'vitamin' first became popular in the early 1800's as a contraction of the words 'vital' and 'mineral', though the actual meaning of the word has developed somewhat since that time[2]. A compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid functions as vitamin C for some animals but not others, and vitamins D and K are required in the human diet only in certain circumstances.[3] The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids, nor does it encompass the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.[4] Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" may refer to several vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals are grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids.[5] Vitamers are often interconverted in the body. Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions, including function as hormones (e.g. vitamin D), antioxidants (e.g. vitamin E), and mediators of cell signaling and regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g. vitamin A).[6] The largest number of vitamins (e.g. B complex vitamins) function as precursors for enzyme cofactor bio-
molecules (coenzymes), that help act as catalysts and substrates in metabolism. When acting as part of a catalyst, vitamins are bound to enzymes and are called prosthetic groups. For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. Vitamins also act as coenzymes to carry chemical groups between enzymes. For example, folic acid carries various forms of carbon group methyl, formyl and methylene - in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.[7] Until the 1900s, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) can alter the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. Vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive pills for several decades,[8] allowing supplementation of the dietary intake.
Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 In humans o 2.1 List of vitamins 3 In nutrition and diseases o 3.1 Deficiencies o 3.2 Side effects and overdose 4 Supplements o 4.1 Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements 5 Names in current and previous nomenclatures 6 See also 7 References 8 External links
[edit] History
The discovery of vitamins and their sources
Year of discovery
Vitamin
Source
1909
Vitamin A (Retinol)
Cod liver oil
1912
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Rice bran
1912
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
Lemons
1918
Vitamin D (Calciferol)
Cod liver oil
1920
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Eggs
1922
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Wheat germ oil, Cosmetics and liver
1926
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Liver
1929
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
Alfalfa
1931
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Liver
1931
Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
Liver
1934
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Rice bran
1936
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
Liver
1941
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid)
Liver
The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a patient would help cure night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency.[9] The advancement of ocean voyage during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.[10] In 1749, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death.[9] In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended using lemons and limes to
avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname Limey for sailors of that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and by maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food.[9] As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food.[9] During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Initially, lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A", although confusingly the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D.[11] In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy while at the University of Tartu in present-day Estonia.[12] He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life."[12] However, his conclusions were rejected by other researchers when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was that he had used table sugar (sucrose), while other researchers had used milk sugar (lactose) that still contained small amounts of vitamin B.
The Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a patient liver (back, right) would help cure night blindness. In east Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B1 was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy, observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among crews of
Western navies and officers who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Kanehiro and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it.[13] That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors"in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, et ceterathat were necessary for the functions of the human body.[9] Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discovery of several vitamins.[14] In 1910, Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid. He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal.[15] When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "Vitamine" (a portmanteau of "vital amine").[16] The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and by the time it was shown that not all vitamins were amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference after the discovery that vitamin C had no amine component.[13] In 1931, Albert Szent-Gyrgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely determined that "hexuronic acid" was actually vitamin C and noted its anti-scorbutic activity. In 1937, Szent-Gyrgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943 Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process.[14]
[edit] In humans
Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water, and in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. [17] Because they are not readily stored, consistent daily intake is important.[18] Many types of water-soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.[19] Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are
water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.[20]
[edit] List of vitamins

Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions and, therefore, most have multiple functions.[21] Recommended dietary allowances (male, age 19 70)[22]
Vitamin Vitamer chemical generic name(s) (list not Solubility descriptor complete) name
Deficiency disease
Upper Intake Level (UL/day)[22]
Overdose disease
Retinol, retinal, various retinoids, Vitamin A and four carotenoids)
Fat
900 g
Night-blindness and 3,000 g [23] Keratomalacia
Hypervitaminos A
Vitamin Thiamine B1
Water
1.2 mg
Beriberi, WernickeKorsakoff syndrome
N/D[24]
Drowsiness or muscle relaxatio with large doses

[25]
Vitamin Riboflavin B2
Water
1.3 mg
Ariboflavinosis N/D
Vitamin Niacin, B3 niacinamide
Water
16.0 mg
Pellagra
35.0 mg
Liver damage (doses > 2g/day [26] and other problems
Vitamin Pantothenic acid B5
Water
5.0 mg[27]
Paresthesia
N/D
Diarrhea; possibly nausea and heartburn.[28 Impairment of proprioception, nerve damage (doses >
Pyridoxine, Vitamin pyridoxamine, B6 pyridoxal
Water
1.31.7 mg
Anemia[29] peripheral neuropathy.
100 mg
100 mg/day) Vitamin Biotin B7 Dermatitis, enteritis
Water
30.0 g
N/D
Vitamin Folic acid, folinic Water B9 acid
400 g
Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with 1,000 g birth defects, such as neural tube defects
May mask symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency; othe effects.
Cyanocobalamin, Vitamin hydroxycobalamin, Water B12 methylcobalamin
2.4 g
Megaloblastic anemia[30]
N/D
No known toxicity[30]
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid
Water
90.0 mg
Scurvy
2,000 mg
Vitamin C megadosage
Vitamin D
Ergocalciferol, cholecalciferol
Fat
5.0 g10 g[31]
Rickets and Osteomalacia
50 g
Hypervitaminos D
Vitamin E
Tocopherols, tocotrienols
Fat
15.0 mg
Deficiency is very rare; mild hemolytic 1,000 mg anemia in newborn infants.

[32]
Increased congestive heart failure seen in one large randomized study.[33] Increases coagulation in patients taking warfarin.[34]
phylloquinone, Vitamin K menaquinones
Fat
120 g
Bleeding diathesis
N/D
[edit] In nutrition and diseases

Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain
vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.[35] For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestinecommonly known as "gut flora" produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan.[22] Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for respiration.[6]
[edit] Deficiencies
Because human bodies do not store most vitamins, humans must consume them regularly to avoid deficiency. Human bodily stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B12 are stored in significant amounts in the human body, mainly in the liver,[32] and an adult human's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and B12 for many months before developing a deficiency condition. Vitamin B3 is not stored in the human body in significant amounts, so stores may only last a couple of weeks.[23][32] Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a lifestyle factor, such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin.[32] People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases. Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy) and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food; and (2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods, often called fortification.[22][32] In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders.[36][37]
[edit] Side effects and overdose

In large doses, some vitamins have documented side effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is
remote, but overdosing from vitamin supplementation does occur. At high enough dosages some vitamins cause side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting.[23][38] When side effects emerge, recovery is often accomplished by reducing the dosage. The concentrations of vitamins an individual can tolerate vary widely, and appear to be related to age and state of health.[39] In the United States, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins was reported by 62,562 individuals in 2004 (nearly 80% of these exposures were in children under the age of 6), leading to 53 "major" lifethreatening outcomes and 3 deaths[40];a small number in comparison to the 19,250 people who died of unintentional poisoning of all kinds in the U.S. in the same year (2004).[41]
[edit] Supplements
Dietary supplements, often containing vitamins, are used to ensure that adequate amounts of nutrients are obtained on a daily basis, if optimal amounts of the nutrients cannot be obtained through a varied diet. Scientific evidence supporting the benefits of some vitamin supplements is well established for certain health conditions, but others need further study.[42] In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions.[42] Dietary supplements may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.[43] A meta-analysis published in 2006 suggested that Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no tangible health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but may actually increase mortality, although two large studies included in the analysis involved smokers, for which it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful.[44] Another study released in May 2009 found that antioxidants such as vitamins C and E may actually curb some benefits of exercise.[45]
[edit] Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements

Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. This necessitates that the manufacturer, and not the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Unlike drug products, which must explicitly be proven safe and effective for their intended use before marketing, there are often no provisions to "approve" dietary supplements for safety or effectiveness before they reach the consumer. Also unlike drug products, manufacturers and distributors of dietary supplements are not generally required to report any claims of injuries or illnesses that may be related to the use of their products.[46][47][42]
[edit] Names in current and previous nomenclatures

Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins
Previous name
Chemical name
Reason for name change[48]
Vitamin B4
Adenine
DNA metabolite
Vitamin B8
Adenylic acid
DNA metabolite
Vitamin F
Essential fatty acids
Needed in large quantities (does not fit the definition of a vitamin).
Vitamin G
Riboflavin
Reclassified as Vitamin B2
Vitamin H
Biotin
Vitamin J
Catechol, Flavin
Protein metabolite
Vitamin L1[49]
Anthranilic acid
Protein metabolite
Vitamin L2[49]
Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite
Vitamin M
Folic acid
Vitamin O
Carnitine
Protein metabolite
Vitamin P
Flavonoids
No longer classified as a vitamin
Vitamin PP
Niacin
Vitamin U
S-Methylmethionine
Protein metabolite
The reason the set of vitamins seems to skip directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to "letters" F-J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads,
or renamed because of their relationship to "vitamin B", which became a "complex" of vitamins. The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the Koagulation of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.[48][50] The table on the right lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.
[edit] See also

Antioxidant Dietary supplement Dietetics Health freedom movement Illnesses related to poor nutrition Megavitamin therapy Nutrition o Vitamin deficiency o Dietary minerals o Essential amino acids o Essential nutrients o Nootropics o Nutrients Orthomolecular medicine Pharmacology Vitamin poisoning (overdose) Whole food supplements

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Papain,bulk Sodium Ascorbate PHOSPHATES- all Calcium Citrate Sodium Gluconate food grade Calcium Ascorbate Potassium Citrate

Why Use Additives?

Additives are used in a range of foods

-Numbers and Colours

Betacarotene Plain caramel

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Bread will quickly go mouldy under the attack of microbes

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Reducing the growth of microbes

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Propionic acid (E280-283)

Magnesium carbonate is added to salt to make it flow easily

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Acids and Applications in Food

Gelling Agents, Thickeners and Stabilisers

Gelling Agents, Stabilisers and Thickeners: Origins and Uses

Agar Alginates Carrageenan Starches

E406 E400-404 E407 E14041451

Maize and potato

additives safety E-numbers food issues for teachers glossary

E-numbers food issues for teachers glossary

The range of antioxidants

Tocopherols Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) Citric acid

Antioxidants and health benefits

Common sequestrants are:

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es. Glucono delta-lactone

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D-Gluconic acid -lactone[1][2]

Identifiers 90-80-2 736 202-016-5

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Prostaglandin analogue (PGI2) Antiplatelet drugs COX inhibitors

Vitamin K antagonists (inhibit II, VII, IX, X)

Factor Xa inhibitors (with some II inhibition)

Thrombolytic drugs/ fibrinolytics

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