PSYC 100 Chap.

**RESEARCH ENTERPRISE IN PSYCHOLOGY** Qualitative Research Method - meaning of a specific experience - tend to let meaning emerge from the data they collect - data often consists of words and narratives of experiences - make empirical observations reported as narratives Quantitative Research Method - examine cause-and-effect relationships where variables may be defined ahead of time and the data are numerical - make empirical observations reported as numeric quantities - more dominant that qualitative method **Look at preview questions A) GOALS Measurement and Description - develop measurement technique to describe behavior clearly and precisely Understanding and Prediction - scientists confirm their understanding by making prediction through hypothesis - hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables Application and Control - to build a better understanding of the behavior, they construct theories - theory: a set of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations Theory construction is a gradual, iterative process that is always subject to revision B) STEPS 1) Formulate a testable hypothesis - conditions: hypothesis must be formulated precisely and variables must be clearly defined

WHICH IS ACHIEVED BY HAVING PROVIDING - operational definition: describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable (how the experiment is being carried out) 2) Select Research Method Design the Study - putting the hypothesis into an empirical test through various methodology: experiments, case studies, naturalistic observations - after the method has been chosen, researchers must make a detailed plans to execute their studies - this includes: what kind of experiment, who are the participants and where to get them etc 3) Collect the Data - there are varieties of data collection techniques (refer pg 46) 4) Analyze Data and Draw Conclusions - data usually converted into numbers (includes raw data) - statistics is often used to analyze data and to see whether the hypothesis has been supported 5) Report the Findings - scientific research can be progress if the findings are shared - achieved through: concise summary of the finding and the study - research papers are delivered in a scientific meeting and submitted to a journal publication (usually in a very narrowly-defined area) - publishing journal allows other experts to evaluate and critique new research findings Advantages of Scientific Approach - clarity and precision - intolerance of error Scientists are trained to be skeptical- before accepting any ideas, they demand thorough documentation. And if the idea conflicts with another, they conduct an additional research **LOOKING FOR CAUSES: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH** A) DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Independent - researchers vary it because they want to see its impact on another variable (affect) - the variable that researchers manipulate

Dependent - thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable (affected by) - is usually a measurement of some aspect (usually the result) B) EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Experimental group: receive a special treatment in regard to the independent variable Controlled group: receive no special treatment The logic: If the two groups are all alike in all respects except for the variation created by the manipulation of the independent variable, any differences between the two groups on the dependent variable must be due to the manipulation of the independent variable C) EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES - experimenters focus on ensuring that the control and experimental groups are alike on a limited number of variables that could have a bearing on the results of the study - a.k.a: extraneous /secondary / nuisance variables - confounding variables: two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects - e.g: extraneous variables collide with independent variables. Effect: Researchers cannot tell which is having what effect on the dependent variable - safeguard purpose: > assigning subjects to the controlled and experimental group randomly (by doing so, researchers will feel more confident with their experiment) D) VARIATIONS IN DESIGNING EXPERIMENTS - within-subjects design: comparison are made within the same group of participants - between-subjects design: two or more independent groups of subject are exposed to a manipulation of an independent variable Variation 1: one group of subjects who serve as their own control group Variation 2: manipulate more than one independent variable in as single experiment Variation 3: use more than one dependent variable in a single study ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

ADVANTAGES - permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables Explanation: precise control available in the experiment allows them to isolate the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, while neutralizing the effects of extraneous variables

DISADVANTAGES - often artificial Explanation: because experiments require great control over proceedings, researchers have to construct simple, contrived situations to test their hypotheses experimentally. (However, reality is often more challenging than in the lab situation). Solution: Field experiment- settings that are very much like real life. May sacrifice some control over extraneous variables for greater generalizability

- cant be used to explore some research questions Explanation: psychologists are usually interested to know the effect of factors that cant be manipulated as independent variables because of ethical concerns or practical realities Solution: Use lab and field research methodology in conducting experiment

E) DESCRIPTIVE/CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH - alternative for research that is against ethical practice - cons: cannot demonstrate the cause-and-effect relationship between variables Descriptive/Correlational methods permits investigators to only describe patterns of behavior and discover links or associations between variables i) Naturalistic Observation - Method: Researchers engaged in careful observation without intervening directly with the research subjects or participants - Its called naturalistic observation because: behavior is allowed to unfold naturally (without interference) in its natural environment - To ensure that, careful preparation is needed -Pros: a good starting point when little is known about the behavior under study; also used to study animal behaviour - Cons: to make the observation unobtrusive and translate the naturalistic observation to numerical data that allows precise statistical analyses

Reactivity occurs when subjects behavior is altered by the presence of an observer ii) Case Studies -An in-depth investigation of an individual subject (focus research on someone) -Method: If the subjects are not deceased- interview the subjects, people very close to the subjects, direct observation of the subjects, examination of records, psychological testing - For clinical psychologists, here they dont conduct empirical research BUT; analyzing a collection of case studies to look for patterns that permit general conclusions - Pros: can provide compelling, real life illustrations that bolster a hypothesis or a theory - Cons: can be highly subjective; because the information is scattered. Therefore, it must be arranged whereby researchers will be able to focus on information that fits with their expectations iii) Survey - Method: Questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspect of participants behavior - Advantage: > often used to obtain information on aspect of behavior that are difficult to observe directly > make it easy to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large samples Cons: depends on self-report data >Example: intentional deception, wishful thinking, memory lapses and poorly-worded questions are the usual factors that distort participants verbal reports > also prone to sampling bias: A survey is characterized by sampling bias if the sampling on which it is based is not representative of the population that it is intended to describe [View pg 57 for summary] ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DESCRIPTIVE/CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH ADVANTAGES - does what an experimental research couldnt - example: research that conflicts with ethical issues (testing cigarette effect on the smoker) DISADVANTAGES - cannot control events to isolate causes and effect - correlational research cannot demonstrate conclusively that two variables are causally related

STATISTICS AND RESEARCH

*statistics: the use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data Descriptive Statistics - used to organize and summarize data i) Central Tendency -3 methods: Mean, Median and Mode - Median: falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores - Mean: average of the scores in the distribution >> most useful because additional statistical manipulations can be performed on it (but not on the other two) >> But: is sensitive to extreme scores in the a distribution - Mode: most frequent scores in a distribution - Frequency polygon: line figure to present data from a frequency distribution - Frequency distribution: orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or a group of scores ii) Variability - Means: how much the scores in a date set vary from each other and from the mean - Calculating the range: subtract the lowest score from the highest score - Cons: not sensitive to the numbers that lie between extreme numbers - Solution: Use alternative method of measuring dispersion > standard deviation - Standard deviation: An index of the amount of variability in a set of data When the variability is great, the standard deviation will be large and vice-versa *BUT: mean will give the same value **Estimates of variability is crucial in determining whether the results support the hypotheses or otherwise - Normal distribution/curve: symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population iii) Correlation

- Exists when two variables are related to each other The correlation coefficient is a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables - Correlation coefficient indicates: > direction (+ve / -ve) of the relationship > how strongly are the two variables related indicates by the value of the coefficient e.g: - 0.60 has a stronger relationship than + 0.30 because: > the +ve/-ve sign only indicate the direction of the relation (same or opposite) iv) Correlation and causation Correlation is not equivalent to causation Cons: > variables can be highly correlated even though they are not causally related > when variables X and Y are correlated, the only thing that can be confirmed: - X and Y are related BUT; - cant determine whether X causes Y or vice-versa FOR; - both can be caused by the third variable v) Inferential Statistics - Function: Interpret data and draw conclusion Statistically significance: exists when the probability that the observed finding are due to chance is very low low as in 0.05 and below EVALUATING RESEARCH - Replication is a repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated META ANALYSIS - combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable effects i) Sampling Bias Exists: when the sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

> this could cause the generalization about the population to be inaccurate ii) Placebo - substance that resembles drug but doesnt have any pharmacological effect - Placebo effect: participants expectations lead to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake or ineffectual treatment iii) Distortion in Self-Report Data Cons: > social desirability bias: tendency to answer question about oneself by giving a socially approved answer > respondents misunderstand question > response set: tendency to response to questions in a particular that are not related to the content of the questions iv) Experimenter Bias - when researchers make hypotheses and they highly hope that the hypo will be supported Experimenter bias: occurs when researchers expectation or preference influence about the outcome influence the results obtained Solution: Double-blind procedure- neither subjects nor the experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control group THE INTERNET AND PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Internet-mediated research: studies from which the data is obtained from the Web Pros: > larger / rare sample > available 24/7 > data recording / response can be automatically saved > reduce costs and save time Cons: > prone to sampling bias

> higher drop-out rate >data are collected under far less controlled condition compared to traditional studies (different temperature, environmental distraction etc) ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE USE OF DECEPTION > nice word for lying; inherently immoral > may undermine participants trust in others > studies that may produce distress on others ETHICAL GUIDELINES > All such persons should be treated with dignity > Psychologists should protect their rights, privacy, personal liberty and self-determination of others > should ensure that their activities will benefit those with they interact > should emphasize integrity in their relationships with clients, students etc > know that psychology has a responsibility to increase knowledge and welfare of all human beings