Transmission Media Filka

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMMUNICATION BRNO UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Author: Assoc. Prof. Miloslav Filka, Ph.D.
Brno
2010
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology
Contents
1 Introduction 2 Enlistment of the study to educational programme 2.1 Introduction into study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Entry test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Analysis of line 3.1 Basic relations of homogenous line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Innite homogenous line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Relations of voltage vs. current in the entry and termination of line . . . . 3.4 Phase and group velocity of propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Delay of signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Input impedance of homogenous line terminated variably . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Termination impact of Innite line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Input impedance of nite line, terminated by impedance Z2 = Zc . 3.6.3 Input impedance of open-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.4 Input impedance of short-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.5 Input impedance of line terminated by common impedance Z2 = Zc 3.7 Lines practically innite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Electrically short lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Frequency dependencies of primary and secondary parameters of various line types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.1 Air lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.2 Cable lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Homogenous line by high frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10.1 HF open line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10.2 HF shortcut line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Types of metallic lines and cables 4.1 Open air lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Cable lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Electrical attributes of metallic lines 4.4 Coiled cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Symmetrical HF cables and cables for 4.6 Coaxial cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Special cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Structured cabling systems . . . . . . 4.9 xDSL Transmitting . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8 8 8 8 8 10 13 14 16 17 17 17 18 18 20 21 21 22 23 27 35 36 41 42 42 42 43 49 52 57 57 60 63 66 67
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Transmission Media
5 Shortcomings of telecommunication cables 5.1 Non-homogeneities of cables . . . . . . . . 5.2 Non-homogeneities of cables . . . . . . . . 5.3 Asymmetry of capacities and leakages . . . 5.4 Magnetic asymmetries . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Corrective measures of asymmetry . . . . . 5.6 Non-homogeneities of lines . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Wireless transmissions 6.1 Radio transmissions . . 6.2 Satellite transmissions 6.3 Mobile transmissions . 6.4 Optical transmissions .
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Inhomogeneities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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68 68 68 70 73 74 76 78 79 79 79 80 80 80 80 83 89 91 102 108 114 120
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7 Optical bres and cables 7.1 Basic principles of transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Types of optical bres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Theory of optical transmission, loss and dispersion . . . . . . 7.4 Optical cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Practical usage of optical bres for high bit rate transmission 7.5.1 Optical access networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.2 Triple Play services in FTTH systems . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Appendix 8.1 Exercises results of chapter 8.2 Exercises results of chapter 8.3 Results of examples . . . . 8.4 Exercises results of chapter
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3.11 4.10 . . . 7.6 .
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List of Figures
3.1 Model of homogeneous line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Voltage conditions alongside innite line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Propagation velocity for linear relation = (f ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Velocity of propagation inuenced by frequency - concave curve vs. convex curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Functions of tgh 1 and cotgh 1 to a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Various characters of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Frequency relation to primary parameters of air lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Dependence of specic loss and shift on fair lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Attenuation of air line (bronz 3 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Impedance of air and cable lines depending on frequency . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Frequency dependency , and Zc for couple types of coiled lines . . . . . 3.12 Relation of specic attenuation to frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13 Dependence of specic shift on frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.14 Dependence of ReZc and ImZc on frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15 Frequency dependency of coaxial cable primary parameters is real (Zc = 75 ) 3.16 Frequency dependencies and of coaxial and cable - 1,2/4,4 (little), 2,6/9,4(medium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17 Frequency dependencies Zc = (f ) for little and medium coaxial pairs . . . 3.18 Circumstances in extra high voltage by HF current transmission . . . . . . 3.19 Conditions for modulation of wire radio transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 Standing wave of voltage and current of open HF line . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21 Dependence of Z1p for various lengths of HF open line . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22 Standing wave of voltage and current of open HF line . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23 Four wave band pass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.24 Quarter wave band stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25 Waveguide principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Construction of a) DM quad, b) cross quad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Wrapping of wire by cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Prole of cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Composition of elements into cable prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Principle of coiled line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Dependency of specic loss for coiled line on x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Method of phantom and superphantom composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Coaxial pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Composition of coaxial cable core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Self-contained hanged cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Hanging (catenary) cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12 Metallic radial waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13 Spiral waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14 Outlet assignment of cabling 5-UTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 Scheme of cabling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 12 15 16 19 23 23 24 26 27 28 30 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 39 40 40 41 41 42 43 45 45 46 53 54 56 58 60 61 61 62 62 64 65
Transmission Media
4.16 Scheme of cabling system: CR - campus cabinet, RR - backbone cabinet, HR -horizontal cabinet, Z - sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.17 Trends of bit rate upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5.1 Scheme of partial capacities inside cable quad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 5.2 Partial capacities transformed from star of four earth capacities to full polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.3 Network of eective partial capacities inside cable quad . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.4 Capacitive bridge of eective partial capacities of quad . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.5 Fictional capacitive coupling k 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.6 Capacitive asymmetry k1 and functional capacity C.l of manufactured length 73 5.7 a) Partial inductive couplings among wires of unique quad, b) ctional inductive coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 5.8 Resistive and inductive asymmetries of 1st and 2nd pairs . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.9 Scheme of reected waves of voltage and current of impedance non-homogeneities 77 5.10 Undulated characteristic impedance around its mean value . . . . . . . . . 77 6.1 Scheme of radio link system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7.1 Basic scheme of optical link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 7.2 Transmission by optical waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 7.3 Single-mode lightguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 7.4 Multi-mode step indexed optical waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 7.5 Gradient multi-mode optical waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 7.6 Refraction index of SM bre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 7.7 Prole of refraction index for DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7.8 Loss characteristics of optical waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 7.9 Curve of chromatic dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 7.10 Various designs of optical bre cables a, b, c,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 7.11 Grooved construction of cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 7.12 RIBBON cable - banded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 7.13 Cable OPTION1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 7.14 Self-contained optical cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 7.15 Optical cable Mini-LXE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 7.16 Indoor optical cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 7.17 Optical joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 7.18 Optical distribution frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7.19 Scheme of optical link with wave division multiplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 7.20 Wave multiplex (Coupler) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 7.21 WDM JDS FITEL (1533/1541/1549/1557 nm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 7.22 OLS 806 in ring application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 7.23 WDM spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 7.24 Scheme of optical amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 7.25 Realisation and scheme of WDM in UTKO network . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 7.26 Block scheme of access network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 7.27 Block scheme access network AON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 7.28 Downstream transmission scheme between OLT and ONU units . . . . . . 111
7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33
Upstream transmission scheme between ONU a OLT units . . . . . . . . . 111 Topologies used in PON networks, a) bus, b) p2p, c) star, d) ring . . . . . 112 Transmission bit rates oered to user by symmetric services split 1:32 . . . 114 Scheme of Triple Play services processing by systems FTTH (source: EXFO)116 Exemplication of PLC and FBT splitter structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Transmission Media
List of Tables
3.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Types of coiled lines and their attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parameters of passive optical networks single specication . . . . . . . . Basic and extended Triple Play services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inserted loss values for PLC splitter Telcordia GR-1209 . . . . . . . . . Evaluation of requirements for overlay PON (analogous video) and switched TV (Digital video) onto transmitting optical powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 113 115 116
. 119
Introduction
The item Transmitting media introduces students into wide range of knowledge for transmitting of various types of information. Seen by the historical point of view, media for information transmitting are closely connected with invention of the telegraph (Samuel Morse, 1832) using one wire line with earth as backhauling conductor. Intensive development of telegraph was launched subsequently; Europe was linked with America in 1858. The invention of telephone (Alexander Graham Bell, 1876) initiated development of telephone lines. The following invention of wireless transmission (Guglielmo Marconi, 1901) launched stormy development of this type of transmitting. The nding of short waves (1926) enables rst of all intercontinental transmissions (1927 - England - USA). Next research and development returns focusing to coaxial cables opening new horizons in quality as well as reliability of transmitting. First coaxial cable connecting Europe and America (1956), known as TAT-7 enabled transmission of 36 analogue telephone channels. Next step are satellites (1961). Everybody is impressed, that most perspective connection has been entered the scene.... The last coaxial cable (TAT-10) was installed in 1983. Transmitting capacity performs 4200 telephone channels, repeating step is 9 km. The new phenomenon has been coming in this moment: - optical bre. Extreme broad bandwidth enables transmission of large informational capacity, otherwise high bit rates supported by excellent reliability, immunity to disturbances and tapping including very light weight. First optical transatlantic submarine cable TAT-8 was introduced in 1988. The very last installed TAT 12-13, equipped by optical ampliers using ring topology, enables bit rate 2,5 Gbit/s, accordingly 38000 digital telephone channels. Following upgrade came with wave multiplexing (WDM). The transmitting capacity may be enlarged 4x, 8x, 40x and expressed in telephone channels maybe one million could be reached. Transfer to bre optics is comparable with change of simple walking for the plane. Despite technical features of bre optics seems to be innite, we are obliged to integrate its costs into balance sheet. We try to reach extreme bit rates in closing metallic last mile - using precious technology for so called structured cabling systems as well as utilising of new types of sophisticated modulations of xDSL. Systems xDSL are able to exploit existing access networks - the comparison to dug-in gold due to the extreme costs of cable laying. As it was mentioned before, transmitting media is linkage agent between two points, cities, state and continents. These connections are determined by international cooperation in technical standardisation, design, maintainance, billing etc. Therefore the International Telecommunication Union (Telegraph originally) was founded in 1865 already. (May 17th is celebrated as an World Day of Telecommunication) ITU is seated in Geneva, Switzerland. ITU is technical organisation of United Nations since 1947 being obliged to keep and broaden international cooperation in upgrading of all types of telecommunication services, supporting deployment of technical means as well as its exploiting. ITU is involved in allocation of frequency bandwidths, in prevention of disturbances of all wireless services, by taring, support of investments, deployment and upgrading of telecommunication equipment in developing countries. Two commissions are active actually: ITU-T (telecommunication) and ITU-R (radiocommunication). Their outputs are published in Recommendations in so called coloured books. These Recommendations are manda-
Transmission Media
tory being authorised by the Council of Government Deputies of individual member states. (once within 5 years by presence of all states of the world). Well known are former abbreviations CCITT, CCIR - in French: Comit Consultatif International Tlgraphique et Tlphonique, Radionique). The item introduces individual transmitting media as follows. Theoretical knowledge is amended by laboratory exercises; there are focused for gaining practical skills in installing of optical bres (welding, quality and fault measurements, simulation of systems). The text is printed without language editing. The rts draft.
2
2.1
Enlistment of the study to educational programme

Introduction into study
The item is registered as optional in summer semester of 2nd year of Bc studies. It oers basis for majority of lectured items as communication technologies, data communication, network architecture in the same year as well as for following items in next years of studies.
2.2
Entry test
There is proposed to be precise following consultations with lecturers of other items.
3
3.1
Analysis of line
Basic relations of homogenous line
Electrical attributes of line observed by transmitting point of view are characterised by primary parameters: resistance R[/km], inductance L[H/km], capacitance C[F/km] and conductance G[S/km]. These parameters are independent of voltage as well as transmitted current; there are dependent of composition of line, used materials and last but not least of frequency of transmitted signal. Concerning two conductor lines, the equivalent scheme is equal to the Fig. 3.1: Decrease of voltage on element dx is dUx = (R + jL)Ix dx dually decrease of current dIx = (G + jC )Ux . dx The solution of equations due to deriving equation (3.1) as per x d2 Ux dIx = (R + jL). 2 dx dx (3.3) (3.2) (3.1)
Figure 3.1: Model of homogeneous line Using it to equation (3.2) we will obtain d2 Ux = Ux [(R + jL)(G + jC )]. dx Express (R + jL)(G + jC ) = 2 and we are able to adapt this equation into the following form dU x 2 Ux = 0. dx2 d2 Ux dx2 (3.6) (3.5) (3.4)
Solution of this linear homogeneous dierential equation of second rank is following: Ux = A1 ex + A2 ex The value of Ix is to be calculated from (3.1) Ix = 1 dUx R + jL dx (3.8) (3.7)
Use for dUx /dx from equation (3.7) derived before as per x dUx = A1 ex A2 ex dx and Ix = (A1 ex + A2 ex ) = R + jL G + jC (A1 eex + A2 ex ). R + jL (3.9)
Bracket term is dimensioned in voltage (see 3.7) and therefore the term G + jC = R + jL Y Z (3.10)
Transmission Media
10
is dimensioned as admittance. Its reciprocal value will be impedance and is called characteristic impedance Zc . There is assigned by primary parameters R, L, C and G for specic line; for dened frequency it is valid as follows: Zc = R + jL = G + jC Z . Y (3.11)
The equation (3.9) is to be expressed Ix = 1 (A1 ex + A2 ex ) Zc (3.12)
Integrating constants A1 , A2 are assigned as to relations at the end of line for x = 1 ; Ux = U2 ; Ix = I2 therefore U2 = A1 el + A2 el and Zc I2 = A1 el + A2 el We will obtain by taking o (3.14) from (3.13) 1 A1 = (U2 Zc I2 )el 2 and dually by adding 1 A2 = (U2 + Zc I2 )el . 2 (3.16) (3.15) (3.14) (3.13)
3.2
Innite homogenous line
This type performs the most frequent type of line. For this case it is valid 1 = and therefore A1 = 0 And for (3.7) and (3.12) are following equations valid: Ux = A2 el Ix = 1 A2 el Zc (3.17) (3.18)
11
Integrating constant A2 is determined by relation in the beginning of line, where x = 0 U1 = A2 Zc I1 = A2 Inducting (3.19) into (3.17) and (3.20) into (3.18) is obtained Ux = U1 ex Ix = I1 ex For this and before mentioned equations it is valid = (R + jL)(G + jC ) (3.21) (3.22) (3.19) (3.20)
and performs complex magnitude, which may be expressed in following form = + j. Denoting vector voltage in the beginning of innite line as U1 = |U1 |ejl and (3.23) is expressed as ex = ex ejx then by substituting into (3.21) is obtained. Ux = |U1 |ex ej (1x) Equally for current is valid Ix = |I1 |ex ej (1x) . (3.26) (3.25) (3.24) (3.23)
Left part of equation (3.25) performs amplitude of voltage in x, which is declining exponentially as per |Ux | = |U1 |ex (3.27)
Parameter is called specic loss quantied in dB/km and is changing with type of line. The value .l = a in dB (related to the lenght 1). Second part of equation (3.25) expresses actual value of phase in place x, then ejx = ej (1x) . (3.28)
Transmission Media
12
It passes of this term, that by increasing x the phase of voltage vector is delayed by x, where is specic phase shift (being related with length is equal to .1 = b phase shift (l for both events in km). The magnitude (3.5) is specic transfer dimension. Related to the length .l = g it is called transfer rate. Therefore is valid too g = .l = a + jb. (3.29)
Above mentioned phenomenon is possible to express graphically. As is evident in Fig. 3.2, the voltage |U1 | is in the beginning of line. There is reduced in distance x from the beginning to the value |U1 |ex and phase delayed by .x. The value of voltage is distant from the beginning |U1 |e and phase is delayed by . There is possible to express, that wave lenght is a distance, in the case the vector it is turned upon 360 and is valid: . = 2. This screwed surface performs fully voltage vector running. There is evident, that voltage vector is decreasing alongside distance by geometrical sequence, phase delay by arithmetic sequence. Let us observe once more equations (3.7) and (3.12). We can see, that they are composed of two components; rst one, so called gradual, which is decreased equally to distance Uxp = A2 ex (3.30)
Figure 3.2: Voltage conditions alongside innite line 1 A2 ex Zc
Ixp =
(3.31)
and reected Uxr = A1 ex , (3.32)
13
Ixr =
1 A1 ex Zc
(3.33)
which is increasing alongside distance (decreasing from the termination to beginning of line). The value of voltage (current) in any point x is given by vector multiplication of these components. Resulting magnitude and phase is done by magnitude and phase of reected wave. Let us divide equation (3.17) by (3.18); we will obtain impedance in point x(Zx ) Z x = Ux = Zc Ix (3.34)
There is evident from this equation, that at point in distance x from the beginning of innite line the impedance Z1 measured to termination of line is equal to characteristic impedanceZc . This characteristic impedance is independent of x (in contrary to DC resistance!)- there is certain value for specic type of line and specic frequency. Let us divide equation (3.19) by (3.20) to obtain input impedance of innite line Z1 = U1 = Zc I1 (3.35)
The emerging conclusion of this equation implies, that input Z1 impedance of innite line is equal to characteristic impedance Zc . Characteristic impedance is able to be directly measured as input impedance of innite line (or line correctly terminated, adapted to impedance - see as follows), or maybe calculate using primary parameters R, L, C and G according to equation (3.11). Final notice: Magnitudes Zc and are collectively denominated as secondary parameters of line.
3.3
Relations of voltage vs. current in the entry and termination of line
We are meeting events to appoint voltage U1 and current I1 in the beginning of homogeneous line characterised by secondary parameters Zc , and longitude l, knowing voltage U2 and current I2 in the line termination. There is necessary to determine relations U1 = f (U2 , I2 ), I1 = fx (U2 , I2 ) We determine voltage and current by x = 0 using equations (3-7) and (3-12) U1 = A1 + A2 and I1 = 1 (A1 + A2 ) Zc (3.37) (3.36)
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14
We obtain by induction to A1 and A2 from (3.15) and (3.16) el + el el + el U2 Zc I2 l U2 + Zc I2 l e + e = U2 + Zc I2 2 2 2 2 prospectively U1 = U1 = U2 coshl + Zc I2 sinhl. Likewise for 1 U2 Zc I2 U2 + Zc I2 l 1 el el el + el [ e + e ] = U2 + I2 Zc 2 2 Zc 2 2 (3.38)
I1 =
eventually I1 = U2 sinhl + I2 coshl Zc (3.39)
Equations are able to be performed as U1 = A11 U2 + A12 I2 I1 = A21 U2 + A11 I2 where A11 = coshl A12 = sinhl A21 = 1 sinhl Zc (3.40) (3.41)
3.4
Phase and group velocity of propagation
We will explain these ideas using mutual context between phase constant , wave lenght and velocity of propagation v . For phase constant (constant of wave lenght) emerges from equation (3-28) and from Fig. 3.2 following relation = 2 lay down = In consequence with velocity vf = 2 =f = = T 2 (3.42) 2
15
we gain nal expression for phase velocity of propagation. There is necessary to realise, that all calculations were made for one frequency, but in reality complete frequency bands are transmitted. Therefore frequency dependence of secondary parameters are to be examined. For example in case phase velocity is constant across whole band, it means that the most ideal situation is needed for transmitting. Then is proportional directly to following equation is valid: = k. This event is performed in Fig.3.3. (3.43)
Figure 3.3: Propagation velocity for linear relation = (f ) For majority of events the relation is non-linear as = (f ) the curve (see Fig.3.4). This is to be expressed (3.42) by dierentials. vs = d . d (3.44)
This equation performs so called group velocity of propagation, therefore the velocity is common group of closely similar frequencies. Two possible cases of frequency relations are demonstrated in Fig. 3.4. = ( ) There is concave curve in Fig. 3.4 left, when d/d = vs = tg velocity to frequency is decreasing. On the other hand in the same Fig. 3.4 right velocity to frequency is increasing. Phase distortion is emerging in both cases.
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16
Velocity of propagation is approximate to the light velocity; for air lines roughly 280 000km/s; on the other hand this velocity for coiled lines is signicantly lower, maybe 16 000km/s (depending on inductivity of coiling units). We can see, that velocity of propagation diers together with dierent wave length. Distances of lines are to be related to wave lengths and not to metrical longitudes.
Figure 3.4: Velocity of propagation inuenced by frequency - concave curve vs. convex curve
3.5
Delay of signal
The delay of signal is used in practice for evaluation of propagation velocity. Outgoing from known relation for velocity, then signal delay is: tf = l vf
We obtain by vf institution of equation (3-42) tf = b = (3.45)
where b as we know is phase shift related to integral line. Analogical relation is valid for group delay using dierentials ts = db . d (3.46)
Appreciating reality, that according to equation (3-46) b = l, then the curve of group delay is nothing else than derivation of phase characteristics. Realizing this treatment in Fig. 3.4 it is evident, that group delay will be more important by low frequencies, than by HF. There are dened maximal acceptable times of group delay (in ms) for various lines of diered length (e.g. 2500 km).
17
3.6
Input impedance of homogenous line terminated variably
Input impedance of line Z1 for universal case depends on terminating impedance Z2 . There is not equal to characteristic impedance Zc , as by innite homogeneous line. The relation for Z1 is to be expressed from equations (3.40) and (3.41) Z1 = A11 U2 + A12 I2 U1 = I1 A21 U2 + A11 I2 (3.47)
Let us divide nominator as denominator I2 and induct Z2 into U2 /I2 Z1 = A11 Z2 + A12 cosh 1Z2 + Zc sinh 1 = 1 A21 Z2 + A11 sinh 1Z2 + Zc cosh 1 Zc
and by another adjustment Z 1 = Zc Z2 cosh 1 + Zc sinh 1 . Z2 sinh 1 + Zc cosh 1 (3.48)
We will be able to analyse another possible case using this equation. 3.6.1 Termination impact of Innite line
We mentioned before, that Z1 = Zc in accordance with derived equation (3-35).The same result should be reached by analysis of (3.48). Hyperbolic sine and cosine of complex argument 1 = ( + j )1 is changing being depend a as to Fig. 3.4. Since determined value we can consider coshl = sinhl = cosha = sinha Then for input impedance it is valid Z1 = Z c (Z2 + Zc )coshl = Zc . (Z2 + Zc )coshl (3.50) (3.49)
There is evident, that input impedance Z1 is equal to characteristic impedance Zc , by any termination Zc . This is valid also for short cut line (Z2 = 0) as well as open line (Zc = ) . 3.6.2 Input impedance of nite line, terminated by impedance Z2 = Zc
Inducting Z2 = Zc into equation (3.48), we obtain Z1 = Zc Zc (cosh 1 + sinh 1) = Zc Zc (cosh 1 + sinh 1) (3.51)
By termination of line by characteristic impedance, not respecting length of line the input impedance is equal to characteristic one. This conguration of line is of the same behaviour as innite line; the only dierence is in fact, that voltage and current at the end of line are nitely valued. No reections are inicted at the end (so called correct termination).
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18
3.6.3
Input impedance of open-line
We suppose I2p = 0 and Z2p = . By inducting it into equations (3.38) and (3-41) we obtain Z 1p = cosh 1 A11 = 1 = Zc coth 1. A21 sinh 1 Zc (3.52)
There is evident, that input impedance of open line Z1p will be related to frequency dependence Zc as well as to frequency dependence of coth . As we will see later, it will be undulate around Zc curve just of value frequency dependence of cothgh 1 = cotgh( + j )1 = C tgejctg and will be decreased reciprocally to frequency. This situation is demonstrated in Fig. 3.5, where hyperbolic functions are performed as function to a; then curves of phase angle (full lines). By increasing a it is valid: cotgh 1 = cotgha = thga = 1 (3.53)
We are able to deduct of phase angle curves, that character of open line may be capacitive as well as inductive or purely real, resistive. The curve of Z1p is in principle implicated by reections of voltage and current waves at the terminating point of line, by addition to basic waves. 3.6.4 Input impedance of short-line
For this case it is valid: Z2k = 0, U2k = 0. We use again equations (3-38) and (3-41), Z 1k = U1 k A12 = = Zc tgh 1 A11 I1k (3.54)
The curve Z1k to frequency will depend on tgh = tgh( + j )l = T ejT The situation is analogous as by open and is line; there is demonstrated in Fig. 3.5 (dot and dash). We obtain an important cognition, rst of all from the point of view of measurement, by multiplying (3-52) and (3-54):
2 Z1p Z 1k = Zc coshltghl
and subsequently Zc = Z 1p Z1k . (3.55)
Characteristic impedance Zc is equal to geometric mean of input impedance of open line Z1p and input impedance of short cut line Z1k .
19
Figure 3.5: Functions of tgh 1 and cotgh 1 to a This derived equation (3-55) is very suitable for calculation of Zc for these lines without possibility of correct termination as well as for very short lines.
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20
Dividing equations (3.52) by (3-54) we are able to determine equations for calculation of Zc a , if we are able to gain Z1p and Z1k ; and further equations for gaining primary parameters R, L, G and C. The ratio Z1k Zc tghl = = tgh2 l 1 Z1 p Zc tgh l and therefore tgh 1 = Using (3.5) and (3.11) it is valid Zc = R + jL = G + jC Zc (3.57) Z 1k . Z1p (3.56)
3.6.5
Input impedance of line terminated by common impedance Z2 = Zc
We are able to express input impedance using (3-48), of which both nominators and denominator of which are divided by Zc cosh 1: Z1 =
2 + tghl Z2 coshl + Zc sinhl . = Zc Zc Z2 Zc sinh + Zc coshl 1 + Zc tghl
(3.58)
The ratio P = Z2 /Zc = |P |ejP is possible to possess equal to hyperbolic tangent of complex magnitude therefore the equation (3-58) will be P = tgh then the relation will be adapted to: Z1 = Zc tg + tgh 1 = Zc tgh( 1 + ). 1 + tgh tgh 1 (3.59)
Equalising equation (3.59) with the other one (3-54) for input shortcut impedance we can judge, that these equations are analogue diering only by magnitude of complex argument. Therefore reected voltage and current waves are rising at the line termination. These waves inict undulation of input impedance to frequency curve. Reections dont rise at the terminations only, but in practice by real lines on non-homogeneities alongside. Then irregular undulation of input impedance characteristic Z1 is inicted. Reections will be equal to a size of non-homogeneity magnitude as well as so near to the beginning of line non- homogeneity is. Reections inict stability of circuits, crosstalks and double contours (so called spirits) especially by video transmissions.
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3.7
Lines practically innite
As we will be able to show, innite line cannot be innitely long 1 = ; the character of innite line, by another words such a situation, when no reected voltage and current wave are present, is becoming from certain value of attenuation, or loss. Let us dene when the line will seem to be innite, by what length expressed in Np or dB. Let us start from knowledge of innite line, of which input impedance Zc is by any termination, including open line or shortcut, (worst cases). Then it is valid: Z1p = Z 1k = Zc As to (3.52) and (3.54) it is valid Z1p = Zc cothl z1k = Zc tghl, then searched case of innite line becomes, when cotghl = tghl = 1, This case becomes real, as it is demonstrated in Fig. 3.5. Expressed numerically it is read from tables a = 1 = 3, 0N p. (By a a = 3, 0N p je tgh = 0, 995; cotgha = 1, 005). We can consider the line of loss 3,0 Np or larger as practically innite. Even the rough faults at the end of line do not inict any remark on the beginning of line.
3.8
Electrically short lines
Next chapter is devoted to electrically short lines. Only primary constants R, L, C, G will be ecient and therefore the open line will be performed as capacity, shortcut line as inductivity. In contrary to electrically long or innite lines, where primary constants do not apply themselves separately (There are not measurable directly),only cumulatively as secondary parameters Zc a . For input impedance of open line is valid using (3.52) Z1p = Zc cothl If l becomes so small, that cotghl = 1 l
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22
then Z1p will be changed: Z 1P 1 = Zc = l

R+jL G+jC
(R + jL)(G + jC )l
1 . (G + jC )l
(3.60)
As it is clear from (3.60), electrically short open line performs itself as a capacitor with losses and its capacity and leakage are proportional to length l. This knowledge is utilisable for fault location of interrupted wires. Analogically for line of nite length and input impedance of shortcut line it is valid (see 3-54) Z1k = Zc tghl If l becomes again so small, that tghl = 1 will be changed from Z1k to: Z1k = Zc l = R + jL G + jC (R + jL)(G + jC )l = (R + jL)l (3.61)
Electrically short shortcut line performs its inductivity with losses, proportional to the length of line l. The table of tghx informs us, that tghl = tghl = l for tghl 0, 15N p. The conclusion: Lengths of lines may not be related to km (in accordance to our thoughts), but there is necessary to relate them to the values of loss. Appeared to the width of utilised band, one line is able to perform attributes of line electrically short, long and innite also. The division of frequency areas, where the line performs variably is in Fig. 3.6
3.9
Frequency dependencies of primary and secondary parameters of various line types
Real frequency dependencies of primary and secondary parameters will be performed in this chapter. There is necessary to realise consequence with relations for primary parameters analysing them.
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Figure 3.6: Various characters of lines 3.9.1 Air lines
Dependence curves of R, L, C and G on frequency are demonstrated in Fig. 3.7. There is evident, that deviations will be dependent on wire diameters, material, etc. Leakage is changing signicantly to weather; G curve will be extremely increasing during ice accretion, while it will be gradual by dry weather.
Figure 3.7: Frequency relation to primary parameters of air lines
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Dependence of average loss and phase shift is in Fig. 3.8. The value of attenuation is . There is important for suitability of line for telephone current transmission. If l = 1 the transmission is excellent, l = 2 the transmission is good, l = 3 transmission is sucient, l = 4 transmission is adequate. For 1 4, 8 understanding could be considered as possible.
Figure 3.8: Dependence of specic loss and shift on fair lines Specic loss is possible to determine from the equation for . There is valid = + j = For | | = and 2 + 2 = Let be 2 = ( + j )2 = 2 + 2j 2 = RG + jRC + jLG 2 LC of its real component 2 2 = RG 2 LC We obtain adding equations (3.62) and (3.63) = 1 [( (R2 + 2 L2 ))(G2 + 2 C 2 ) + (RG 2 LC )] 2 (3.64) (3.63) (R2 + 2 L2 )(G2 + 2 C 2 ) (3.62) 2 + 2 =
4
(R + jL)(G + jC )
(R2 + 2 L2 )(G2 + 2 C 2 )
25
Analogically by subtract of equations = 1 [( (R2 + 2 L2 ))(G2 + 2 C 2 ) (RG 2 LC )] 2 (3.65)
There is possible to simplify relation for due to practical applications supposing wire of larger diameter and for air lines by low frequencies, when we can consider G C a R L (3.66)
There is valid as follows = + j = (R + jL)(G + jC ) =
jL(
R G + 1)jC ( + 1) = jL jC R G + 1)( + 1) = jL jC
2 LC (
R G = j LC (1 + )(1 + )= jL jC 1 R G RG + ( + ) = j LC 1 2 LC j L C We can neglect second term under square root, evolve rest of equation into Taylor series and neglect superior terms of it; then 1 R G = j LC [1 j ( + )] 2 L C by next conversion LC R G ( + )] 2 L C By comparison Re and Im component we obtain for = j LC + [ = and = LC (3.68) R 2 C G + L 2 L = R + G C (3.67)
The inuence of leakage in low dry weather; then we can neglect second term in form (3-67). The inuence of leakage on attenuation is evident from Fig. 3.9.
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Figure 3.9: Attenuation of air line (bronz
3 mm)
We can consider in case of line for LF L R a G C (3.69)
Equations (3.64) and (3.65) will be transformed into another form = and = RC 2 (3.71) 0+ 1 2 2 2 R C = 2 RC 2 (3.70)
There is to consider signicant dependence on temperature; therefore automatic regulation is introduced by long-hauled lines. Characteristic impedance of air lines is to be designated from wellknown form Zc = R + jL G + jC
or it is evident, that impedance depends on primary parameters. In case of LR lines, conditioned by (3-69) it is valid Zcnf = R = jC R R j 2C 2C (3.72)
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Figure 3.10: Impedance of air and cable lines depending on frequency and there is evident, that impedance composes itself as of Re a lm components. Values R, G are against L and C negligible by condition (3-66), therefore Zcvf = L C (3.73)
Characteristic curve is imaged in Fig.3.10. There is imaged also curve of cable line for comparison. Suppose as the last f = 0, then these forms will be changed into = RG, = 0 (3.74) and Zc = R G (3.75)
3.9.2
Cable lines
If we will keep original division of cable lines, let us keep our attention to LF non-coiled lines. The capacity C and inductivity L are independent of frequency. We can consider
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Figure 3.11: Frequency dependency , and Zc for couple types of coiled lines resistance R and leakage G as also constant in this frequency band; there are signicantly dependent on temperature. Attenuation is to be calculated of this form = RC 2 (3.76)
29
And corresponding curve is imaged in Fig. 3.11. Analogically specic shift RC 2 We can consider only resistance in numerator and component with capacity denominator. (Analogical with see Air lines LF) and so we obtain simplied form = Zcnf = R = jC R 45 e 2f c (3.77)
Demonstration of the curve is in Fig. 3.10. Impedance is decreasing to increasing frequency. For frequencies of the order 100 kHz the imaginary component approaches zero and real component will be stabilised around 100 . The impedance of most ordinary cables used in local or access networks of diameter 0,8 mm is around 600 by frequency of 800 Hz. This value was chosen as terminating impedance for all LF transmission equipment. As to decreasing impedance to frequency is in the beginning of telephone band mismatching of plus 400 (by 300 Hz) and at the upper end of band (3400 Hz) reversed case cca minus 300 . Despite this fact these mismatching are not inicting the quality of transmission in access networks. Coiled lines decrease attenuation by LF transmission as we know. This is provided by insertion of Pupins coils into cable. Therefore the inductivity of cable line is increased. Substitutional scheme of line could not be considered in simplied form as by uncoiled line. There is necessary to consider all primary magnitudes. Coiled line is composed of series -piles, of low pass character. Limiting frequency is possessed by form 0 Je dn vrazem 0 Ls = 1 0 Cs (3.78)
where Ls is inductivity corresponding to one coiling section Ls = Ls + Lp = (L + Lp )s. s (3.79)
where L is specic inductivity of line [H/km], Lp is inductivity of Pupins coils [H], s so called coiling step [m] (called also pupinising step). Capacity Cs is given s Cs = C . 4 Inducting to (3-79) 0 (L + Lp 1 )s = s, s 0 C 4 (3.81) (3.80)
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Figure 3.12: Relation of specic attenuation to frequency and transforming 0 = 2 s C (L + 1 s C (L +

Lp ) s Lp ) s
(3.82)
fo =
(3.83)
Attenuation and impedance rise to extreme values by this frequency. Therefore the eectively transmitted band is limited by 0,75 f0 . Specic attenuation is to be calculated by following form =[
p R+ R s 2
Cs G + Ls + Lp 2
Ls + Lp 1 ] 2 Cs 1 ( ) 0
(3.84)
and characteristic impedance Zc = where Lpk = 1

2 2 f0 sC
Lpk Cs
1
2 1 ( ) 0
(3.85)
(3.86)
31
is inductivity of coiled pair. Transmitting attributes of coiled lines are synoptically imaged in Fig. 3.11. There is evident of before presented gures, that attenuation is by coiling decreasing, and so more intensively in accordance to increasing inductivity (so called light or heavy coiling), attenuation is in major part of band almost independent of frequency, increasing inductivity inicts signicant narrowing of transmitted band. There is evident of relation for specic phase shift , that it signicantly increases with increase of inductivity itself and it is closely tied with decreasing of phase as well as group velocity. There is evident from impedance characteristics, that impedance itself increase Re Zc with heavier coiling (disadvantage), increase (signicantly) in range close to limiting frequency (signicant disadvantage), imaginary component is approaching to zero (advantage), by limiting frequency also increase (disadvantage). We are able to say overall, that main eect of coiling is in decrease of attenuation in frequency range of telephone voice band (accordingly to UIT 300-3400 Hz), which was extraordinary important on the eve of telephony, while by decreasing of attenuation was reached increase of telephone link. Also the reach of such attributes, which are accessible by higher frequencies (over 30 kHz), i.e. characteristic impedance is approximately real and constant, phase shift is linear and also phase and group velocity of propagation are roughly constant. On the other hand narrowing of band is disadvantageous. (There was done so called decoiling, i.e. in order displacing of inductivity units in order of introduction of HF analogous or digital multiplexes), increase of Re Zc and decrease of vf and vs . Actually the importance of coiling is decreasing due to the fact, that it is a signicant bar of broadband services. It survives by short trunk (former node) cables, by LF analogue radio transmissions.
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Table 3.1: Types of coiled lines and their attributes Inductivity Impedance Pup.cvek by 800 Hz mH W K 177 1590 F 63 740 K 88 1120 F 36 560 K 70 990 F 30 520 Specic attenuation 103 dB/km 800 Hz 3,4 kHz 188 198 300 236 274 233 246 277 290 246 266 Limiting frequency kHz 2,9 3,6 4,1 5 4,5 5,5 Bandwidth kHz 0,3 - 2,17 0,3 - 2,7 0,3 - 3,06 0,3 - 3,75 0,3 - 3,4 0,3 - 4,1
The usage of LF coiled cable lines has been till the intensive avalanche of broadband services operated as the simplest, cheapest and low cost solution, rst of all for short distances. Let us conclude with some typical parameters of coilings used in CZ. The length of coiling step 1830 m, inductivity of coiling unit 88/36 mH, wire diameter 0,9 Cu. Note: The very last concept of high quality of Hi-Fi audio transmissions was developed in seventies of last century with inductivity of coiling units 3,2 mH, and halved coiling step to 915 m, which enables transmission up to 15 000 Hz. Symmetrical HF cables Basic information about these cables were mentioned before. There was introduced the relation for attenuation (2-19), characteristics of which depending to frequency is imaged in Fig. 3.12. Specic attenuation. It increases quasilinear by this type of cable, meanwhile for cables with 0,9 mm Cu diameter the function is curved. Growth of is inicted by parameters R and G, while C and L are quasi independent of f . Dependence = (f ) for the same type of cable is performed in Fig.3.13. This dependence is linear and calculation is to be done by form used for calculation (3.87) = CL For this case both vf as well as vs are constant. There are drawn ReZc = (f ) and ImZc = (f ) in Fig. 3.14. As it is evident from this gure, ReZc is quasi constant approximately from 30 kHz (being insulated by paper-air cca 150 , by styroex-air - cca 170 and ImZ is slightly capacitive). As it is evident from before mentioned gures, transmission parameters of HF cables are very advantageous in range of carrier frequencies (, Zc ). Coaxial cables Basic equations for calculation of primary parameters were introduced in chapter 2.3.2.4. We are able to demonstrate their frequency dependence in Fig. 3.15. We can consider corresponding secondary parameters in simplied form for HF cables, for coaxial cables from f 60kHz 60 kHz, then
33
Figure 3.13: Dependence of specic shift on frequency
Figure 3.14: Dependence of ReZc and ImZc on frequency
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34
. Figure 3.15: Frequency dependency of coaxial cable primary parameters is real (Zc = 75 )
R then . R = 2 C G + L 2 L C
L a G
(3.88)
(second component is negligible) . = CL and . L Zc = C
(3.89)
(3.90)
Curves of and are imaged in Fig. 3.16. Dependence of Zc = (f ) is then in Fig. 3.17. As it is evident, the dependencies as as Zc are advantageous from the point of view of transmission. Linear dependence of specic phase shift corresponds to constants vf and vs (excluding beginning of range). For vf it is valid vf = 1 = LC (3.91)
It could be proved, that in vf range is constant phase velocity and that it is equal to the quoting of light velocity to square root of dielectric constant r .
35
Figure 3.16: Frequency dependencies and of coaxial and cable - 1,2/4,4 (little), 2,6/9,4(medium)
Figure 3.17: Frequency dependencies Zc = (f ) for little and medium coaxial pairs
3.10
Homogenous line by high frequencies
Let us remark some questions concerning of extremely broad bands in conclusion of third chapter. As it was introduced in chapter 3.9, we obtain for this frequency range forms for
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Figure 3.18: Circumstances in extra high voltage by HF current transmission
Zc = and =
R + jL G + jC
(R + jL)(G + jC ) L and G L C (3.92) C . Then we obtain
could be simplied fullling conditions R . Zc = . . = j CL = j and . . = CL, = 0
(3.93)
As it is evident from relation (3.94), these considerations are solved simplied for HF lossless line. From the form for Zc it is clear, that homogeneous line has by HF characteristic impedance constant and withal real (see curve in Fig. 3.17). 3.10.1 HF open line
There will be described often case in telecommunication practice, HF links upon extra high voltage line. HF equipment are connected to EHV line through coupling capacitors VK. Example of two layer network is imaged in Fig. 3.18. Suppressors Tl are barring to
37
enter of HF currents into EHV equipment. There are taps coupled to transformers TS. These taps are to be considered by HF as sections of open line. By dened, so called critical lengths of these taps HF shortcuts are becoming and there is necessary to prevent them by design. Similar case becomes by HF distribution of modulation for wired radio. There are installed taps in these points (communities) to receivers of audio modulation (see Fig. 3.19). They perform also taps with possibly critical length, which we try to investigate. Outgoing of n known circumstances at far end of line, when Z2p = , I2p = 0 and U2p is of certain amplitude. We use equations (3.7) and (3.12), where integrating constants A1 , A2 will be dened according to (3.15) and (3.16). We obtain by induction: Uy = coshyU2 + Zc sinhzI2 and Iy = 1 sinhyU2 + coshyI2 Zc (3.95) (3.94)
There is apparent, that y performs the distance o far end, Uy and Iy , are voltage and current in this point y, distanced y[km] from far end of line. (Note: there is analogy to equations (3.38) and (3.39)).
Figure 3.19: Conditions for modulation of wire radio transmission Let us study voltage and current circumstances alongside HF open line: a) Voltage circumstances: We induct I2p = 0 into I2 in equation (3.95) and we obtain (using 3.93) Uyp = U2p coshy = U2p coshjy There is valid: coshjy = cosy, kde = and U2p may be written in following form: 2 (3.96)
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U2p = |U2p |ejt then Uyp = (|U2p |cos 2y jt )e = |Uyp |ejt (3.97)
Part of form in brackets is absolute magnitude and the rest in form performs phase. There is evident, that absolute magnitude is depending on distance o far end y and y=0, is changing to function cosine. There will be points alongside the line, where 2 2 therefore voltage Uyp will be permanently zero and further points, where cos y reaches its maximum - minimum (1, 1). As it is evident of (3-98), phase will be independent of y . We can state, that in HF open line emerge standing waves expressed by equation (3-98). Investigating limited form for y = 0 je cos 2 y = 1, y = je cos 2 y = cos = 0, y = je cos 2 = cos = 1 etc. 4 2 2 b) We will induct current relations into equation (3-96) for I2 = I2p = 0 and obtain: Iyp = 1 sinhyU2p Zc (3.98)
Inducting sinhy = sinhjy = j siny = sin(siny )ej 2 = (sin and U2p = |U2p |ejt We obtain Iyp = (
2 |U2p | sin y )ej (t+ 2 ) = |Iyp |ej (t+ 2 ) Zc
2y j )e 2
(3.99)
The form performs standing wave of current, where rst part means again variable absolute magnitude, depending on y as per function sine. Second part performs phase, which is turned by , see Fig. 3.20. There is evident of this gure, that maximums and 2 minimums Uyp and Iyp are alternating. This is displayed in Fig. 3.20. c) Voltage and current at near end of line: We obtain corresponding forms inducting variable length l, instead of y into forms (3.95) and (3.96). In case of long line: l= eventually 3 l = + k kde k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 4 + k 4
39
Figure 3.20: Standing wave of voltage and current of open HF line will be U2p (jt+ ) 2 e Zc d) input impedance of open line will be determined from equation (3-52) U1p = 0, I1p = Z1p = Zc coth 1 = Zc and as per coshl = coshjl = cosl = cos therefore Z1p = jZc cotgh 2 l. (3.100) 2 2 l, sinhl = sinhl = sinl = jsin l cosh 1 sinh 1
The verity is clear from this form, that input impedance of HF open line is purely imaginary (capacitive or inductive), even if characteristic impedance Zc is purely real. Figuring out of the form 2 for various l and by multiplying Zc it is possible to gain diagram in Fig. 3.21. There is evident, that for 1 = 0 to 1 = is Z1p capacitive. For 4 case 1 = 4 emerges HF shortcut of line, which is acting as serial oscillating circuit. For 1= to 1 = is Z1p inductive. Finally for 1 = the behaviour of the line is equal to 4 2 2 parallel coupling of LC. For case of line length /4 are inicted dangerous HF shortcuts, as it was introduced in the beginning of this subchapter. Four wave line is utilisable in practice as a feeder of aerials in the role of band pass (suppressor of harmonics - see Fig. 3.22).
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Figure 3.21: Dependence of Z1p for various lengths of HF open line
Figure 3.22: Standing wave of voltage and current of open HF line 3.10.2 HF shortcut line
Analogical procedure as in case of open line is possible to derive following forms: 2 (3.101) Uyk = (|I2k |Zc sin )ej (t+ 2 )
41
and Iyk = (|I2 |cos 2 jt )e (3.102)
The results are standing waves of voltages and currents, plane of voltage and current vectors is again turned over /2. Input impedance Z1k is to calculate as per (3.54) 2 Z1k = Zc tgh 1 = jZc tg 1 (3.103)
The curve of Z1k depending on 1 is dual case to dependence of before presented for comes into being important situation, when characteristics of open line. For case 1 = 4 line reaches innite magnitude of impedance. There is possible to utilise this attribute in practise as band stop of aerial feeders (see Fig. 3.23). Band stop is able to shortcut all harmonics and performs impedance for transmitted frequency.
Figure 3.23: Four wave band pass
Figure 3.24: Quarter wave band stop Next possibility of use is drawn from assumption, that we will provide taps /4 bilaterally and continuously, and so we reach the principle of waveguide - see Fig. 3.24. Concluding third chapter we traversed conclusions of theory homogeneous lines important for construction of cables and lines.
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Figure 3.25: Waveguide principle
3.11
Examples
A) There was measured voltage in the beginning of line (near end) U1 = 60 V, impedance Z1 = 600 . The current at the far end was measured I2 = 10 mA. Calculate attenuation in NP and dB. B) There are given primary parameters of line valued R = 42, 2/km,L = 8, 96mH/km, C = 6, 32F/km, G = 0, 7.106 S/km. Calculate Zc a 0 by frequency f = 800Hz .
4
4.1
Types of metallic lines and cables

Open air lines
Open air lines utilise masts, consoles and insulators. There were exploited very intensively during last century, rst of all due to their excellent transmitting features. They performed the backbone of trunk links. Dicult assembling in cities, dependence on weather conditions, (glace) led to their abandon. First cables into metropolitan networks were built up around the year 1900, rst long hauled cable, the section Praha - Koln - Jihlava - Brno - Wien/Bratislava in 1925. Masts equipped by concrete poles are now exploited for hanged (catenary) cables in access networks, metallic as well as bre optics.
4.2
Cable lines
Cable lines were diered in accordance with standards (SN 34 7831 a SN 34 7851) into Telecommunication local cables with wire 0,4; 0,6; 0,8 mm and Telecommunication long hauled cables 0,9; 1,3 mm. Other dierentiation is from the point of view used frequencies - LF and HF cables, for data transmission, structured etc. Further division is
43
possible according to type of laying as cables free laid, tracked (into before built ducts), hanged cables, submarine, etc. As to actual technical and technological developments there are mutual mixture of all features mentioned before. Long haul cables and node cables are entering access networks, etc. Telecommunication cables are composed by cable core and protective coating. Cable core is a system of units, into positions (layers) contradirectively screwed, (twisted) - eventually screwed in groups - with inlets, llers and diameter insulation. Basic construction elements are pairs, it means two wire conductors twisted together by certain length of screw. Wires (even pairs) are twisted further into quads by quad cables. We recognise cross quads, where all four wires are twisted together. Wires are denoted a-b, c-d in such a way, that opposite ones serve for basic circuit (trunk) see Fig. 4.1.b. They are described as X quad. Quads DM (Dieselhorst - Martin) are composed in such a way, that both pairs are twisted individually rst with diered winding of length l1 and l2 and nally in second step are both pairs twisted by third length of twisting l3 in reversed direction. - see Fig. 4.1.a.
Figure 4.1: Construction of a) DM quad, b) cross quad Protective coating saves cable core against mechanical damage, humidity, disturbances of higher voltages, electrical traction systems, etc. Protective coating is composed of several layers in accordance with the type and designation of cable. We can introduce following case as an example of construction, when cable core is covered by insulating paper layers with upper coat by stamped lead. This type with naked lead coat are used as tracked cables used in ducts. Protection against other dangers (corrosion, electromagnetic induction, mechanical damage or re) are provided by other special coating layers, as armouring e.g. Laid cables are designated for direct laying into soil, are armoured by steel belts and by other protective coats. The following example of other protection over lead coat could be such a so called pad bitumen impregnated paper bitumen jute
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bitumen armour - steel belts - binded bitumen jute (twines of polypropylene) bitumen paintwork by calcareous milk Protection of cable core may be provided also by other means, as for example lead for coat could be by aluminium. Such a coating is suitable for protection against induced voltages. Polythene and polyvinylchloride (PVC) sandwiched by aluminium for upper coating is used for corrosive environment. Cables for river crossing are equipped by wired armour against strong track. Also are used so called whole plastic cables. Conductors The most utilised as well as best material for cable conductors (wires, coaxial pairs) is pure electrolytic copper. Diameters of these wires dier from 0,32 up to 0,8 mm for local cables, from 0,9 up to 1,4 mm for long haul symmetric cables. Chose of wire diameter depends on length of link, attenuation and features of transmitted signal. As to the fact of permanent shortage of copper in world trade, there were various seeking to spare it by decreasing of used diameters (as to above mentioned 0,32 mm - 0,5 mm). There were provided also attempts to replace copper by aluminium with varying success. First of all during VW II in Germany as well as in former CS till 1965. Needed diameter of aluminium wire is to be calculated by:
Al Cu
0, 0299 = 1, 3 0, 0175
This replacement leads to larger diameters of cables at all, also material consumption is increasing. Aluminium is worse from the point of view of mechanical strength. There are used its compositions as VK 33E (composition of Al, Fe, Mg, and Si). These compositions are better as to the before mention strength, better electrical parameters, better homogeneity of wire. Though all of above mentioned measures there is necessary to provide additional compensations. Insulation of wires Insulation paper - air. Wires of local cables are twined by one or two layers of paper band. By long-haul cables it is necessary to increase share of air layer by twined cord. (generally known as kordel) under paper bands. This technology enables decreasing of functional capacity and due to this fact the attenuation is better. This technology is utilisable up to 250 kHz. Insulation styroex - air is used rst of all by HF- up to 560 kHz for their better attributes.
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Figure 4.2: Wrapping of wire by cord Insulation by high-pressure polythene is provided by local cables (whole plastic cables), where wires are insulated by continuous layer of high-pressure polythene sized 0,2 to 0,4 mm. The advantage of this technology is, that humidity penetrates into cable very slowly. Cable proles Cable core itself is spliced by splicing machines. Each upper layer obtains 5 to 10 units (pairs or quads more). There are performed tables, where numbers of units are calculated for various types of cables, as 1, 6, 12, 18, 24 e.g. Series of DM cables with 0,9 mm wires (number of quads in individual layers) is: 5, 8, 12, 19, 27, 37, 48, 61, 90. Example of cable prole LF 27x4x0,9 DM - (DCKQYSE) is performed in Fig. 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Prole of cable Constructing units in cable core need not be equal as by LF cable, where could be possessed several audio shielded pairs in his centre. Audio pair RP is composed of two twisted wires, twined by one to two paper bands and more by one metal plated paper band (shielding), which decreases penetration of disturbing voltages into these pairs. Example: 3x1,3 RP + 61x4x 0,9 DM - prole of 3 audio shielded pairs 1,3 and 61 quads DM 0,9.
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Local cables are only seldom of combined prole; number of units may be very large. Typical series are: 5, 10 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1800, 2000 (in pairs). Splicing in concentric position is provided only by little number of pairs; the prole by larger numbers (over 100 pairs) is composed of before twined groups of units (pairs or quads). Each group is twined separately; several created groups is again taped into nal cable core. Individual groups are transformed by nal taping from radial prole into half or quarter radial or segment as it is performed in Fig. 4.4. The advantage is in economical production and easier transfer of individual groups from one into other cables by branch splicing (cabling of exchange area).
Figure 4.4: Composition of elements into cable prole Cable coats and their protection Older cables for both trunk as well as local networks were coated exclusively by lead. The lead as an classical material has suitable features, as exibility, strength, resistance against corrosion by water, etc. Seen by replacement of lead (shortage, expenses) was researched applicability of aluminium, plastics as well as steel for above mentioned purposes. Aluminium coated cables are more suitable in seldom point of view as low weight, better reduction factor. On the other hand disadvantages especially by low mechanical exibility, dicult splicing and soldering bring other hardly solvable problems. All plastic cables mainly using HDPE and PVC presents good forming ability, sufcient stability as well as corrosion resistibility. Long term iniction of humidity does not bar certain inltration of water vapour into cable core. Upgrade of this construction was done by such a measure, as covering of cable core by aluminium folio formed into tube longitudinally seamed and secondly is suppressed nal coat from polythene (so called layered coats). Actually are used numerous new, modern sophisticated production methods as lling of cable core by lubricators. These lubricants upgrade protection against longitudinal inltration of humidity. Groundstones of cable production. Processes of cable production are diered into main operations, auxiliary operations and supervision. Auxiliary operation is e.g. preparation of copper wire (staining, calibrating), insulating paper, preparation of Pb and Al composition (melting) and preparation of armouring (cutting and impregnation of
47
paper, winding and impregnation of polythene band, impregnation of jute, polypropylene twines, asphalt glazing). Main operations compose of: tracking of copper wires, annealing of copper wires (upgrade of exibility) insulating of copper wires, completing of wires into units, completing of cable cores, drying of cable cores, coating of cable cores, armouring, nal quality supervision. Permanent particular supervisions are provided among individual production phases. Cable is produced in manufacturing lengths of 200 to 500 m, is winded onto transporting drum and beginning as well as end are pointed. Individual manufacturing lengths are composed alongside cable trace. Signing of cables In accordance with cable signing we are able to recognise material of wires, insulation type of wires, core and coat, type of coat protection, nominal number of units, type of composition as well as measures of wires or coaxial tubes. The base of font signing performs create sign for type of cable. We are able to meet such types of telecommunication cables: TK - telecommunication cable local DK - telecommunication cable long haul RK - audio transmission cable NK - signalling cable SK - telecommunication cable indoor Basic symbol TK is used for local telecommunication cables. (as to older signing telephone cable). We insert other symbols behind character T, there are denoting material of wires: C - copper A - aluminium J - composition of aluminium (VK 33E) Next character points type of wire insulation: Y - polyvinylchloride (PVC) E - polythene (PE) G - rubber
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B - balloon polythene insulation In case of absence of this character, there is paper - air insulation used. Symbol for coating material is inserted behind character K: O - lead Q - doped lead (for tracked cables for ducts) A - aluminium Y - PVC - polyvinylchloride E - PE - polythene Character F means for some cables, particularly indoor, shielding foil. All plastic telecommunication cables, where this shielding is obvious this sign is absent. Next characters dene type of coat protection: V - staple covering Y - passive anticorrosive protection of PVC (formerly type 0K3) B - anticorrosive bind protection of PVC (formerly type 0K2) P - armour of steel bands D - armour of steel wires R - reinforced armour of steel wires including pad (river cable type) Z - armour of aluminium wires Behind character notation is prepared entry denoting number of units, type of design (paired by character P, crossed for LF operation by characters XN) and diameter of wires in mm. Example of cable signing: TCEKEZE 50 P 0,5 - telecommunications cable local (TK) with copper wires (C), polythene insulation of wires (E), coated by polythene (E), armoured by aluminium wires (Z) and protective cover of polythene (E). 50 pairs (50 P) a nominal diameter of wires 0,5 mm. Signing of wires, pairs and quads There are used coloured press for recognising of individual wires in units in such a way: wire a dense printing of blue traverse strip wire b scarse printing of blue traverse strip wire d dense printing of red traverse strip wire d scarse printing of red traverse strip Single units (pairs, quads) one from other are to be recognised by colour of marking le. Red le marks so called counting unit and neighbouring green le directive unit. Numbering of units is launched from counting unit in direction of directive unit. All resting units are marked by blue les (odd units) and white (even units). Node (long haul) cables use another recognition of units in cable core. Whole quad is coloured by same colour and single wires dier by number of coloured stripes (1 to 4). Neighbouring units diers by colour of stripes: red and blue are alternating. Signing wire a continuous printing of one traverse strip wire b continuous printing of two traverse stripes
49
wire c continuous printing of three traverse stripes wire d continuous printing of two traverse stripes Accessories of telecommunications cables - Accessories are used for splicing, branching and termination of cables. We rank here: Cable splices are used for splicing of cable manufacturing lengths. Branching splices and cable heads for termination of cables in buildings or cabinets. Cable laying of open laid cables is provided by one or more cables into dug out cable groove. Cables are laid manually or by special cable layers. Depth of groove could be from 0.5 to 1 m (urban - outer urban area). Cable should be covered by protective bricks or concrete tables as well as by coloured signal strap (orange for telecommunications, blue for railway, red for power supply). This is useful by sudden digging works by other subjects or also by targeted searching for one laid cable. Trace appointed by design should be as far as short, kept away water streams, railways and main roads. In case of extreme need for telecommunication services and supposed demand for increasing capacity, rst of all close to exchanges are built ducts. Originally concrete blocks with tubes inside were replaced by construction of plastic tubes. Both are settled as neighbouring and in layers too. Plastic tubes exclude problems with alkaline character of humid concrete, which is able to inict corrosive impacts. Splicing is provided by special mechanical splices using splicing machines. (3M, Belden, AMP Picabond etc.).
4.3
Electrical attributes of metallic lines
A. Air line Basic magnitudes inuencing decisively transmission of air lines are real resistance, insulating resistance, inductivity and capacity. Using these primary parameters it is possible to derive next characteristic attributes of line as are its specic attenuation, phase shift, impedance, etc. DC resistance of used wires is pointed as Ro . The DC value of resistance is increased by transmission of alternative current up to Rf , where Rf = Ro (0, 5d f r + 0, 2) [/km], (4.1)
where d diameter of conductor [mm] f frequency [kHz] specic resistance (Table), r relative permeability (Cu and Al =1, Fe=140). Increase of resistance to f is parabolic. The equation is valid since critical frequency fk , where fk = 4 r d2 (4.2)
The resistance is increasing by squared dependence up this frequency up to the value Rf = 1, 25Ro
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Inductance L of air lines is given by space arrangement of their line conductors. L = 0, 4(ln 2a + 0, 25) [mH/km] d (4.3)
where a distance of wire axes [cm] d diameter of conductors [cm] Factor 0,25 is negligible by higher frequencies Capacitance C is to be calculated by relation C= 29r [nF/km] ln 2da (4.4)
where r is 1, by ice glaze 1,6. Conductance G is G = Go + v.f [S/km] (4.5)
Derived from theory the specic attenuation where Go is insulating conductance by DC, it seems to be 0,1 S/km by dry weather and 0,5 S/km,by dry weather, 0,25 by rain and 0,75 by ice glaze, v conductance factor 0,05 S/km f frequency [kHz]. = Rf 2 C G + L 2 L [Np/km] C (4.6)
where all values are specic ones and are related to 1 km of line. The relation is valid rst of all for higher frequencies. For LF transmissions and for conductors with diameter d < 2mm is leakage component negligible and by condition L R is approximately valid . = RC [Np/km] 2 (4.7)
For specic phase shiftit is valid = LC L = R and low frequencies RC [rad/km] 2 (4.8)
Characteristic impedance for high frequencies . Zc = L [] C (4.9)
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and for low frequencies . Zc = L [] C (4.10)
B. Electrical attributes of cable lines Resistance of symmetric cable circuit is R = Ro kf = Ro (ks kb ko ) [/km] (4.11)
Where Ro is loop resistance, measured by DC [/km] ks factor of surface increase by surface eect, kb factor of resistance increase by proximity eect, ko factor of resistance increase by surrounded conductors (shielding, coating etc.). Factor ks is calculated from change of critical frequency (by diameter of wire 0,5 mm, fk = 280kHz; by diameter fk = 42kHz). For supercritical frequency ks = 0, 12d f + 0, 25 where d is diameter of wire [mm] f frequency [kHz] For frequencies lower of critical one it is valid ks = 1, 25( f 2 ) fk
Proximity factor of conductors kb seems to be 1,2 to 1,3 and neighbouring conductors eect 1,20 to 1,10 in accordance of unit placement close to the coat of in the centre of cable prole. Resulting eective resistance designates attenuation of cable circuit. Specic capacity of cable pairs is C= 28r [nF/km] lnp a d (4.12)
where r is relative dielectric constant by cables insulated by paper - air seems to be 1,5 to 1,8, by styroex - air 1,3, p type of unit factor, for quads DM it is 0,65, for quads X it is 0,75, for pairs P it is 0,94, a distance from wires [mm] d diameter of wire [mm] Capacity is almost independent of frequency and results by addition of several partial capacities among wires. In compare with air lines this capacity by 5 -7 larger.
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Inductance L is given by relation L = 0, 4ln 2a + 0, 25 [mH/km] d (4.13)
Inductance of cables is relatively smaller in compare with air lines. This reality inuences negatively to value of attenuation, as it will be explained as follows (coiled cables articial enlargement of L). Conductance G is composed of two components. The conductance by DC voltage between Go , which seems to be by long haul cable 0,1 nS/km (corresponds to insulating resistance 10000 M/km), 0,2 nS/km (5000 M/km) for local cables insulated by paper - air; for all plastic cables it seems to be larger. Second component of leakage by AC is indicated as ratio to conductivity of operational capacity, thus. Gf = kg Cp (4.14)
conductance factor kg for low frequencies is 0, 55.103 , the inuence of AC in compare with conductivity is small. By high frequencies increase magnitude of AC leakage factor to 1, 2.103 by 10 kHz and up to 7.103 by 100 kHz. Using polythene or styroex insulation kg factor decreases by two orders. Specic resistance is to be calculated by form = RC [Np/km] 2 (4.15)
Respecting enlarged capacity of cable lines the attenuation related to frequency of audio telephone range (300-3400 Hz) by non-coiled lines rapidly by parabola. This distortion of attenuation is to be respected by design. Impedance is to be designated by equation Z= R [] jC (4.16)
4.4
Coiled cables
Coiled cables - based on principle of so-called pupinisation (inventor M. I. Pupin) utilise articial enlargement of cable lines inductivity. The decrease of line attenuation in limited frequency range is enabled as well as decreasing of attenuation characteristics distortion. Inductive coils are inserted into cable along regular distant steps - see Fig. 4.5. The distance of coils is so called coiling step s. The strain section, it means rst section of the from cable head is ever lnb. = s 2
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Figure 4.5: Principle of coiled line Reasons: There are interconnected strain sections in amplifying station = s, better curve of Zc = (f ) (Note: Coiling is one of methods for articial enlargement of line inductivity. There is the most exploited method. Except this one are known other methods, there are seldom used. For example so called krarupising (Krarup - Danish physics). It uses principle of copper wire binding by soft iron wire (complicated manufacturing), further method of so-called bimetallic wire and wire with magneto dielectrics.) Let us arm decrease of attenuation by following consideration: For attenuation it is valid: = R 2 C G + L 2 L = R + G , C (4.17)
where R is component of specic attenuation, derived from R, G is component of specic attenuation, derived from G. Let us adapt relation 4.17 to = We point out from the rst form x= and from the second one x 1 = We obtain = RC GL RG + 2 GL RC RG . 2 (4.18) GL RC RC GL R2 C + 4L G2 L 4C
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Denoting =
RG = o , we modify (4.18) into: (4.19)
o o x + x1 = R + G 2 2
We are able to draw graph = f (x) - see Fig. 4.6. There is evident from this gure, that has distinct minimum and it is reached by x = 1, when it is valid R G = L C As it is clear from the form d =0 dx
Figure 4.6: Dependency of specic loss for coiled line on x The form (4.19) is possible to adapt for practical usage to another form x 1 = + . o 2 2x
o
(4.20)
Drawing = f (x) we obtain the V curve, as in Fig. 4.6 (for x = 1 is minimum o = 1). For x = 1 it is valid R = G and attenuation of cable is of the smallest value
min = R + G = o = RG
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= f (x), that coiling is sensible for There is possible to learn from the dependence o x 1. Decrease of attenuation is reachable by minimising
RC GL There is evident, that x is possible to diminish by x= reduction R, enlargement of wire diameter (impossible) reduction C, distance enlargement of conductors (impossible) enlargement G, (impossible!) enlargement L, the only real possibility The appreciation of coiling suitability is possible to verify from primary parameters 1 and by coiling is smaller, R, L, G, C by calculation x and if x 1 then also o that means suitable. Optimal value of inductivity is again derived from considerations and equals Lopt = RC G (4.21)
Inductivity is inserted into cable lines by coiling sections (s) and is denoted e.g. H- 88 - 36 where H means length of section 1830 m (2000 yards), B means section length 915 m (1000 y), 88 inductivity of pair coil in mH, 36 inductivity of phantom coil (see later) in mH. Note: 1) Denoting: 1700 - 30 - 12, is coiling of German origin, where 1700 is length of coiling section in m, 30 and 12 are values in mH for pair and phantom circuits. Values of coil inductivity are dierent and they inuence curve of = (f ). As it is evident from the rst touch, (see also Fig. 4.5), upper frequency margin is limited by inserting inductivities into lines - there is created in principle low pass lter (disadvantage). Limiting frequency of pile is to be calculated fm = 318 Lp Cs [kHz] (4.22)
where Lp is inductivity of coil [mH] C specic capacity of circuit [nF/km] s length of coiling section [km] Impedance is given by relation Zc = Lp Cs [] (4.23)
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Figure 4.7: Method of phantom and superphantom composition Phantom circuit is created to upgrade exploiting of line. There is utilised fact, that along two pairs of one quad is third LF connection realisable. (Fig. 4.7). The principle is in division of currents of compound circuit (other term for phantom) into a, b wires of pair I. and c, d wires of pair II. As it was mentioned above, also these circuits are coiled. Regarding fact, that capacity CF of phantom circuits of DM quads is to be multiplied . by 1,6 CK (by XN CF = 3CK to large capacity - it is not suitable for compound circuits) and resistance R halved, than is valid from there for the same demand of attenuation for both types condition
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LP F = 0, 4LP K Superphantom circuits have worse transmitting attributes, being used then only for teletype subscriber line. As it is evident from gure, superphantom circuit is realised by two quads. Practical performance of coiling pupinization Coils were manufactured originally from tin, later using torroid magnetic core, sendust and during last decades are used ferrite cores (H22, H26 - potties with airspace).
4.5
Symmetrical HF cables and cables for digital transmission
There were used telephone carrier transmissions and utilised suitable attributes , and Zc in higher range of frequencies (up to 10 kHz). Only cross quads insulated by paper - air were used (12 to 252 kHz - 60 channels) and quads insulated by styroex - air (12 to 552 kHz - 120 channels). Proles 1, 4, 7 and 12 quads with 0,9 and 1,3 mm. For each direction of transmission were used independent cables (directions A - B, B - A). For transmission of digital systems of 1st order (PCM) exploiting 32 channels/pair are utilised current cables. For digital systems of higher orders is utilisable cable 4 x (7 P 0,8) + 2 P 0,8. It is composed of wires Cu 0,8 mm insulated by foamed polythene twisted into pairs. Seven pairs (dierent winding) are coupled into group, which is shielded by Al foil. Cable core is composed of 4 groups with double shielding and perimeter insulation of z polyester foil. Cable is equipped by continuous polythene coat with eventual mechanical protection. Cable is available for bit rates up to 34 Mbit/s, that means enabling of transmission for digital systems of 3rd order for 480 telephone channels.
4.6
Coaxial cables
There is not possible to use symmetric cables for transmission of broader frequency ranges. (problem of coupling balancing). Therefore are used coaxial cables, where is no inuencing of parallel pairs. Conductors of one pair are composed in concentric form. They create coaxial tube with central conductor (Fig. 4.8). Arisen electro-magnetic eld remains only inside the tube and current passes by high frequencies only through surface of inner conductor and surface of tube. Shielding impact of outer conductor is insucient by lower frequencies (n.104 Hz). Therefore it is equipped by special shielding for this frequency range composed of two coppered steel bands winded over outer tube. Outer cylindrical conductor is also rmed by this measure. Outer conductor seems to be of winded copper tin (about 0,20 mm), which surrounds polythene insulating bobbins (distanced one of other 20 - 25 mm) drawn on inner conductor. Mutual insulation of conductors may be also provided by full foamed layer of polythene (marked ) or by balloon insulation, created of polythene tube, screwed in regular small distances to inner conductor. This type is used by small coaxial tubes, typically 1,1/4,4 mm. Outer tube may be spliced in its seam by serration, milling or it is simply edged. (the newest design). Peripheral insulation is winded of paper or polyester band and is numbered in
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accordance with position of tube inside cable. Tubes are composed into cable prole non reecting direction of transmission and are combined with symmetrical quads, eventually audio (radio) pairs and other pairs. (There is necessary to install some circuits for operational communication, signalling, remote measurements, etc.).
Figure 4.8: Coaxial pair Resistance of both conductors is not the same and therefore it is valid: 1 1 R = 83, 5 f ( + ) [/km] d D (4.24)
where d and D are diameters of inner conductor and inner diameter of the tube [mm], f frequency [MHz]. Specic capacity is C= 56r [nF/km] ln D d (4.25)
and r seems to be 1,15 - 15. Specic inductance is L = 0, 2ln Leakage is G = ks C, where ks may be 0, 5.104 = 0, 005% (4.27) D d (4.26)
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For calculations of , , Zc are valid equal relations as for symmetric cables. Curve of attenuation is parabolic, given by increasing of eective resistance. The manufacturing of coaxial cable for telecommunication was stabilised to two common types: so-called medium and small coaxial pairs. Medium coaxial pair has inner copper conductor of diameter d = 2,6 mm, balloon insulation (older type bobbin - KMB - 4, rst coaxial cable in CZ network with 4 medium tubes and 5 cross quads 0,9 Cu) and outer conductor from copper band with undulated edge, winded by longitudinally seamed into tube of nominal inside diameter 9,4 mm. Pairs are marked 2,6/9,4. The ratio of inner conductor and outer tube is not random, but it is for copper and dielectrics r = 1, 2 and r = 1 and is determined from the relation for attenuation, when it is valid = D 1 0, 024 f ( + 1) D D d ln d (4.28)
There is evident from this relation, that for denite D =x d will be minimal. Let rst derivation be zero d =0 dx and then we obtain x= D = 3, 6 d (4.29)
This is the ratio of tube diameters, minimising specic attenuation. It enables telecommunication transmissions in frequency range 300 kHz up to 60 MHz, impedance 75 and specic attenuation 3,6 dB/km by f = 1 MHz and temperature 10o C . There is performed possible variant of medium six tube coaxial cable in Fig. 4.9 combined with 4 audio pairs of 1,3 mm wire diameter and insulated styroex - air, 6 cross quads insulated by polythene and 4 supervision wires of 0,9 mm diameter. Schematic marking: 6x2, 6/9, 4 + 6XN 0, 9 + 4RP 1, 3 Small coaxial pair It was developed as a complement to frequency gap, which was evident between ability of HF symmetric quads and medium coaxial pairs designated for backbone transmissions crossing extreme distances with large numbers of channels (1920, 2700 up to 3600 and exceptionally 10 800 channels). It does not dier by its principle of above described medium coaxial pair. Signicant dierence is in tube ratio, which is for copper 1,2/4,4 mm. It is equipped by balloon insulation and has following parameters: impedance 75 by f = 1 MHz, specic attenuation 5,22 dB/km by f = 1 MHz and temperature 10o C . It enables transmission up to
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Figure 4.9: Composition of coaxial cable core 12 MHz for telephone as well as TV video signal. It was crucial for development of CZ trunk telecommunication network in seventies and eighties of last century. Composition of cable core varies, most frequently used by us is the type MCBKQY 6x1, 2/4, 4 + 5XN 0, 7 + 6RP 1, 3 + 6X 0, 6 + 2P 0, 9 Micro coaxial pair The usage for digital systems of second and third order as well as for data transmissions is possible. Diameter of inner conductor varies 0,6 up to 0,8 mm, outer tube 2,2 - 2,8 mm. The insulation is usually foamed polythene or balloon type. Impedance 65 - 75.
4.7
Special cables
Audio (radio) cables Radio pair of diameter 1,3 - 1,4 mm is shielded by metal plated paper, eventually by aluminium foil (aluminium foil equipped by layer of thermoplastic mass) and is winded by copper wire 0,3 mm. These pairs are placed variably into cable cores, as it is mentioned before, eventually as special individual cables. Example: 37 RP 1,3 It is designated for audio transmission: 50 - 10000 Hz type A, 50 - 6400 Hz type B, 30 - 15000 Hz type Q. There is also used coiling (3,2 mH with step 1830 m, later for special cables it was halved to 915 m). Halved coiling step enables upgrade to 17 000 Hz. These special cables are used for transmissions of modulating signal among radio studios mutually and to transmitters. Self-contained cables (catenary) Cables with polythene insulation are suitable to be constructed as self-contained and as it is clear from their adjective, are equipped by carrying cord. They create together
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unique unit and are designed to be hanged up mast traces - see Fig . 4.10. (utilising rst of all existing old traces).
Figure 4.10: Self-contained hanged cable Older type of self-contained cables was hanged on steel cable by suspensions (Fig. 4.11)
Figure 4.11: Hanging (catenary) cable Submarine cables The most important requirement for submarine cables consists in operational reliability together with extreme resistance of outer coating against humidity as well as mechanical resistance. Telecommunication waveguides Telecommunication waveguides are lumped into group of new perspective lines. They are manufactured as tubes, most frequently of radial or rectangular cross-section using qualitative conductive materials. Transmission of electromagnetic energy based on the same principle as in atmosphere, but on strictly dened direction and frequency. Limiting of frequency depends on critical wavelength = c/f being dependent on their construction. Radial metallic waveguide is demonstrated in Fig. 4.12. Steel tube is metal-plated and then lacquered. Protective coating covers its surface.
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Figure 4.12: Metallic radial waveguide Spiral waveguide is demonstrated in Fig.4.13. This waveguide is created from copper convolution coated by dielectrics, followed by shielding and coating in upper layers. Also is known the body created by convolution in metallic tube, etc. Advantage of spiral waveguide is in fact, that it lters parasite waves generated in non-homogeneous points of wave link.
Figure 4.13: Spiral waveguide Results of experimental operation have proven availability of realisation traces of length about 10 up to 30 km, attenuated 2 dB/km - designated for 100000 up to 200000 telephone channels. Telecommunication superconductors They are based in accordance with knowledge, that by temperatures convergent to absolute zero (273o C ) value of resistance is decreasing up to one quarter of that by classical conductors. There is possible to transmit signal alongside extreme distances without ampliers. They are constructed as analogical as coaxial cables (one or more tubes; material tantalum, lead), covered by outer layer of nitrogen or helium for keeping low temperatures of conductors. However they require being equipped by special refrigerators placed alongside trace every 10 to 20 km, these are extremely expensive.
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4.8
Structured cabling systems
Structured cabling systems enable easy installation in buildings for networks as LAN for data and voice networking. The special construction of twisted pair was developed together with very precious manufacturing as a response to the demand for permanent upgrade of bit rates. Manufacturing of these innovated copper pairs is advanced manufacturing process guaranteeing equal distance of conductors, tracking forces are supervised during production, special care is focused on twisting and insulating of conductors. Thanks to these manufacturing processes are guaranteed minimised capacitive unbalances, minimal dierences of conductor attenuation, minimal values of near- as well as far end crosstalks. (NEXT and FEXT). There are also minimised dierences of impedance and return loss. As to availability to operable frequencies these systems are sorted into following catogories: 1,2 for voice services operation 3 for data, l0 Mbit/s (ISDN) 4 for data, l6 Mbit/s (Token Ring Ethernet) 5 for data,100 -300 Mbit/s (ATM, Ethernet) Example: Cable BELDEN 1584A number of pairs: Zc 100, 0,51mm, C=49,2 pF/km f max [MHz] [dB/100m] 4 3,67 10 5,77 16 7,38 31 10,39 100 19,52 Specication of cables Requirements for four pair cables specied of impedance 100 used in networks are specied in several standards altogether. Wiring of outlets by physical link, usage of unique pairs, colour coding of pairs, transmitting characteristics, tested parameters, testing methods and principles of cabling construction for four-pair of category 3, 4 and 5 unshielded twisted pair (UTP) a next technical equipment needed for cabling is described in standard EIA/TIA-568. Cabling by twisted pair covers complete series of cable types with nominal impedance 100 . Beside above mentioned four-pair twisted pair cable are also more capacitive cables containing 25 or more pairs of shielded or unshielded construction. Both basic constructions are disposable in all categories. Unshielded cable of category 3 is standard telephone cable. Connectors used in networks are of the same type, those we can meet by modern telephone systems. There is connector RJ-45 with 8 outlets or Telco connectors with 50 outlets. For administration of standard interconnecting panels (patch panels); addition of new access points, changes in coupling of access
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points, cancellation of not needed access points is able to provide as easy as by ordinary structured telephone or data cabling. Closer specications for cables of categories 4 and 5 may support operation for longer distances - cables of category 5 support distances up to 150 m e.g. Cabling passing through interconnecting boards to terminating nodes may be terminated in mural sockets equipped by connectors RJ-45 as well as be terminated by these connectors directly. Example of connector RJ-45 wiring is in Fig. 4.14
Figure 4.14: Outlet assignment of cabling 5-UTP Testing of UTP cables, parameters and their acceptable range for operation of 100VG- AnyLAN network. There are same parameters, these are required by lOBase-T networks including that in case of 100VG-AnyLAN networks is required more option for testing all four pairs for tested frequencies up to 15 MHz. Testing frequency is used for cable verifying for network. Attenuation describes loss of signal due to the signal passing through conductor. The attenuation is as large as length of cable. In case of too high attenuation, receiver will not be able to decode received data. Characteristic crosstalk among pairs (pair-to-pair crosstalk) is inicting of signal in one pair by other neighbouring pairs. Multiple Disturber Near-End Crosstalk - MDNEXT predicates of inuencing size of signal in one pair inicted by signals of all resting pairs of cable - measured at end of cable using disturbing source of signal by four paired cables.
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Cables with shielded twisted pair Standards for twopaired STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair) cable of impedance 150 oer in case of their use solid base. Standards ElA/TlA 568, TSB 36 and 40 as well as newly suggested standard 568 and presented by SB 2840 specify wiring of connector outlets, colour coding, characteristics of signal propagation, strategy of cabling describes attached technical equipment too. Section of cabling system Each structured cabling is sectioned into following parts: section CAMPUS performs interconnection of buildings section RISER creates backbone distribution horizontal section is created by xed distributions frame for individual oces operational section interconnects horizontal section into terminating equipment Situation is imaged in Fig. 4.15.
Figure 4.15: Scheme of cabling system CAMPUS section is realised mainly by optical cable due to larger distances between facilities and also their galvanic separation. Next argument for optical cable is also passing of link related to data stream. RISER section (backbone line in building) uses also optical cable in role of transmitting media. Main reason is passage of link, in some cases also galvanic separation of individual sections of network. The backbone is realised also by metallic cables. There are used multi pair cables (25 pairs e.g.) for categories 3 and 4.
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Horizontal section is almost exceptionless created by star distribution of 4-paired metallic cables. Centre of the star is performed by point of interconnection to backbone distribution frame. Optical cables are seldom used in horizontal section. Work section contains connecting cables. There are metallic 4-paired cables using connectors RJ45 (so called Patch Cord ) or optical interconnecting cables. Type of connector by these cables is given by used active equipment (mainly ST or SC connectors). Operational section serves to interconnecting of horizontal section link into terminating equipment. There is interconnected socket with computer in the one side of link e.g., in the opposite side is interconnected link in data distribution frame from Patch Panel into active element. Example of system design (see Fig.4.16):
Figure 4.16: Scheme of cabling system: CR - campus cabinet, RR - backbone cabinet, HR -horizontal cabinet, Z - sockets These systems are advantageous seen by quality and bit rates, easy installation and maintenance, reduction of mistakes by installation and interconnecting.
4.9
xDSL Transmitting
There were mentioned several times before about quality and great possibilities and advantages of optical bres. (They will be focused individually in chapter 6). Their succesful introduction in transport (long haul) networks is doubtless. Such a complete introduction into access (local) networks is not so denite. There are known systems, they enable these transmissions, but up today costs of all experiments are very expensive. Already in previous subchapter was mentioned chance as supported by special technology of twisted pairs is possible to upgrade quality of transmission. There were tried to exploit existing telephone lines, these are wide-spread worldwide. There is told in equity about dug-in gold in underground. As rst success has been introduction of ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), so-called integrated digital services, enabling transmission of
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telephone calls, data (Internet) and fax services. There is also possible transmission of brand band services (TV, video), known as B - ISDN (Broadband - ISDN). Other developments oer next more advantageous solutions based on new advanced modulation principles (CAP/QAM, DMT there are enabling permanent access, new broad band services, parallel operation of POTS/ISDN and data, using common subscriber local loop. These systems are named generic xDSL (ADSL, SDSL, VDSL etc.) The roadmap to higher bit rates demonstrates Fig. 4.17.
Figure 4.17: Trends of bit rate upgrade The most extensive transmission uses ISDN technology (rst of all in Europe), and just now ADSL (originally in U.S.A., since 1998). Actually it is exploding also in CZ, This technology seems to be the most perspective actually and in accordance with type of local loop enables coverage up to 6 km. Parallel operation of date as well as POTS/ISDN services is posssible. The highest bit rate up to 8Mbit/s (downstream) for local loop length 3 km by copper 0,6 mm and 640 kbit/s for back haul channel (upstream). Access to services without dialling (always on). There is ideal means of access to Internet and other broad band services. Technology VDSL, enabling much higher bit rates up to 52 Mbit/s (downstream) and up to 6,4 kbit/s (upstream), however enable transmission to only 300 m, 0, 6mm copper. These transmissions are suitable for business users, universities, etc. (Compare with optical transmission). More detailed information about modulation principles and techniques oers item Theory of communication, about network elements, modems, etc., and item Architecture of networks.
4.10
Examples
A) Demonstrate relation between value of inserted coils for single pair and compound circuit (phantom). B) Determine conditions for reection of open and short cut line.
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Shortcomings of telecommunication cables and Inhomogeneities

Non-homogeneities of cables
5.1
There is not real to manufacture telecommunication cables absolutely perfect. (maybe theoretically yes, but seen by economic view such a manufacturing would be unrealisable). Therefore it is necessary to search for compromise between perfection and costs. The reasons of shortcomings are as follows: By copper wire production. There is not possible to produce wire of precisely nominal diameter. (Wires are tracked through calibres. These calibres are step by step stolen and diameter of wire is slightly enlarged), Analogically it is not possible to produce insulations of absolutely precise quality and thickness, There is not possible to reach precisely identical windings and pressures by twisting pairs, quads and all cable cores to reach identical electric attributes for all cable lengths. There is necessary to permit certain tolerance of cable electrical attributes as it was presented before. These shortcomings are sorted into two types: 1) non-homogeneity of primary parameters R, L, C, G and 2) asymmetries of particular capacities, leakages, resistances and inductive couplings (only for symmetric cables).
5.2
Non-homogeneities of cables
Due to the imperfection of manufacturing (wires, insulators, etc.) quads of individual produced lengths slightly dier in values of eective resistances R 1, inductivities L 1, operational capacity C l leakages G 1 (critical by long haul quad cables are rst of all C 1). Dierences of primary parameters of individual cable lengths by splicing in cable joints inict arise of slight reections, particular reections of electromagnetic waves, there are transmitted to beginning of line and further as multiple reection also to the end of line. Particular voltages in the beginning of line are proportional to particular reected waves. Their geometrical sum gives voltage U1r (reected) and particular currents, their geometrical sum gives current I1r .This resulting reected voltage U1r is geometrically added with original voltage U1 , which is nally changed into U 1 . U 1 = U1 + U1r
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Change of input impedance is equal to changes of U 1 and I 1 in the beginning of line (instead of original Z1 = Zc ) Z = U 1 I 1
Frequency characteristics, input impedance of line (without reections) Z1 = Zc = (f ) is at, frequency characteristics, input impedance of line and by particular reections Z = (f ) is irregularly undulated. Undulation of impedance characteristics aggravates possibility of line imitation by balancer (used by termination of line), therefore is decreased unbalance loss anv , Aggravation of imitation at receiving site, by another words decrease of loss unaccommodation anp and leads to aggravation of stability, echoes or so-called indirect far end crosstalks FEXT. These shortcomings inict by TV transmissions defocusing of picture and in case of more signicant reection suitably delayed, it will be exhibited by other equidistant weak picture. There is important for frequency characteristics of input (output) impedances of line should be as far as at. We reach it by precision by manufacturing and further rst of all quality by assembling of cable, as it will be mentioned as follows. Measures for minimising of non homogeneities of line: - By manufacturing: There is necessary to be focused on input supervision of supplied materials and provide supervising operations by manufacturing consistently. - After completion of all manufactured cable lengths for one section and after nishing all nal measurements will be done so-called allocation of cable lengths, it means plan of placement of individual cable lengths alongside trace. The goal of allocation is to place cable lengths with minimal deviation of wave impedance by certain f=const. and to place best lengths to margins of whole section. By another words lengths with minimal deviation of nominal value. As an example we perform method of allocation for coaxial cables. Manufactured lengths for one amplifying section are to be divided into ve groups from the point of view of characteristic impedance Zc [] of ever manufacturing length: group I 74,35 - 74,65 (mean value 74,50), group II 74,66 74,90 (mean value 74,78), group III 74,91 - 75,15 (mean value 75,03), group IV 75.16 75,40 (mean value 75,28), group V 75.41 - 75,65 (mean value 75,53). Laying of individual lengths is done by such a way, that to both ends of amplifying (repeating) section will be placed the best lengths of III. Further composition is done to neighbouring lengths should be of neighbouring impedance group. So dierences of impedance in joints will be minimised. There is not measured impedance Zc [] of symmetric cables, but operational capacity C. is not which inuences Zc . Allocation is derived of mean value of operational capacity deviation. (composition of lengths alongside traces). Assembling: Operational capacity is compensated by jointing minimal deviations of neighbouring quads. Quads are selected as to positive (+C ) or negative (C ) deviation so by two lengths will be
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C + C + C C = 2C These asymmetries could be found only by symmetric cables i.e. by cables paired or with quads (they need not be mechanically symmetric). In contrary is coaxial pair, which is to perfection mechanically symmetric and hereat is electrically asymmetric.
5.3
Asymmetry of capacities and leakages
Asymmetries of partial capacities and leakages, so-called lateral asymmetry could be explained using schematic imaging of quad (Fig. 5.1), which is composed of pair 1 (conductors a, b) and pair 2 (conducotrs c, d), with appropriate partial capacities and earth capacities C ad , C ac .C bc , C bd , C ab , C cd and earth capacities C ao , C bo , C co , C do .
Figure 5.1: Scheme of partial capacities inside cable quad Partial capacity is capacity between two conductive objects (conductors, metal plates, armatures, conductor and earth, etc.), which is done by geometrical conguration of conductive object (as form, lay, distance) and dielectrics between them. There is possible to measure partial capacities; they do not enforce themselves independently. We will transform quadric armed star of earth capacities C a0 , C b0 , C c0 and C d0 into equivalent complete polygon, which is imaged in Fig. 5.2. These capacities are signed by two dashes in this gure and they are added parallel to partial capacities among conductors. Eective partial capacities are so created, i.e. eective partial capacities between two conductors Cab , Ccd , Cac , Cad , Cbc , Cbd performed in Fig. 5.3. Regarding fact, that we consider in next thoughts by crosstalk circumstances of individual quad, we may eliminate Cab, Ccd, while crosstalks are not inuenced by these eective partial capacities inside rst and second pair. This performed simplifying is imaged in Fig. 5.4 of it is evident, that this coupling performs the partial capacities arranged as Wheatstone bridge. In case of precious identity of all these capacities C ac , C ad , C bc , C bd the bridge is balanced and current of source
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Figure 5.2: Partial capacities transformed from star of four earth capacities to full polygon
Figure 5.3: Network of eective partial capacities inside cable quad diagonal (pair 1) will not penetrate into diagonal of indicator (pair 2).; no capacitive asymmetry as well as crosstalk arise. In case of unbalanced bridge (eective partial capacities dier mutually, composition is not symmetric), capacitive asymmetry arises between 1st and 2nd pair. This capacitive asymmetry is marked as k1 and in Fig. 5.4 is drawn as dashed. Part of current penetrates from 1st to 2nd pair eecting as crosstalk. Asymmetry of eective partial capacities of one quad (ranged as electrically short element) caused therefore crosstalk between circuits of this quad. Unbalanced bridge of partial capacities causes crosstalk. Crosstalk minimising is provided by such a measure, that bridge could be balanced by additional capacity k1 . (as to the result of measurement) as it is evident of Fig. 5.4 e.g. Additional capacity is named as capacitive asymmetry and balances bridge of eective partial capacities.
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Figure 5.4: Capacitive bridge of eective partial capacities of quad We use often coupling in accordance to Fig. 5.5 for simplifying of calculation of crosstalk.
Figure 5.5: Fictional capacitive coupling k 1 (Compensation for Fig. 5.5 without capacitor k1 ) in which two conductors are coupled by capacitor k 1 which is called ctive capacitive coupling and resting two conductors are connected directly. Value k 1 is dimensioned so to current Is will ow through telephone receiver as in case of Fig. 5.4. As it will be further evident, there exists simple relation between k 1 and k1 ,: (k 1 = k1 /4). Equivalent coupling is in Fig. 5.5b, which is used by solution of theoretical thoughts of crosstalk. As to asymmetry of partial leakages, which are inicted by loss in dielectric, there is no critical situation as in cases of partial capacities asymmetry. Partial leakages are imaged as parallel coupling of gac , gad , gbc gbd to partial capacities We gain then complex admittance (Fig. 5.4.). gac + jCac etc. Let us explain term of functional capacity concluding this chapter. Let us mark eective partial capacities Cac , Cad , Cbc , Cbd as x and capacity Cab as y . Then resulting operational capacity of length l will be simplifying this task:
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Cl = y + x This situation is imaged in Fig. 5.6. Two capacities x are always in series ( x ) and these 2 capacities are parallel to y . Operational capacity is eective partial capacity between two wires, creating one circuit (pair, phantom) by 1 = 1 km sometimes. There is not possible to speak about asymmetry C as it is sometimes incorrectly used; therefore it is one capacity connected between two conductors (circuit) and cannot asymmetry itself.
5.4
Magnetic asymmetries
There are so-called longitudinal asymmetries, there have as real components (resistance asymmetries), as imaginary real components (asymmetries of inductive couplings). Inductive couplings arise in electrically short sections among individual wires of quad. (Partial mutual inductivities), these are imaginable as transformer couplings mac , mad , mbc , mbd see Fig.5.7.
Figure 5.6: Capacitive asymmetry k1 and functional capacity C.l of manufactured length We obtain also unbalanced bridge by diering inductive couplings with crosstalk as resulting eect. Regarding fact, that we are interested again in asymmetries between 1st and 2nd pair, we may provide compensation in our theoretical thoughts of crosstalk and consider only ctive inductive coupling between pairs, signed m1 (see Fig. 5.7b). Alleged couplings among individual conductors have also real components, inicted by losses of whirling currents inside conductors and in coating, these may inict by asymmetric conguration crosstalk. So-called resistive asymmetries of individual pairs Ra Rb and Rc Rd cause unbalancing dierential bridges of pairs 1, 2 - (As it is imaged in Fig.-5.8) and then arise of crosstalk between 1st and 2nd pair or phantom respectively. Analogically inductivities of individual conductors La Lb and Lc Ld (see Fig. 5.7) may inict crosstalk between 1st and 2nd pair. We are able to enunciate, that cause of crosstalk by symmetric quaded cables are asymmetries of partial capacities, leakages, inductivities and resistive couplings.
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Figure 5.7: a) Partial inductive couplings among wires of unique quad, b) ctional inductive coupling
5.5
Corrective measures of asymmetry
Corresponding measures are provided as by manufacturing as by assembling. Measures by cable manufacturing I. Technological measures: As it was mentioned before, the best measure for minimising of asymmetries is precious manufacturing. There is possible to reach identical resistance of all four conductors in one quad by using of wires from the same coil of wire. Identical diameter of wire is reached by this measure. Analogically it is necessary to process by preparation of insulating materials. There are supervised intermittently k1 k3 of quad itself. II. Construction of cables Capacitive asymmetries are more signicant in compare with magnetic ones by low frequencies (up to 15 kHz). DM (Dieselhorst - Martin) quad presents better results as to capacitive asymmetries in compare with cross quad. Despite DM quad has higher functional capacity C in contrary to cross quad (38,5 nF/km vs. 34,0 nF/km) to reach on the other hand lower C for phantom circuit and there is secured mutual perfect changing of all four wires in quad; therefore is reached practically identical mean value of distance for individual wires among themselves and then approximately identical partial capacities among conductors.
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Figure 5.8: Resistive and inductive asymmetries of 1st and 2nd pairs Magnetic asymmetries are more important in range of higher frequencies (carrier systems) in compare with capacitive ones and therefore cross quad is better for this purpose. There depends on inductive couplings among individual wires (i.e. on face of loops, created by two neighbouring wires). Equity of these loop faces is reachable much easier by cross quad in compare with DM quad. Measures by assembling: Assembling of cables composes of following steps: I. Symmetrizing This is process, by which are decreased capacitive asymmetries jointing electrically short sections of cable. Symmetrizing is done: 1. Choose of quads and crossing, 2. Additional capacitors. Symmetrizing is called in cable-tter argot of English douping. This process is possible by acoustic frequencies; several manufacturing lengths may be symmetrized up to section of 2 km. There is not possible to symmetrize using higher frequencies, while manufacturing lengths are (seen by only several quads inside the cable) longer in compare with LF cables, 460 m e.g. (in contrary to 230 m by LF cables) and there are not electrically short. II. Direct minimising of crosstalk By completing longer section as to be described as electrically short as well as individual length itself the symmetrizing is not available any more and next step is coming i.e. direct balancing of crosstalk. This operation is not oriented to causes of crosstalk itself, but to resulting eect of asymmetries, crosstalk directly. This method changes directly crosstalk or eective admittance couplings in dened point of line. In case of FEXT at
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the end, NEXT should be compensated in direct point of bad coupling. Crosstalk is decreased by crossing of pairs and quads in suitably placed joints. This process of crosstalk minimising by jointing longer sections of cable is called poling. III. Final balancing - ne symmetrizing Above mentioned measures are not usually sucient to reach demanded crosstalk attenuation, particularly cables exploited by carrier system. Thus in nish next, third step of assembling. That is ne balancing due to compensating (balancing) by compensation wiring. - most frequently at the end of amplifying section. As it is evident, measures and methods for homogeneity upgrade or by another words minimising of crosstalk are very complicated.
5.6
Non-homogeneities of lines
Previous chapter was focused onto shortcomings of telecommunication cables, rst of all seen by on manufacturing length. (l = 230 m). Let us broaden up this moment studied problematic for case of connecting individual lengths as well as for tapping of terminating equipment. There is evident, that for keeping homogeneity (amplifying section e.g.) correct adapting of equipment impedance and characteristic impedance of line in broad frequency range. There is practically unrealisable to reach ideal status. Despite this fact we try to accommodate real situation through minimising of impedance non-homogeneities. Shortcomings inict such phenomenon, that part of voltage and current waves reected form impedance non-homogeneities alongside line including non-adaptation of equipment and line impedance is reected after return to the beginning of line again back to far end. There is other reection inicted again. We will investigate reections more detailed as well as measures for securing homogeneity. Theory of arise single and multiple reections by homogeneous line and their impacts. Characteristic impedance Zc of homogeneous line by dened frequency is not constant alongside whole distance, but diers o mean value Zc due to partial non-homogeneities by deviation Z (x). Deviations Z (x) in manufacturing lengths are inicted by primary parameters of line, caused by deviations of wire diameters, mutual wire distance, nonhomogeneity of wires, deformations of elements by manufacturing and cable laying. Next deviations Z (x) may arise by splicing of individual manufactured lengths, by those vary mutually followed values Zc . Every impedance non-homogeneity causes reection of wave parts of voltage and current propagating alongside line. If reected wave returnins to beginning of line meets impedance non-homogeneity point, part of wave is again reected back, i.e. in direction of primary progress of main wave to the end of line. Principle of reections demonstrated in Fig.5.9 is repeated on all impedance non-homogeneities. Sum of all once reected voltage and current waves causes change of input impedance of line and therefore change of useful signal load too, which is transmitted into the line. Change of input impedance is frequency dependent, thus undulation of frequency characteristics as well as resting attenuation. Sum of all twice reected voltage and current waves will inict troubles in the far end of line. Impacts of thrice and more multiplied reections is possible to neglect, while these reected voltage and current waves are severely attenuated.
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From before mentioned facts it is clear, that every impedance non-homogeneity disturbs transmitted signal and causes decrease of signal/nose ratio. As we have mentioned mean value of Zc and deviations Z (x), there may be for dened frequency image as in Fig. 5.10.
Figure 5.9: Scheme of reected waves of voltage and current of impedance nonhomogeneities
Figure 5.10: Undulated characteristic impedance around its mean value Characteristic impedance Zc distant x from the beginning of line is Zc = Z c + Z (x) (5.1)
Function Z (x) we will call as function of undulation, thus characterises undulation of Zc around its mean value.
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Let is in point x in length element of line dx jump of impedance Z1 (x) Z2 (x + dx) = Z (x), then reection factor in this point is p= Z (x) Z1 (x) + Z2 (x + dx) (5.2)
Though impedance deviation Z (x) is in contrary to mean value of impedance Z c too small, we are able to dene reection factor as well as dierence of impedances Z1 (x) Z2 (x + dx) = Z (x), reection factor could be as follows . Z (x) p= 2Z c (5.3)
Then for reected voltage from non-homogeneity in the point x of line, which seems to be in the line beginning as disturbing voltage U1bl may be written: U1bl = U10 Z (x) 2x e 2Z (5.4)
where, = + j is specic propagation constant. Introducing disturbing voltage factor by reection in near end Pn ( ) (ratio of disturbing reected voltage U1bl in the beginning of line and eective voltage U10 in the beginning of line), the relation (5-4) may be overwritten for single point of reection Pn ( ) = Z (x) 2x U1bl = e U10 2Z c (5.5)
In case of equally distributed non-homogeneities alongside line the resulting disturbing voltage factor by reection in near end of complete line Pn ( ) = 1 2Z c
l 0
e2x dZ (x) =
1 2Z c
l 0
(Z (x))e2x dx
(5.6)
where (Z (x)) is derivation of undulation function Z (x) as per x. There is evident, that decrease of disturbing voltage values may be reached only due to decreasing of non-homogeneities alongside cable line.
5.7
Examples
A) Cable 1,3mm Cu has Ck = 38, 5 F/km. Appoint functional capacity for maniufacturing length of 230m?
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6
6.1
Wireless transmissions
Radio transmissions
We apprehend this concept as telecommunication supported by radio waves. For the xed terrestrial service utilising radio links and xed satellite service are most important for telecommunication purposes. Both types of systems are operated in microwave ranges and are exploited for transmission of telephone calls, data, TV and audio signals. Another application of radio communication transmission are as follows radio broadcasting in bands of ultra short, short, medium and long waves, terrestrial TV broadcasting and satellite broadcasting. Long haul transmissions were launched by cable links, it seemed to be sometimes, that radio transmission overruled cable ones during previous decades (shortwave and satellite broadcasting); optical transmissions turned situation back again. Actually mobile radio communication is gaining supremacy. There is possible to state, that cable and radio (wireless) transmissions are now complementing themselves mutually. Radio links may be used as hot reserve in case of cable fault and vice versa. Radio links are used rst of all in mountains due to their quick installation and by building of mobile operators networks. There were extraordinary important during launching of digital overlay network in CZ. Blocked scheme of radio link system performs Fig. 6.1
Figure 6.1: Scheme of radio link system Between source of signal (ZS) and modulator (M) is possessed block for signal processing in basic band (ZZS). It depends on transmission type - analogue vs. digital. Next follows transmitter block (V) and aerial system. Bands from 1 up to 10 GHz are exploited in radio links and xed satellite service. Parabolic aerial systems are utilised for transmitting emanation as well as for receiving. This system is composed of primary emitter and rotary parabolic reector. Spherical wave strikes on surface of parabolic reector to be reected. This wave is transformed from spherical to plain wave, which is emanated by mouth of parabolic reector. Receiving site is composed analogically by receiver (P), detector (D) and circuits of signal processing (ZZS). Radio link points are built up on suitable heights distant 30 - 70 km securing direct visibility as links of point to point type, eventually for longer sections are inserted so-called radio relay (composing of receiver and transmitter with change of carrier frequency). These type systems are exploited for data transmissions, for connecting distant localities to networks LAN, etc. Naturally whole problematic is much more complex; radio waves propagation is to be studied seen by noise, bandwidth and other parameters.
6.2
Satellite transmissions
The most important for telecommunication are satellites stationed up geostationary trajectory linked with xed terrestrial stations. Satellites are stationed in height of 38 600 km
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and observed from the earth surface seem so to be as stationary. Intelsat is an example. There are exploited for telephone calls, data transmissions, TV, ets. Intersputnik system of former Soviet origin covers Nordic, Indian and Atlantic areas utilising composition of three satellites following extreme eclipse trajectory around earth poles.
6.3
Mobile transmissions
These systems have been explosively developed in recent years. There are permanently upgraded as seen by oered services as comfort of subscriber terminals. (video and TV transmissions). The principle lies in cell structure, where transceiver dispatches demands of subscribers. Transceiver is linked by radio link, optical bre or cable into higher network layer up to control switch. The switch interconnects subscribers of the same operator (O2, T-Mobile, Vodafone in CZ) or provides mutual interconnection into network of other operator or into xed line (O2), or abroad (More detailed in the items Radio and mobile communication - Subscriber terminals).
6.4
Optical transmissions
Cable-less optical transmissions utilise laser link and atmosphere as transmission medium. There are links with direct visibility easy realisable and are not determined by ocial permission for operation as in case of radio links. There are duplex links exploiting optical carrier frequency, load of which is concentrated into narrow beam. Mostly digital intensity modulation is used. There is reached reliability closing up to 0,999 using new principles. (multi channel transmission - higher costs). These systems are produced by prestigious manufacturers. Transmissions of bit rate 155 Mbit/s bridging distance up to several km are more frequently used. Application may be found in networks LAN and MAN. Second method of optical cable-less transmission is to be realised by emitters IR-LED to cover room space for wireless connection of PC, headphones, interpreter equipment etc. Emanation is radiated diusively and by reection.
7
7.1
Optical bres and cables

Basic principles of transmission
Transmission of information through optical bre is enabled by light ray. Specialities of information transmission are derived from dierences between electrical and optical light signal. Signal carriers are crucially dierent. These carriers are live electrons by galvanic coupling as by optical coupling neutral photons, there are not inuencing themselves mutually. No magnetic and electric elds are arose, these are reason of various parasite couplings. Optical link is immune against outer disturbing signal and hardly to side hear. There is no back inuencing from output to input. Linkage is absolutely unidirectional. Full galvanic separation of input and output seems to be also advantageous. Optical link is in basic form composed by modulated ray source, optical environment and by receiver
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of emanation. Input and output signals of optical link are electric, and so transmitting as well as receiving instalments contain except optoelectronic elements and optical systems also electronic circuits for input and output signal processing. Basic composition of one possible variant of optical link is in Fig. 7.1. Light source seems to be laser or luminiscent diode. Light ray is modulated in optical modulator or in case of semiconductor source directly by changing of energising current. The task of transmitting and receiving instalments of optical system is to transmit optical signal as possible as low losses from transmitter to optical environment and next in receiving site to photodetector. The receiver then transforms light signal back to electric one, by what receiver should secure optimal processing seen by signal - noise ratio. Circuits of signal processing transform signal into suitable form for transmission, circuits for multiplexing as well as demultiplexing at receiving site, etc.
Figure 7.1: Basic scheme of optical link Range of optical radiation is placed between 100 nm up to 1 mm and is divided into 7 sub-ranges: - three ultraviolet (100 nm - 280 nm; 280 nm - 315 nm; 315 nm - 380 nm), - followed by visible light range (380 nm - 780 nm), - three infrared (780nm - 1,4 m, 1,4 m-3m, 3m-1mm). As a limit for optical communication exploitability the range around l0 m may be considered. Powerful lasers and detectors are available for this infrared range. Signicantly narrower range 0,4 a 1,7 m in-between is dominantly important for optical transmission of information. Minimal attenuation of materials used for manufacturing of lightwaveguides
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corresponds with this range, whereas in the range of ultraviolet rays their attenuation rises. And there are available no eective photodetectors for range close to X-rays as well as the ray exciting of such high light quantum energy. On the other hand there is crucial to upgrade little immunity of receivers against disturbing signals in infrared range. Receivers should by protected against disturbing signals radiated by warmed up subjects. Parameters of optical signal are changed by passing through optical environment. This is accompanied by attenuation as well as to change of transmitted pulses form, eventually their time position. Extension of range is possible by implementation of repeaters, there may be as amplifying or regenerating. Repeaters of rst type amplify across optical band by laser ampliers. Addition of noise by every amplier and consequent degrading of link quality with increased length of line is disadvantageous. Regenerative repeaters provide complete renewal of signal to original quality enable based on PCM to create links, quality of them is independent to length of trace. The invisible light ray is carrier of information transmission. Changes of its amplitude, frequency, phase, polarisation as well as duration may display transmitted information as each of them independently or in suitable combination. There is necessary to consider random character of photon radiation by optical transmission as well as by its design. Their impact is noise generation, which is directly part of optical signal. Principle of bre optics transmission is based on total reection on the dividing line of two optical environments with diering step index of refraction. They are created by cylindrical dielectric core with refraction index n1 which is surrounded by dielectric cladding with refraction index n2 (Fig.7.2). There is valid n1 > n2 , that rays entering core under lower angle under smaller angle then , where cos = n2 /n1 , becomes at dividing line core - coating to total reection.
Figure 7.2: Transmission by optical waveguide Lasers (LD) and luminescent diodes (LED) serve as light sources in optical links. LED are non-coherent sources and may be used only for links with lower requirements to bandwidth and range. The most suitable and advantageous source for telecommunication purposes of all light sources are semi-conducting lasers. Most advantageous photodetectors for links with bre lightwaveguides are semiconductor photodiode (PIN) or avalanche photodiode (AFD). Level of useful signal and magnitude in output of photodetector of noise are basic parameters dening choose of photodetector itself.
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7.2
Types of optical bres
As to the technology and type of transmission lightguides may be divided into single-mode, -and multi-mode with constant index of refraction of core and coating, or step-index, and gradient (multi-mode) with varying index of refraction. Single-mode lightguides These lightguides have extremely small diameter of core and by dened numberaperture and wavelength of light enable transmission of only unique, i.e. basic mode of electromagnetic wave. (V < 2, 405; HE11 ). These lightguides reach lower values of attenuation, but extremely small diameter of core makes dicult to couple light into bre. (Fig. 7.3). These lightguides have lower dispersion, i.e. they have larger transmission bandwidth. Their excitation is secured by light source with low spectral line (lasers). There are actually most used bres in long haul transmitting applications.
Figure 7.3: Single-mode lightguide Multi-mode lightguides Enlarging core diameter (There is valid following condition V > 2,405), number of modes, there are able to propagate through bre is increasing.. Used lightguides of core diameters 50 to 100 m are propagating by wavelength 0,85 ?m thousands of modes. (see Fig. 7.4.). Arising mode dispersion limits bandwidth to the value of 50 MHz/km. Exploiting is for short hauled usage.
Figure 7.4: Multi-mode step indexed optical waveguide
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Gradient (multi-mode) lightguides These types of lightguides, exploiting change of refraction index n = n(x) inside crosssection in transverse direction, mostly with quadratic parabola curve, as to relation: n = n0 (1 2 x2 ), enable signicant reduction of mode dispersion (see Fig.7.5)
Figure 7.5: Gradient multi-mode optical waveguide Maximal value of refraction index is in axis of bre and in direction out of axis is lowered in accordance to above described law. There is transmitted halved number of modes by the same diameter of core and same dierence n of refraction indexes. This is very suitable for quality of transmitted signal, when these lightguides reach bandwidth over 1 GHz . km, diameter of core varies approximately 50 to 100 m with NA roughly 0,2. They are exploited for transmissions up to medium ranges, advantageously for multiplexed transmissions. Examples of characteristic parameters of optical bres Lucent Technologies: Single-mode bre with accommodated refraction index prole (Matched Clad, MC) General characteristic Single-mode optical bre with accommodated refraction index prole is composed of germanium doped core and coated by pure silicon glass. Scheme of refraction index prole is imaged in Fig.7.6. Fibre is designated for all applications, where low attenuation and broad bandwidth for higher bit rates are required. Fibre is operable by both used wavelengths, i.e. 1310 and 1550 nm. The other advantages are as follows: extremely low attenuation for both wave lengths, excellent geometrical parameters enable to reach extremely low inserted attenuations of welded splices as sell as connectors, doubled primary coating D-LUX 100R secures excellent mechanical and climatic immunity D-LUX, as the bre is placed into cable Lucent Technologies, the manufacturer guarantees excellent parameters of bre as well as cable seen by polarisation dispersion. Guarantee of this parameter is important especially for analogue applications (cableTV).
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Figure 7.6: Refraction index of SM bre Geometrical parameters Fibre Diameter of core: 8,3 m (nominal value) Diameter of coating: 125 1 m Excentricity of core: < 1% Excentricity core-coating: 0, 8 m Primary protection Diameter of primary protection: 245 10 m Excentricity. primary protection - coating: < 12m Transmitting parameters: Diameter of mode eld (MFD): 9,3 0,5 m (1310 nm) 10,5 1,0 m (1550 nm) Limiting wavelength (cut of f ): 1150 - 1350 nm (for bre length 2 m) Limiting wavelength in cable: 1260 nm Attenuation (client species max. value of range): 0,35 - 0,40 dB/km na 1310 nm 0,21 - 0,30 dB/km na 1550 nm Spectral change of attenuation: 0,1 dB/km in range 1285-1330 nm 0,05 dB/km in range 1525-1575 nm Longitudinal homogeneity of attenuation: no point discontinuities > 0,1 dB Attenuation by wavelength of absorbing maximum of OH-iont (13833m) 2 dB/km Chromatic dispersion Wavelength of zero chromatic dispersion 0 : 1300 - 1322 nm (typically 1312 nm) Dispersion between 1200 and 1600 nm is possible to calculate according to D() = 0, 25.S0 ..(1 (/0 )4 ) Maximal dispersion by 1550 nm: 18 ps/km.nm Max. decline of dispersion characteristics by wavelength of zero chromatic dispersion: So S: 0,092 ps/nm2 .km (typically 0,088 ps/nm2 .km)
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Losses inicted by macro-bending: Less than 0,5 dB at one winding with dispersion 32 mm by = 1550 nm Less than 0,05 dB = 1310 nm and less than 0,1 dB by = 1550 nm on 100 windings with dispersion 75 mm. Polarisation mode dispersion: 0,5 ps/ km by 1310 nm (cable Lucent Technologies). Mechanical parameters Tension strength (ProofTest): 0,7 GPa Tightening force of primary coating: < 8,9 N , 1,3 N Climatic immunity Temperature dependence of attenuation: 0,05 dB/km inside range -60 C to +85 C Static fatigue: Value of coecient static fatigue is > 20 using protection D-LUX 100R . Preserving of colour marking: Colour marked bres in primary protection D-LUX 100R do not embody any changes of colour after following tests of ageing: - 30 days by 95 CO and by 95% relative air humidity. - 20 days in dry heat 125 C Other characteristics Relative dierence of refraction index: 1 = 0,33% Eective group refraction index: 1310 nm 1,466 1550 nm 1,467 Numeric aperture: 0,12 Rayleighs coecient of backscattering: 1310 nm -49,6 dB 1550 nm -52,1 dB Curving of bre: halved diameter 2 m Single mode bre with depressed prole of refraction index (Depressed Clad, DC) General characteristics Single mode bre with depressed prole of refraction index is composed by germanium doped core, outer coating, core, inner coating and coated by pure silicon glass. Scheme of refraction index prole is imaged in Fig.7.7. Fibre is designated for all applications, where low attenuation and broad bandwidth for higher bit rates are required. Fibre is operable by both used wavelengths, i.e. 1310 and 1550 nm. The other advantages are as follows: Extremely low attenuation for both wave lengths. Excellent geometrical parameters enable to reach extremely low inserted attenuations of welded splices as well as connectors. Doubled primary coating D-LUX 100 secures excellent mechanical and climatic immunity. As the bre is placed into cable Lucent Technologies, the manufacturer guarantees excellent parameters of bre as well as cable seen by polarisation dispersion. Guarantee of this parameter is important especially for analogue applications.(CableTV).
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Depressed prole of refraction index secures excellent immunity of attenuation against all micro- and macro-bending, and also by changing of wave length to 1550 nm. As the bre is placed into cable Lucent Technologies, the manufacturer guarantees excellent parameters of bre as well as cable seen by polarisation dispersion. Guarantee of this parameter is important especially for analogue applications(CableTV).
Figure 7.7: Prole of refraction index for DC Geometrical parameters Fibre Diameter of core: 8,3 m (nominal value) Diameter of coating: 125 1 m Excentricity of core: < 1% Excentricity core-coating: 0,8 m Primary protection Diameter of primary protection: 245 10 m Excentricity. primary protection - coating: < 12m Transmitting parameters: Diameter of mode eld (MFD): 8,8 0,5 m (1310 nm) 9,7 0,6 m (1550 nm) Limiting wavelength (cut of f ): 1170 - 1310 nm (for bre length 2 m) Limiting wavelength in cable (22m): 1260 nm Attenuation (client species max. value of range): 0,35 - 0,40 dB/km by 1310 nm 0,21 - 0,30 dB/km by 1550 nm Spectral change of attenuation: 0,1 dB/km in range 1285-1330 nm 0,05 dB/km in range 1525-1575 nm Longitudinal homogeneity of attenuation: no point discontinuities > 0, 1 dB Attenuation by wavelength of absorbing maximum of OH-iont (13833): 2 dB/km Chromatic dispersion
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Wavelength of zero chromatic dispersion (0 ): 131010 nm (typically 1310 nm) Dispersion between 1200 and 1600 nm is possible to calculate according to D() = 0, 25.S0 ..(1 (/0 )4 ) Maximal dispersion by 1550 nm: 18 ps/km.nm Max. decline of dispersion characteristics by wavelength of zero chromatic dispersion (S0 ): 0,092 ps/nm2 .km (typically 0,088 ps/nm2 .km) Losses inicted by macro-bending: Less than 0,5 dB at one winding with diameter 32 mm by =1550 nm Less than 0,05 dB for 1310 nm and less than 0,1 dB by = 1550 nm on 100 windings with diameter 75 mm. Polarisation mode dispersion: 0,5 ps/ km by 1310 nm (cable Lucent Technologies). Twice layered primary protection Lucent Technologies D-LUXR 100 By choose of suitable optical cable it is important from the user point of view, how attenuation of bres could be increased due to the various mechanical or climatic impacts. Increase of attenuation seems to be often inicted by micro-bending of optical bres. Twice layered primary coating Lucent Technologies D-LUXR 100 bars maximally to arising of microbendings and also by other points of view upgrades quality of optical bres and cables Lucent Technologies. Primary coating D-LUXR 100 is composed by two acryllat layers of approximately same thickness applied on bre in such a way, that overall bre diameter with primary coating 245 10 . Inner layer embodies smaller Youngs elasticity module and creates something like pad protecting bre against outer inuences together with prevention of arising micro-bending. Outer layer with higher Youngs elasticity module protects better bre against inuence of outer factors. Advantages of twice layered primary coating Lucent Technologies D-LUXR 100: 1. Minimising of micro-bending. Soft inner layer of primary coating enables to bre relatively loose placing and eliminate by this inicting of outer stresses leading to micro-bending arise. This feature is very important for behaviour of bre by low temperatures. 2. Upgraded immunity against inicting of outer stressing. 3. Easy removal of coating o bre (for welding or connectoring). 4. Excellent stability and long lifetime of bres. Twice layered primary coating Lucent Technologies D-LUXR 100 is designed in such a way to be as far as immune against degradations inicted as by hydrolyse as oxidation. Fibre with mentioned primary coating performs excellent stability of parameters and long lifetime as in humid as dry environment. All these features secure following advantages: Colour marking does not changes itself during whole lifetime. Fibres do not adher mutually.
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Cohesion of primary coating is not changing during whole lifetime as well as strength needed for its removal is not signicantly changing. Excellent immunity of bres against static fatigue. Twice layered primary coating Lucent Technologies D-LUXR 100 is used by all bre types of Lucent Technologies.
7.3
Theory of optical transmission, loss and dispersion
Transmission through optical bre in case of multi mode light guide is provided by hundreds to thousands of modes. In contrary to single mode light waveguide, which enables only single mode propagation of electromagnetic wave of type HE11 . For single mode transmission should be fullled condition, that diameter of core in this case should be comparable seen by order with wavelength of used radiation. Diameter of core is in this case substantively smaller in compare with multi mode light waveguide. Transmission attributes of optical light guides may be investigated using two methods. In case of much larger diameter of core compared to wavelength of transmitted light energy, laws of geometric optics are suitably available. This condition is not fullled for single mode light guides. Second method of solution is derived from wave equations those were originated by Maxwells equations. Compared considerations valid in hollow metallic waveguides, the theoretical investigation of dielectric light guides much more dicult, what is inicted by limiting condition alongside dividing line core - coating. Respecting these realities solutions are reached by simplifying assumptions, that light guide is composed of core and coating, there are ranged innitely. Specic attenuation as well as dispersion are dened as basic transmitting parameters of light guide. Both these parameters are function of light wave length, propagating itself through light guide and are dependent on used material, its purity and geometric and physical light guide parameters. Light guide manufactured from silicon glass and dotted for reach of required refraction index attributes of core and coating, releases light of wavelength 0,5 up to 1,6m (see Fig.7.8.). This so called window of passage permeability, is enclosed from site of shorter wavelengths enclosed by ultraviolet absorption allied with change of electrons energetic level changes in glass bre. Increase of attenuation on site of longer wavelengths is inicted by absorption of infrared radiation, due to mechanical vibrations of molecules of glass. Limiting of window under hand is given by Rayleighs back-scattering, which decreases proportional to fourth power of . By light guides is low margin of window undulated due to inuence of contaminations, there absorbing light by certain wavelengths. This increase of specic attenuation is signicant by wavelengths 0,95; 1,24; and 1,39 m, inicted by OH radicals, these are originated by rests of water molecules contained in core of light guide. Quantity of water increases attenuation of glass bres together with decreasing of
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Figure 7.8: Loss characteristics of optical waveguide mechanical strength. In Fig. 7.8 are imaged ranges utilisable for transmission seen by minimal specic attenuation. There are wavelengths 0,8 to 0,9 m, hereafter around 1,3 m (range of zero dispersion) and by wavelength 1,55 m. These narrow ranges are signed as 1st , 2nd and 3rd window. In Fig.7.8. are marked out newly exploited windows (bands) 4 and 5. Wavelength 1,625 m is used for supervising and control systems. All these parameters inuence transmission of signal through lightguide. Lowering of individual components amplitude of signal is inicted by attenuation and distortion. Most important impact to distortion is due to dispersion. It may be sorted to: Material dispersion is dependence of group delay on wavelength, n = n(). Mode dispersion. This is dependence of group delay of core waves (individual modes) on wavelength. Dispersion of group delay. Various order core waves of, ie. various modes have dierent group delays. Dispersion characteristic is demonstrated in Fig. 7.9, where actually mostly used bres are marked. Fibres as per Recommendation ITU- T G.652 have zero value coecients of chromatic dispersion in 1310 nm wavelength range and roughly 18 ps/km.nm for 1550 nm. Fibre as per Recommendation G.653 with shifted chromatic dispersion (DSF) is suitable for very high bit rate systems, but not for WDM operation. Very suitable seems to be
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Figure 7.9: Curve of chromatic dispersion Recommendation ITU-T G.655 with non-zero chromatic dispersion (NZDF), characterised by low value of chromatic dispersion, but impact four-wave mixing is restrained. This bre supports implementation of DWDM as well as very high bit rate transmission systems. As proposed trace does not meet attenuation requirements, insertion of repeater or actual new element - optical amplier is. Optical amplier does not require conversion O - E O exploited by repeaters. Optical ampliers (EDFA) Principle of optical amplier is based on stimulated emission. This energy is supplied by laser source through coupler to doped bre EDFA - Erbium Doped Fibre Amplier. Stimulating radiation excites atoms of active materials, though photon of transmitted signal may launch stimulated emission. Advantages of optical ampliers: There are independent of bit rate, They amplify all types of modulation, They amplify all channels of WDM. Usage of optical ampliers: Link amplier, Preamplier, Power amplier. These new trends meet important assert by realisation of long-haul traces.
7.4
Optical cables
Proper core and coating is to be protected against mechanical stress by several millimeter thick protective layer, so-called primary coating and then several tenths of mm secondary protection. Of such prepared bres will be coiled up light guide cable. There is used
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so-called loosed secondary protection. Loosed secondary protection of bres is composed of plastic tubule, in which is laid as one as more bres. The gel may ll inside space of tubule. There is necessary to consider these main factors: Optical: number of bres in cable, attenuation by certain wavelength, dispersion of transmitted pulses, numerical aperture of bre. Mechanical: tension strength, immunity against pressure traversing, bending properties, stamina against abrasion, vibrations and against inuence of environment. Constructional: material and dimensions of core, coating and protective layers, strengthening materials and their dimensions. Examples of various proles of optical cables are introduced further. Classical construction, when bres are twisted into layer (layers) around tensile element (Fig. 7.10).
Figure 7.10: Various designs of optical bre cables a, b, c,... Grooved construction where bres alone or in secondary coating are laid in grooves (Fig. 7.11) Ribbon construction where individual bres grouped by 4, 6 or 12 bres are composed upon themselves (Fig. 7.12) and consequently are cabled. Groups of bres are composed eventually for their higher numbers. Usage rst of all in access networks. Actually are available welding machines able for 12 bre ribbons. Also other dierent cable constructions are known. As tension elements are by side of cable in contrary to bres in the centre.
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Figure 7.11: Grooved construction of cable
Figure 7.12: RIBBON cable - banded Examples and basic optical cables characteristics: (rm Lucent Technologies) OPTION1 Full dielectric, dry optical cable. Application Optical cable OPTION1 (Outside Plant to Indoor Optical Network) is full - dielectric universal (outdoor as well as indoor application) optical cable with dry core inside. Composition of cable OPTION1 is similar to other outdoor cables, due to this fact are secured required tension and mechanical features for outdoor application. Dry construction of cable core enables to protect cable by non-combustible coating non-containing halogens (LSZH - Low Smoke Zero Halogen). Therefore is this cable suitable for indoor applications. Description of cable Composition of cable OPTION1 comes-out from well known construction Loose Tube. Optical bres are protected by tubule of loosed secondary protection, which diameter is several times larger than diameter of bres. Tubules are lled by special gel more,
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which bars water inltration to bres together with securing of relatively mechanical independence bre vs. cable. Protective tubules are easy identiable thanks to colour marking. Tubules are winded around central tension element. In contrary to common cable types Loose Tube the core is not lled by gel, but anti-humidity protection is secured by dry bands impregnated by material called SAP (Super Absorbent Polymer). Absence of gel inside the cable simplies preparation of cable before jointing. Needed tension stamina is secured by hosiery yarn (aramid) placed under the cable coat, which is manufactured from LSZH material. Optical cable OPTION1 meets all requirements for outdoor as well indoor cables. Optical cable OPTION1 is very suitable for such traces, where cable crosses dividing line of outdoor/indoor rooms. Therefore installing costs are reduced signicantly, while change between two types of cables is avoided. Features Optical cable for indoor/outdoor applications with capacity up to 144 bres. Full dielectric construction. LSZH coat immune against UV rays. Absorption SAP bands barring inltration of water alongside cable are inside. No change of cable type by passing dividing line between indoor and outdoor environment. Technique of reversed oscillation ROL used for tubules twining by cable manufacturing enables easy access to bres and simple jointing. Ripping cord simplies removal of individual layers of coating. Cable is able to operate by temperature range - 40 to 70C. Optical cable OPTION1 meets all requirements for outdoor as well indoor cables. Dry composition of cable core makes installation as well as maintainance eective. Low weight of cable enables further reduction of installing costs. pulling-in, transportation,. . .). (blowing-in,
Manufacturer is a holder of quality certicates ISO 9001 and Bellcore CSQP. Notation of cable for ordering AT - S1 , S2 , SF , S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 - Number of bres up to 144 S1 - Operational wavelength 1 = only 1310 nm 2 = equal attenuation as by 1310 as 1550 nm 3 = attenuation by 1550 nm minus 0,1 dB/km than for 1310 nm
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6 = 1550 nm (TrueW aveT M bre) R = transmission on 850 and 1300 nm (multi-mode bre) S2 - Maximal attenuation to 1310 nm Conventional single-mode bre B = 0,35 dB/km 4 = 0,40 dB/km Dispersion shifted bre (T rueW aveT M vlkno) 2 = 0,25 dB/km (1550 nm only) 3 = 0,30 dB/km (1550 nm only) Multi-mode bre S = 3,5/1,0 dB/km 160/500 MHz.km (min. transmitted band) U = 3,4/1,0 dB/km (850/1300) 200/500 MHz.km (min. transmitted band) SF - Type of bre 0 = Lucent DC (Depressed Clad) M = Lucent MC (Matched Clad) D = Lucent DS (Dispersion Shifted SMF) 9 = 62,5/125 m Multi-mode T = T rueW aveT M bre S3 - Dielectric central element 1 = D-P S4 - Tension strength 2 = 2700 N Ss - Solution of bre protection O = OPTIONl Loose Tube S6 - Number of bres per one tubule 2 = 2 bres 4 = 4 bres 6 = 6 bres 8 = 8 bres N = 10 bres T = 12 bres Notes: P = Non - inammable coat D = Dielectric tension element POWERGUIDE TM Full - dielectric self-contained optical cable Application: Optical cable PowerGuide (TM) is full - dielectric self-contained optical cable suitable for distances up to 100 m between masts as well as braces. Thanks to its construction, which secures high immunity against weather inuence and regarding to easy installation with minimised costs, optical cable PowerGuide (TM) performs advantageous choose for by catenary hanged optical traces. Description:
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There is utilised fully proved and highly reliable protection Loose Tube, known from construction of out-door cables. Optical bres are protected by tubule of secondary protection with several times larger diameter in compare with bre one. So tubule may contain several bres. Tubules are lled by special gel against water inltration to bres. Relative mechanical independence of bre and cable is secured. Tubules are winded around central dielectric tension element. Protective tubules are easy identiable thanks to colour marking. Needed tension stamina is secured by hosiery (aramid) yarn placed under the cable coat; using this cable are eliminated needed auxiliary carrying elements known of construction of other cables. Optical cable OPTION1 meets all requirements for outdoor as well indoor cables. Optical cable OPTION1 is very suitable for such traces, where cable crosses dividing line of outdoor/indoor rooms. Therefore installing costs are reduced signicantly, while change between two types of cables is avoided. Small diameter, slippery radial form and integrated tension elements secure high immunity against weather inuences, as wind or ice, reduce sagging of cable and load of masts. Features: Easy installation. Each cable is manufactured customised for individual applications. Distance between masts up to 100 m. Proved technology of Loose Tube protection. Cable is manufactured up to 144 bres. Technique of reversed oscillation ROL used for tubules twining by cable manufacturing enables easy access to bres and simple jointing. Tension elements are manufactured of dielectric aramid (kevlar) hosiery yarn. Ripping cord simplies removal of individual layers of coating. Manufacturer is a holder of quality certicate ISO 9001. Installation: Optical cables PowerGuide TM may be hanged on masts of power supply distribution network being immune against electromagnetic inuence onto transmitted signal. There is not necessary to interrupt power supply during process of hanging. Installation may be done quickly and without complications also by dense urban areas. Low installation cost. Easy installation. There is not necessary to interrupt power supply. Quick and simple installation densely populated areas.
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Figure 7.13: Cable OPTION1
Figure 7.14: Self-contained optical cable Optical cable of Mini-LXE type General characteristics: Cables of Mini-LXE type are lightened and constructively simplied version of cables LXE (Lightguide Express Entry). Their core is performed by single central polythene tubule of outer diameter 3,9 mm. Tubule is gel lled and may contain up to 3 bundles per 6 bres, therefore maximal 18 bres. Each bre bundle is held and identied together by coloured le. Colour diered are also individual bres.
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Mechanical protection of cable is secured by armour (corrugated waveguide) from chromium-plated steel and two steel tension elements. This combination secures tension strength 1800 N, which is sucient for major part of installing methods. Outer coating of cable is made from Middle Dense Polythene (MDPE). Cable Mini-LXE performs economical and space saving solution for all optical networks, not requiring higher numbers of bres. Its applications are to be found rst of all in access as well as Cable TV networks. Cable Mini-LXE is fully compatible with other accessories supplied by Lucent Technologies (splices, cabinets, distribution frames,...) and enables complex end-to-end solution of optical network. Recapitulation of basic features of cable Mini-LXE type: Optimised cable construction for max.18 bres. Coloured marking of bres as well as bre bundles (6 bres in one bundle). Core of Light-pack type (single central tubule with bres), coat of LXE type (steel armour + two steel tension elements). Small diameter and low weight by tension strength 1800 N - simple and very quick access to bres. Available with bres DC (Depressed Clad) or MC (Matched Clad) types. Primary protection of bres D-LUX 100 aords excellent mechanical and climatic stamina to bres as also as to cable itself.
Figure 7.15: Optical cable Mini-LXE
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Indoor optical cable of ACCUMAX type Indoor optical cable of ACCUMAX type is applicable for practically all indoor usage due to its excellent mechanical attributes non-requiring higher number of bres. There is applicable for cable room - exchange connection. This cable is jointed there to outdoor cable in optical main distribution frame or directly connected to transmission equipment. There is very suitable for FTTD (Fiber to the Desk). Cables of ACCUMAX type contain single-mode optical bres protected by doubled primary coating D-LUX 100 and close secondary protection with outer diameter 0,9 mm. Fibres may DC (Depressed Clad) or MC (Matched Clad) types. Identication of bres is secured by colouring of close secondary coating. Maximum of optical bres in cable ACCUMAX is up to 72. Optical bres are surrounded by kevlar (aramid) bres, there provide tension stamina and mechanical strength. Outer coat of polyvinylchloride is yellow. Parameters: Type of bre: Lucent Technologies SM DC or SM MC Primary coating: D-LUX 100 245 10 m Diameter of close secondary protection: 0,9 mm Attenuation of bre: 1310 nm 0,4 dB/km 1550 nm 0,3 dB/km Chromatic dispersion: 1310 nm 2,8 ps/km.nm 1550 nm 18 ps/km.nm Limiting wavelength: 1230 nm Operational temperature: 20 C + 70 C Installation of optical bres and cables Actually mostly used method of optical bre splicing is Welding technology of electric arc welding is done by one-purpose welding half-automat of micro-computer controlled automat. Tests of tension strength and measuring of attenuation follows completing weld. There is necessary break the splice in case of any deciency and renew whole process: remove coatings, crank the bre, clean splice tails and fasten them into aligner of welder. More detailed in script Transmission media - laboratory exercises. Connectors are used in facilities, where cables are terminated. Connectors require sophisticated manufacturing process due to necessary precision. Completion of optical traces are done by: laying of buried cable, laying of cable into polythene tube, when overwhelming method is blowing in polythene tube. Roughly 2 up to 6 km of optical cable length is possible to blow in. Machines for classical mechanical pulling should be equipped by control of pulling force and eventual automatic stop in case of damaging danger of optical bres.
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Very actual novelty is grooving method. Being developed by Siemens, MCS (Micro Cabling Systems) - enables economical dug-less laying of optical cables. First method (MCS-Road) enables cable laying into the road-way or pavement into the groove only 6 to 10 cm under surface. Therefore may be excavations avoided as well as cable laying to the depth 60-80 cm. Specially developed cable is equipped by copper tube. Second method (MCS-Drain) exploits for cable-laying drains of outfalls. Both conceptions are mutually compatible. Advantages: Quick progress of cable laying, dramatic reduction of excavations costs, minimal inictions of transport and environment. Optical joints and distribution frames belongs to cable accessories.
Figure 7.16: Indoor optical cable Examples: 1. Optical joint (armature) type 2500 LG Optical joint type 2500LG is individual optical joint for universal usage. Its cover is made from reinforced thermoplastic, which provides very good mechanical, climatic and chemical protection. Joint is in basic design equipped by three cassettes for storage of welded or mechanic splices of optical bres. The joint equipped by these cassettes is able to store 24 splices. Optional is possible to place one extending cassette D-182563 inside. Using this cassette it is possible to place there 3 cassettes type UC-54. These cassettes enable extend joint capacity 54 welded splices using mechanical sandwich protection of these splices. All components needed for assembling of two cables ( 10 21, 6 mm) is in basic package. The only consumption material, which is to be ordered separately, is lling mass, so-called Encapsulant, by which is lled bottom of armature against inltration of water. Basic features and parameters: Universal usage (SC). Capacity 24 splices of optical bres, using extending cassettes to 30 or 54 splices. Optional possibility of mechanical splices. Welded splices with thermo contractible weld protection.
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Figure 7.17: Optical joint Welded splices protected by sandwich weld protection. 2. Optical distribution frames Optical distribution frames of LGX series are assigned for termination or mutual interconnection of optical cables inside building. Distribution frames create together with their accessories modular easy extendable box of bricks. There are possible to be placed into 19 21 (ETSI) or 23 rack, eventually to be fastened directly on the wall. Ground stone of LGX series are individual racks. As to their function are these racks sorted into: Terminating - designated to direct termination of bres in connectors. Free laid for splices - serves to laying of welded bre splices and their reserves as by pigtail welding as by direct bre welding of dierent cables. Laying for connecting modules (storage) - serves to laying of surplus length of connecting optical modules. Combined (combination) - serves as combination of laying and terminating rack. They enable welding of pigtails and their termination on connector boards. Capacity of single racks may be 24, 72 or 144 bres. Their width is 43,2 (17) cm and depth 27,9 cm (11). Height varies as to the type among 12,7 cm (5) to 53,4 cm (21). Some distribution frames are installed in transmitting media laboratory.
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Figure 7.18: Optical distribution frames
7.5
Practical usage of optical bres for high bit rate transmission
General awareness of experienced telecommunication specialists has been rmed into xed idea concerning unlimited capacity and quality of long hauled or transport networks. This opinion was supported by dramatic development of optical networks. Increasing numbers of operators, new ring topology (security and reliability upgrade) support this opinion. Realised transmission capacity was evaluated as over-dimensioned. Reality of last two years turned it into other dimension. Quick exhausting of capacity is given by stormy development of computer networks and their enlargement into worldwide dimensions. Growth of data transmission rises approximately 35% a year in compare with telephone operations (8%). Next upgrade is connected with installation of subscriber data loops, which may inict access networks overloading. Even if multi-mode are sucient for numerous applications, change for single-mode ones will be necessary in plenty of cases. Concluding this introduction we may state, that transmission using single-mode bres is not unlimited and in some cases becoming fully loaded. How to continue? Methods of transmission capacity upgrade There are three possibilities to be recognised: bre multiplex, or enlargement number of bres in given trace (reserve tubes); for extreme long traces (submarine cables) dicult realisable, increasing of bit rate as well as modulation velocity is mostly used method to solve this problem. There was possible to upgrade (in SDH - Synchronous Digital Hierarchy, e.g.) bit rate 155 Mbit/s (STM - 1), across 622 Mbit/s (STM - 4) up to actually most utilised bit rate 2,5 Gbit/s (STM - 16). By transmissions over 2,5 Gbit/s chromatic and polarisation mode dispersion of optical trace become as limiting parameter for conventional single-mode bres beyond attenuation. By upgrade of bit rate from 2,5G to 10 Gbit/s maximal range of trace will be reduced to the
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value 0,063 1. Arising problems of chromatic dispersion may be compensated using source with extremely small spectral halved bandwidth, eventually compensate by special techniques (insertion of compensating bre or Bragg grid). Very perspective method has been introduced in WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) utilising parallel transmission of more wavelengths through single optical bre. So transmission of bit rate 2,5 Gbit/s using four wavelengths enables upgrade to parallel sovou kapacitu na 4*2,5 Bbit/s. This idea is not completely new, but as lately as thanks to newly developed technologies these means of transmission have been introduced into service within last years. There is to be supposed, that this technology will become important asset not only from optical transmission point of view. We will be involved in this perspective method as follows. Realisation of wave multiplexes First of the simplest solution oered by manufacturers is WDM exploiting two wavelengths, as 850 nm with 1300 for multi-mode bres or 1310 and 1550 nm for single-mode bres. System enables as full duplex using single bre only or doubling of capacity. But this is not perspective solution seen by perspective outlook. This method uses only socalled attenuation windows. Much more perspective solution lies in exploitation of highly selective radiation sources, where four wavelengths may be transmitted in third window (minimum of attenuation). An example of multi-wavelength is imaged in Fig. 7.19.
Figure 7.19: Scheme of optical link with wave division multiplex This way was prepared by new technological ndings, there enabled realisation of spectral spacing of individual channels less than 1 nm. There was invention of laser with so-called DFB (Distributed Feed-Back) or laser with Braggs grid. These lasers perform source of extremely pure radiation spectrum characterised by extraordinary narrow spectral line. Lasers oering spectral half-line of order 5 MHz , i.e. 0,000 04 nm for 1550 nm are available actually. They perform excellent dynamics together with possibility of precise wavelength adjustment. Number upgrade of wavelengths opened the process to introduction of so-called DWDM - Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing. This progress accelerated also standardising work in International Telecommucation Union (ITU). Ready Recommendation G.692
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denes standards for these transmission; as basic spectral channel was chosen wavelength of krypton spectral line of frequency 193,1 THz. Other spectral channels spaced 100 GHz one of another were derived from this frequency. Systems with dense spacing of 50 GHz are commercially available and the narrower spacing up to 25 GHz is in close outlook. Spectral channels and their spacing were dened in frequency scale and for their calculation as wavelength following relation is for disposal: = f /f = 2 f /c where c is light velocity in vacuum (2,99792458 x 108 m/s). Then for wavelength 1550 nm spacing of channels f = 100 GHz equals on wavelength spacing approximately = 0,8 nm. Exploitable technologies: multiplexers and de-multiplexers As it is evident from Fig. 7.19, for mergence of wavelengths is utilised multiplexer, in the output then de-multiplexer. Wave multiplexer mixing more wavelengths into single optical bre may be simply realised as bre splitter with some inputs and single common output. For higher channel numbers are used multi-spectral sources with tuneable wavelength. Realisation of de-multiplexer is more complicated, while dispersion element is to be used, as diraction grid, prism or optical lter. Optical lters are used for lower wavelength numbers; this is advantageous also seen by costs. Diraction methods are unavoidable for higher wavelength numbers. Insertion loss is varying between - 35 up to - 50 dB. The solution of spectral de-multiplexer based on intgegrated optics with phase series of waveguides (AWG - Array Waveguide Grating). Two-wave multiplex Above mentioned simple wave multiplex for full duplex purpose, eventually for doubling of transmitting capacity is imaged in Fig. 7.20. Four-wave multiplex asto poptvan multiplex pro rychl zven kapacity st i za pomrn nzkch nklad. Zaloen na principu kaskdnch interferennch ltr s odstupem 8 nm (viz obr. 7.21). Hust vlnov multiplexy (DWDM) There is often enquired multiplex for quick upgrade of network capacity by low costs. Its principle lies in cascaded interference lters spaced 8 nm (See Fig. 7.21). DWDM - Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexers Lucent Technologies, Alcatel, Nortel, NEC, etc. are most prestigious manufacturers of DWDM. DWDM providing 16, 20, 40, 60 up to 100 spectral channels are actually oered. Let us perform equipment Wave Star OLS 806 of Lucent Technologies. It exploits 16 wavelengths, by-passing attenuation 33 dB, i.e. it is equal to distance 120 km withoutble amplifying. (True Wave - non zero dispersion bre is supposed). There is possible to use this equipment for ring topologies composing, as it is evident from Fig. 7.21. Inuences to quality of WDM transmission For secure of quality transmission is necessary to meet appropriate limits, there are veried by measurements. These are as follows:
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Figure 7.20: Wave multiplex (Coupler)
Figure 7.21: WDM JDS FITEL (1533/1541/1549/1557 nm) Central wavelength, which is obliged to meet appropriate standards; precise measurement should be secured also regarding temperature changes, non-stability of laser, back reections; Bandwidth shall meet criteria of spectral characteristics; Insertion loss shall secure most suitable most favourable transmitting conditions; Crosstalk, as former by metallic conductors, crosstalk between neighbouring wavelengths shall meet by DWDM installations limits. Also crosstalk through nonlinearity inicts quality of transmission; Back reection may dier in individual channels and its value is necessary to be kept in needed tolerance due to the stability of system. Very important separate item is type of used bre.
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Figure 7.22: OLS 806 in ring application An example of spectral characteristics of four-wave multiplex is imaged in Fig. 7.23.
Figure 7.23: WDM spectrum Choose of bre type is able to be accommodated to supposed introduction of DWDM system. This principle is actually realised by investments of alternative operators transport networks using so-called Tele-houses. Signicantly arduous situation is by future need to utilise existing laid bres for DWDM operation. First of all older bres (ITU-T G. 652) seem not to be optimal for DWDM. Relatively large chromatic dispersion in light wave band 1550 nm limits range of link and its compensation is necessary for longer traces. The range of link is possible to increase by insertion of optical ampliers, see Fig. 7.24 There are so-called EDFA (Erbium Doped Fibre Amplier), there amplify any optical signal. Its insertion inicts other non-linear eects, rst of all Four Wave Mixing - FWM and Self Phase Modulation - SPM. Also values of Polarization Mode Dispersion - PMD shall meet inside tolerance limits. All above mentioned inuences inict transmission and there are to be respected by design of networks. Exploitability of wave multiplexes in academic computer network
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Figure 7.24: Scheme of optical amplier One of very rst applications is introduction of two-wave multiplex into experimental network TKO. System performs its functionality, enables element measurement and there was realised demonstration for supervision of optical cable. Its scheme is in Fig. 7.25.
Figure 7.25: Realisation and scheme of WDM in UTKO network Introduction of 4-or maybe 8-wave multiplex is considered in Brno network. Preliminary works to introduce experimentally DWDM onto link Praha - Brno - Olomouc. As to the fact, that older type of bre is for disposal, compensations methods should be applied. Further perspectives of wave multiplexes - DWDM Bit rate upgrade will perform the trend of further development. Maximal channel number raise up to 128 or 160. Experimental works reached up to 1024 channels. Next parallel bands C and L. The universality of transmitting media is upgrading, as for Gbit 10 Gbit Ethernet or STM-64. The upgrade of bit rates up to 20 Tbit/s may be to awaited, while systems with 1,6 Tbit/s are introduced actually into backbone networks. As to the distance, using principle of Raman type of diusion and soliton transponders, the range of DWDM systems may be enlarged up to thousands of km. Optical cross-connects will upgrade signicantly exibility of networks. They will enable reconguration and back-up of spectral channels
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in time of several ms. Actually are realised these elements as cross-connecting matrix 1024 x 1024, where all connecting operations are done in the chip using electromechanical micro-mirrors and switching is 16 times faster in compare with actual electronic switches. New conception of network is now formed using these elements permeating switching with transmission into single process back to networks with circuit switching. Concluding this item we are able to state, that these new technologies shift signicantly oers of new services as well as transmitting chances of optical telecommunications. 7.5.1 Optical access networks
Thanks to permanent development of technologies as well as oered telecommunication services requirements for bit rates of access network connecting terminating point of network, i.e. end user to service provisioning telecommunication services. Some subscribers require bit rates of hundreds Mbit/s or up to order Gbit/s. Permanently developing optical technologies and investment into Optical Access Network - OAN oer provision of such needed broad band. Even if optical technology was prior to backbone and metropolitan networks, already just now it is evident, that prospectively seen they will become standard for access networks too. Optical network will expand from backbone networks up to end user. There is expansion of optical bre into so called last mile. Basic functional units creating optical access network are as follows: Optical Link Termination - OLT securing functions of network interface between access network and telecommunication services provisioning network, Optical Distributing Network - ODN - there is a set of optical transmission means between OLT and ONU, Optical Network terminating Units - ONU intermediating functions of interface between optical and metallic section of access network, Optical Terminating Units - ONT intermediating functions of subscriber interface between subscriber terminating equipment and access network (Voice over Internet Protocol - VoIP, video, data).
Figure 7.26: Block scheme of access network
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Seen by placement of network terminating units ONU in optical access networks and by their design, i.e. in accordance with placement of optical bre termination are sorted various types of optical access networks OAN, of them are usually mentioned as follows: FTTC (Fibre To The Cabinet), optical bres are brought to subscriber cabinet, where terminating points of network are connected to by metallic network, FTTB (Fibre To The Building), optical bres are brought to building; individual subscribers are then connected by internal network, FTTO (Fibre To The Oce), optical bres are brought to business subscriber oce with enormous requirements for transmitting capacity, FTTH (Fibre To The Home), optical bres are brought to subscriber socket. Main function of access network is provisioning of transport services in full duplex regime. Transport of signal may be secured by several methods: Simplex with SDM division (Space Division Multiplex), transmission is realised along two bres separately for each direction, Duplex with WDM division (Wavelength Division Multiplex), transmission is realised along single bre for both directions. Downstream uses wavelength 1550 nm and upstream 1310 nm Duplex with FDM division (Frequency Division Multiplex), for transport of signals in both directions is used only one bre as well as one wavelength; direction of transmission is frequency divided. Parameter assigning character of access network corresponds to the type of transmission tracts exploited in distribution section of network: P2P (Point-to-Point), as direct connection of OLT and ONT e.g., P2M (Point-to-Multipoint), passive optical network e.g. Optical networks are sorted in accordance with character of optical elements and units used by distribution of optical bre into two basic groups: AON (Active Optical Network) exploits active optical elements in its distribution network (ampliers, active splitters) PON (Passive Optical Network) utilises only passive elements. Active optical network AON There is access network exploiting active network elements for connecting OLT units with units ONU. AON uses digital equipment generally. Access network seems to be realised by SDH (Synchronous Transfer Hierarchy) congured in ring topology. AON performs basic infrastructure of so-called hybrid networks, where other technologies are coupled with optical part in higher layers. STM-n signals are used. Secondary
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Figure 7.27: Block scheme access network AON. network levels (xDSL, PON, etc.) are coupled with OAN by synchronous ADM (AddDrop Muldex) across terminating unit SMT, see Fig. 7.27 Key advantage of active access networks AON is realisation of remarkable larger ranges or bridging of distances between units OLT and ONU in compare with by passive optical networks PON and possibility to use larger dividing ratios in distributing points. These large distances are reached by insertion of active elements (ampliers, splitters, muldexes) into distributing optical network. This fact meets key disadvantage - necessity of power supply. Minimising of operational expenses (OPEX) shadows all before mentioned advantages, and therefore are mostly used passive access networks PON, rst of all for FTTH architecture. Passive optical network PON This network infrastructure is based on exploiting optical network elements. Technical means for PON completion was developed in university labs nancially supported by Lucent Technologies. Distribution network between OLT and units ONU or ONT is composed by only passive elements. Considerable expenses reduction as for access network building up as signicant cost reduction for subscriber loop would be reached by PON technology keeping all advantages of optical communication. Access networks PON become available economically also for residential sector. They penetrate also into so-called last mile, what predestines them for implementation in FTTH (Fibre To The Home). PON networks are mostly realised as link p2mp see Fig. 7.30 c), where transmitting channel is shared by several users. This method performs the cheapest solution as for operator (expenses for connecting of subscriber), as for subscriber himself (taxes fo services).
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The only disadvantage seems to be independent sharing of transmitting bandwidth. In case of demand for large bandwidth of transmitting band, the direct connection between OLT and ONT is chosen. (p2p) see Fig. 7.30 b). This method is indeed much more expensive in compare with method mentioned before due to no division of expensed among more subscribers is available. Optical signal in PON networks (p2p) is distributed by splitters, there are passable in opposite direction too, that means they are able to link together signals coming from subscribers. There are passive elements dividing only optical signal into demanded number of downstream without any adaptations, including signal amplication. Bi-directional transmission may be realised as by independent bres as actually by wave division WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplex). So the transmission of optical signal is realised by single optical bre. For downstream wavelength 1490 nm is used, for upstream 1310 nm. Downstream transmission is organised by such a scheme, that each termination unit ONU obtains full multiplexed TDM signal from unit of link termination OLT, of which is able to choose its own channel, see. Fig. 7.28.
Figure 7.28: Downstream transmission scheme between OLT and ONU units Upstream transmission uses method of time division multiplex TDMA (Time Division Multiplex Access), when each unit ONU inserts its frames into time slot and sends them into OLT, see Fig. 7.29.
Figure 7.29: Upstream transmission scheme between ONU a OLT units Infrastructures of passive optical networks are used mostly for distribution of signal in star, ring or bus topology, see Fig.7.30.
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Figure 7.30: Topologies used in PON networks, a) bus, b) p2p, c) star, d) ring
These topologies may be combined arbitrary by realisation ODN (Optical Distribution Network) respecting features of used optical interfaces OLT and ONU. There is necessary to respect several factors designing PON networks. We do come out rst of all from bridge-over attenuation of optical interfaces OLT and ONU; we must respect types and numbers of splitters, switching parts, connectors and features of used optical bre. Various conicts in upstream may come on by timesharing of media due to mutually dierent distances between ONU and OLT units. These conicts may be avoided by inserting of protective timeslot between individual time channels. Its magnitude shall be longer than maximal dierence of propagation timeslots, it depends on dierence between nearest and outmost unit ONU. FTTH exploiting PON networks utilise rst of all p2p connection, which is provided to those subscribers, who require high transmission bit rates and p2mp, when optical bre is shared by more subscribers. This method is much cheaper as for users as service providers. On the other hand this solution provides lower transmission bit rate. Specication of PON networks for FTTx systems Seven world leading telecommunication operators established association named FSAN - Full Service Access Network in 1995, goal of it was dened standardisation and deployment of PON networks, see. Table 7.1. These specications were designed in such a way to provide worthwhile broadband services to users as audio, data and video transmission. Following bandwidths were designated by FSAN: 1490 nm for transmission of audio and data from network to user, in opposite direction is used bandwidth 1310 nm. For video in downstream was designated bandwidth 1550 nm.
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Table 7.1: Parameters of passive optical networks single specication
APON, BPON Recommendation G.983.1 APON (ATM Based PON) was approved by ITU-T (International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector) in 1998. There is passive optical network, which exploits ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode for information transmission. Bit rates are oered in two variants: symmetric service bit rates 155,52 Mbit/s and asymmetric service in downstream 622,08 Mbit/s and back in upstream 155,52 Mbit/s again. Symmetric service was supplementary added by bit rate 622,08 Mbit/s. ITU-T accepted Recommendation G.983.3 BPON (Broadband PON) in 2001 extending previous standard and uses equal bit rates. One or two optical bres in accordance with G.652 are used as transmission media. Bi-directional communication through single bre is secured by wave division. GPON ITU-T approved specication G.984.1 GPON - Gigabit Capable PON in 2003, extending generally specication G.983.x. First of all there is extended specication G.983.1 as to the bit rate saving principles of access broad band system. ATM cells are used for transmission, but also method GEM (GPON Encapsulation Method) is available for this purpose. This method uses GPON frames for transmission, there have variable length of ATM cell as well as GEM frame or their fragments are transmitted together in frames with xed length 125 s. This enables exploiting of packet-oriented services as Ethernet or IP (Internet Protocol). Transmission bit rates are oered in two variants: symmetric service with bit rates 1244,16 Mbit/s, 2488,32 Mbit/s and asymmetric service in down-
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stream 1244,16 Mbit/s, 2488,32 Mbit/s and oppositely in upstream 155,52 Mbit/s, 622,08 Mbit/s and 1244,16 Mbit/s. EPON Introduction of Ethernet into access networks was secured by acceptance of specication IEEE 802.3ah. This specication are marked as EPON - Ethernet Based PON) or also EFMF - Ethernet In First Mile Fibre. Introduction of Ethernet standard up to user and then simplifying of local network coupling was its goal. Ethernet frames of xed length 2 ms are exploited for both directions. EPON is designed for multipoint network sharing transmission media, but also communication P2PE - Point To Point Emulation is targeted. Two types of interface are specied by standard IEEE 802.3ah, there diers on of other by dynamics and optical power. Type 1000Base-PX10 is designated for usage for distances up to 10 km with maximal splitting 1:16. Type 1000Base-PX20 is designated for usage for distances up to 20 km splitting up to 1:32. Transmission bit rate was appointed up 1244,16 Mbit/s symmetric.
Figure 7.31: Transmission bit rates oered to user by symmetric services split 1:32
7.5.2
Triple Play services in FTTH systems
Actual trend of telecommunication operators and providers of broad band services is oering possibility to user as far as the largest bandwidth and rst of all coupled services with it. Permanently intensied competence together with securing of own protability lead implementation of new services. One of them is Triple Play Service. There is new generation of services oering transmission of voice, data and video. These services may be sorted into basic services and extended services, see Table 7.2. Basic services are not charged individually, but they are comprehended all-inclusive with provision of broad band service. Super standard services extending basic services are charged.
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Table 7.2: Basic and extended Triple Play services
Methods of video signal distribution Actual main trend of telecommunication operators is provisioning of video and voice services broad oer. This is nothing strange - these services will secure dominant part of their income. Therefore their drive is focused not only into introduction of new services, but also to searching for most suitable transmission method, which will be able to provide more services together without additional upgrade of transmission band and so increase operators income. Video services oered in Triple Play are distributed to users exploiting two methods: by so-called overlay PON (video overlays passive optical network) or by IPTV (TV over Internet Protocol). Overlay PON networks, see Fig.7.32, use wavelength 1550 nm for video transmission, which was reserved for this purpose by ITU-T. Signal is transferred to user by single optical bre together with data stream (data and voice), for which is reserved bandwidth 1490 nm using wave multiplex WDM. Transmitted signal may be as analogous as digital. In user site in ONT unit is video signal dropped (by so called triplexer) and transformed into radio-frequency signal. This signal, in case of classic analogous signal, is led from ONT unit by coaxial cable directly into TV-set. In case of digital signal the Set-top box (STB) is to be used, which transforms digital signal into analogous one. Overlay network oers exibility to providers and enables them to provide broad service oerings. These networks are able to oer for residential users capacity over their real demands. Second option for video services distribution in PON networks is IPTV, or switched video. Video signal is transmitted to user using packet switching network in this case. Video signal is digitalised rst in the site of network termination and consequently compressed. Binary data are encapsulated into IP data-grams. Signal so compressed is transferred to ONT together with data stream (data and voice) exploiting wavelength 1490 nm by ATM cells or Ethernet frames. Set-top box with IP interface is inserted into transmission link between TV set and ONT unit. Interconnection of such IP-STB with ONT is realised by structured cabling CAT-5. TV set is connected to STB by coaxial cable.
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Figure 7.32: Scheme of Triple Play services processing by systems FTTH (source: EXFO)
Optical splitters Optical splitters are network elements enabling to optical transmitting media be shared by larger number of subscribers. There are usually bi-directional passive elements in FTTH systems these are operated in PON networks. There are usually bi-directional passive elements equipped by single input port and several (2 up to 64) output ports. Downstream signal of OLT coming to input port of splitter is divided into required number of partial signals. These signals are consequently distributed to individual ONU units. The splitter merges upstream signals coming from single ONU units into one common signal, which continues to OLT. There are passive network elements securing only splitting or merging of optical signal without any other conversion. As to the type and manufacturing technology they may work in dened transmitted band or in its whole bandwidth. The insertion loss is added into optical trace value of which depends on input ports number and is indicated in dB, See Table 7.3: Table 7.3: Inserted loss values for PLC splitter Telcordia GR-1209
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Splitters may be sentenced into cascade depending on network topology. Recommendations ITU-T concerning inserted loss values using splitters shall be met. As to the manufacturing technology splitters may be sorted in two groups: PCL (Planar Lightwave Circuit) FBT (Fused Bionic Taper) PLC splitters are manufactured by planar technology. Required structure is created on silicon substrate by technological process. Splitter with up to 32 ports is manufacturable by this technology. This technology is used for splitters with larger number of output ports. FBT splitters are manufactured by optical bre splicing by high temperature and pressure. Coating of bre is fused and cores of spliced bres come in together mutually. Beams of 2 to 4 bres are manufactured by this technology, which for higher number reach composes output ports into cascades. This technology is used for splitters with small number of output ports.
Figure 7.33: Exemplication of PLC and FBT splitter structures Choose of suitable transmitting method As it was mentioned before, overlay PON network exploits wavelength 1550 nm for transmission of video signal to wavelength user, who is separated o data stream, which is so transmitted to user by 1490 nm. This wavelength was not chosen by ITU-T haphazard, but due to the insertion loss value reaches its minimum for this wavelength. While video signal was originally transmitted, this feature played its decisive role. For securing needed quality of transferred signal it is necessary to secure as far as the largest distance of signal from noise CNR (Carrier to Noise Ratio). Minimal CNR value was dened by U.S. FCC (Federal Communications Commission) up to 44 dB. This value guarantees eliminates so-called snowfall in the picture. But this value used in FTTH systems should be higher than 47 dB; usually 48 dB is used. Actual ONT are able to secure CNR value 48 dB by level of received signal -5 to -6 dBm. For securing CNR to meet 48 dB, there is necessary to use powerful optical sources (lasers, EDFA). So called Brillouins eect, i.e. BS (Brillouin Back Scattering) will perform itself by such light source powers, when part of reected light ray returns back into light source and inicts so disturbance. This scattering emerges due to interactions of light radiation (photons) with virtual grid consists of acoustics waves (phonons), these are produced by laser source or EDFA
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amplier by huge output powers. This eect was originally observable already by 7 dBm; actually thanks to permanently upgrading technology is this margin shifted behind 20 dBm. Optical power was necessary for transmission of analogue signal varies in range of 10 to 20 dBm (10 - 100 mV). Choose of power depends on inserted loss of transmission path. Video signal is transmitted mostly in digital version. Not only for this reason available bandwidth is upgraded several times, but also picture itself performs higher quality and digital video signal is un-comparably more immune against disturbances. CNR value for digital signal transmission is signicantly lower and depends on required error rate. Next factor inuencing quality of digital video is therefore BER (Bit Error Rate). For reduction of transmission channel BER are used so called auto-corrective methods as FEC (Forward Error Correction, J.83B). The value of CNR for required error rate 109 is 15,5 dB. For transmission of digital video-signal in binary form are necessary much lower optical power in compare with case mentioned before; powers around 0 dBm only are needed. This is done rst of all by much lower value of signal/noise ratio. Nonlinear attributes of optical bre may manifest oneself too, as RS (Raman Scattering) e.g. Interaction of photons with silicon grid is reason of this eect. Consequently photons left part of their energy and radiation of shorter wavelength is a result of this interaction. Therefore crosstalk may arise between wavelengths in case of wave multiplex. The spacing min. 0,8 nm between channels shall be kept to prevent this eect. The advantage of this so-called overlay PON is separation of video signal from data stream by transmission. Transmission bandwidth dedicated to video signal distribution is not inuenced by quantity of transmitted data quantity just in this moment. There is not possible degradation of picture quality by spectral loading of transmission channel. Next advantage is performed by simple Set top boxes; in case of analogous video signal Set top boxes may be excluded at all. Existing network of coaxial cables is exploited by TV signal distribution inside house. These advantages are overlaid by higher expenses for building up as well as operation of this infrastructure. There is necessary to install wave multiplexes in site of link termination (inside exchange) multiplexing video signal with data stream in downstream, powerful lasers for video signal and last but not least EDFA ampliers for this signal. It will perform in user site by expenses for terminating unit ONT containing triplexer for separation of individual wavelengths transmitted by optical bre. IPTV or switched video is abbreviation for video signal transmission using packet network. Video data are inserted into IP data-grams and directed to user. Digital video signal is transmitted together with data stream (data and voice) in this case by wavelength 1490 nm. Also there are used relatively low optical powers. Terminating units in user site ONT are able to meet requirements for CNR 15,5 dB by received signal level -20 to -30 dBm (as to the type of receiver); therefore low optical powers of transmitters are requisitioned. Optical power values varies in range of -1 to 5 dBm; optical powers are chosen inside this range as per bit rate an inserted loss by transmission path. The Triple Pla-y method is of complex services provisioning is very economical solution seen as by introductory investments (CAPEX) as to operational expenses (OPEX). There are not necessary wave multiplexes and EDFA ampliers in link terminations in network site as it
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is unavoidable by overlay PON. The diplexer only is used in user site termination is ONT unit, what means another cost reduction for service provider. Maybe most signicant disadvantage is transmission bandwidth sharing by video signal as well as data stream. This method of transmission requires provision of large transmission bandwidth to watch TV and together download large volumes of data. In case of great number TV sets in households and together with demand to watch more TV programs may become, that video signal with higher priority will exploit all available bandwidth reserved for users. Next disadvantage is performed by Set top boxes, these shall support IP interface. Their price is relatively high and market oer low. They enable on the other hand simpler communication with video server in upstream. Not so simple problem for service provider is in connection of new user, especially in case of his demand for more TV sets. Exploiting of existing coaxial distribution network is avoided. while IP Set top boxes are connected with ONT unit by structured cabling CAT-5. Table 7.4: Evaluation of requirements for overlay PON (analogous video) and switched TV (Digital video) onto transmitting optical powers
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7.6
Exercises
A) Optical beam arises from the optical bre with optical power P=0,1 W and wavelength =1300 nm incident on photo-detector. Determine number of photons incident per one second! B) Optical bre is characterised by n1 = 1, 5. Compute NA (numerical aperture) and angel under which light ray may enter the bre!
8
8.1
Appendix
Exercises results of chapter 3.11
A) I1 = U1 /Z1 = 100 mA, a1 = 2, 3 Np, a2 = 20 dB B) Z = (R + jL)/(G + jC ) = 1310 j 497, = 0, 0165 + j 0, 0406
8.2
A) Capacitance of compound (phantom) circuit is 1,6 times larger in compare with capacitance of pair circuit. k =
1 Lpk R 2 Cs Lpk
= s =
R 4
C.1,6s Lps
1,6 4Lps
Llk = 0, 4Lps B) Open line Z2 = Reection factor k =

Z +Z
U0 Uk
=1
U0 = Uk - voltage wave reects being equally phased and current wave being antiphased. Shortcut line Z2 = 0 k=
0 Z 0+Z
= 1 =
U0 Uk
U0 = Uk the voltage will reect itself in antiphase, current in equal phase.
8.3
Results of examples
A) C.l = 38, 5.0, 230 = 8, 85nF
121
8.4

h = 6, 626.1034 J.s Plancks invariable V= requency of radiation Energy of one photon W = h.v =
h.c
A) Photon is a particle with energy dened by relation W = h.v
= 1, 529.1019 J
107 1,529.1019
Total energy of radiation W = P.t = 1019 J Within one second stroke on photo-detector N = = 6, 54.1011 photons. Note: There is advantageous to express energy of particles by electron-volts, then 1eV = 1, 6.1019 J 1J = 6, 25.1018 eV Energy calculated by this exercise is 0,956 eV. B) from transmission condition n2 = 0, 99n1 n2 = 1, 485 sin = N A =
o 2 n2 1 n2 = 0, 21 = 12, 2
Result: NA = 0,21 and corresponding angle under which ligth ray is able to enter optical bre equals 12, 2o
Transmission Media
122
References
[1] Sobotka, V a kol. Prenosove systemy. Praha, SNTL,1989. [2] Filka, M. Telekomunikacni vedeni. Skriptum VUT. Brno ES VUT 1988. [3] Rieger F. Teorie sdslovaci elektrotechniky. SNTL, Praha 1968. [4] Connor, F.R. Wave Trasnmission.London, Arnold 1972. [5] Optick0 komunikace. Sbornik prednasek. TECH-MARKET,Praha 2001. [6] WDM Technology. Firemni literatura EXFO. Quebec, 2002. [7] Sabella, R., Lugli, P. High speed optical communications. Kluwer AP, London 1999. [8] Girard. A. Guide to WDM Technology. EXFO, Quebec, 2002. [9] Hardy. D., Malleus. G., Merur. N. Network. De Boeck. Paris 2002. [10] Girard. A. FTTx PON Technology and Testing. EXFO, Quebec, 2005. [11] Jordan, V. Profesionalni datove komunikace - strukturovane a multimedialni kabelaze.Kassex, Kromeriz. 2005.

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FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMMUNICATION BRNO UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Author: Assoc. Prof. Miloslav Filka, Ph.D.

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

68 68 68 70 73 74 76 78 79 79 79 80 80 80 80 83 89 91 102 108 114 120

3.11 4.10 . . . 7.6 .

120 . 120 . 120 . 120 . 121

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Enlistment of the study to educational programme

There is proposed to be precise following consultations with lecturers of other items.

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

The equation (3.9) is to be expressed Ix = 1 (A1 ex + A2 ex ) Zc (3.12)

Innite homogenous line

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Figure 3.2: Voltage conditions alongside innite line 1 A2 ex Zc

and reected Uxr = A1 ex , (3.32)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Relations of voltage vs. current in the entry and termination of line

eventually I1 = U2 sinhl + I2 coshl Zc (3.39)

Phase and group velocity of propagation

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

We obtain by vf institution of equation (3-42) tf = b = (3.45)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Input impedance of homogenous line terminated variably

and by another adjustment Z 1 = Zc Z2 cosh 1 + Zc sinh 1 . Z2 sinh 1 + Zc cosh 1 (3.48)

Input impedance of open-line

and subsequently Zc = Z 1p Z1k . (3.55)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Input impedance of line terminated by common impedance Z2 = Zc

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Lines practically innite

Electrically short lines

then Z1p will be changed: Z 1P 1 = Zc = l

Frequency dependencies of primary and secondary parameters of various line types

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Figure 3.6: Various characters of lines 3.9.1 Air lines

Figure 3.7: Frequency relation to primary parameters of air lines

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Analogically by subtract of equations = 1 [( (R2 + 2 L2 ))(G2 + 2 C 2 ) (RG 2 LC )] 2 (3.65)

There is valid as follows = + j = (R + jL)(G + jC ) =

Figure 3.9: Attenuation of air line (bronz

We can consider in case of line for LF L R a G C (3.69)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

where Ls is inductivity corresponding to one coiling section Ls = Ls + Lp = (L + Lp )s. s (3.79)

Figure 3.12: Relation of specic attenuation to frequency and transforming 0 = 2 s C (L + 1 s C (L +

and characteristic impedance Zc = where Lpk = 1

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Figure 3.13: Dependence of specic shift on frequency

Figure 3.14: Dependence of ReZc and ImZc on frequency

(second component is negligible) . = CL and . L Zc = C

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Homogenous line by high frequencies

Figure 3.18: Circumstances in extra high voltage by HF current transmission

(R + jL)(G + jC ) L and G L C (3.92) C . Then we obtain

could be simplied fullling conditions R . Zc = . . = j CL = j and . . = CL, = 0

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

Figure 3.21: Dependence of Z1p for various lengths of HF open line

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology

and Iyk = (|I2 |cos 2 jt )e (3.102)