Making Learning Relevant

Making Learning Relevant:

The Use of Digital Archival Material in Elementary Science Classrooms

Yvonne Dawydiak Surrey School District, Surrey, British Columbia, Canada University of British Columbia (M.Ed. student) Written for LLED565D July 22, 2008 (Language and Literacy Education with Dr. John Willinsky)

Making Learning Relevant ii Abstract This paper provides an argument for the use of primary source historical archives in the elementary school science classroom. Such materials have gained popularity in secondary schools since they first became available on the Internet. While potentially valuable, their use in elementary schools has been limited for a number of reasons: lack of available resources at an appropriate instructional level; a perception that they are too complex; a reliance on textbooks for instruction and a lack of connections within prescribed curriculum. For the purposes of this paper, I have analyzed a body of available research, summarized the historical use and development of archival material, reviewed relevant websites and formulated conclusions and recommendations with respect to the use of these materials in elementary school science classrooms..

Making Learning Relevant

Making Learning Relevant:

The Use of Digital History in Elementary Science Classrooms Imagine a classroom where, at the touch of a button, students could closely examine and interact with the notebooks, photographs and collections of renowned scientists and naturalists from the past and present. This virtual world, reminiscent of Star Trek Next Generations holosuite,1 is no longer science fiction. A wealth of archival material is now within reach of every school in the world.

Figure 1. An excerpt from the journal of William Duncan Strong, a preeminent anthropologist, is included in a Smithsonian in Your Classroom Resource: Introduction to the Nature Journal.

The development of the worldwide web over the past sixteen years is improving access to primary source material. No longer is it necessary to live near, or have direct access to, a museum or other archive. The creation of open access digital archive repositories along with websites and indexes geared to educators and students is revolutionizing modern access and use. As a result, archivists and educators are now looking at these materials in a new light and are beginning to recognize them as relevant for a wider variety of purposes, including their use in the elementary science classroom.

Making Learning Relevant The use of digital historical archives2 and other open access primary source material, within the elementary science class can enrich the experience of students and increase student learning and motivation. Historical developments

The use of historical artifacts and other primary source materials in schools is not new. In fact, in 1931, the Public Archives in Canada reported an increasing number of requests for photostatic prints from teachers (Osborne, 1986, p. 26). According to Matthew Lyons in The Journal of Archival Organization (2002), this use became more mainstream during the educational reform movement of the 1960s and 70s. The use of archival material in elementary education generally concentrated on everyday artifacts and oral records as opposed to professional sources. During the 80s and 90s, this narrow use was expanded by the publication of how to guides and packages for integrating a wider variety of archival material into classroom lessons. Such packages were produced by archivists and applied primarily to social studies (Lyons, 2002, p. 21). Access to these artifacts was often limited to schools within reach of a local museum or would entail a great deal of searching and collecting on the part of the classroom teacher. In addition, packages often focused on older students for a variety of reasons, including suggestions that the material was beyond the reach of elementary aged students and that young children could not properly and safely handle archival material (Lyons, 2002, p. 26). During the past sixteen years, with the growth of the Internet and computer use within a knowledge economy, the use of archival material is evolving. English teachers have used archives to inspire creative writing or to help students learn about authors. Studies of local industries can lead to science projects Most importantly archives can promote critical thinking skills by encouraging students to examine, analyze,

Making Learning Relevant identify bias, compare and question. Issues of changing values can be raised and discussed (Dyson in Lyons, 2002, p. 23).

As early as 1990, the National Science Foundation recognized that direct access to rare historical archives, eyewitness reports and on-line museums increases the authenticity of learning environments (Berenfeld, 1999, p. 220). Still, access to digital archives for k-12 teachers and students remained limited, fragmented and often difficult to locate (Lyons, 2002, p. 31). One reason behind this difficulty is that many archivists failed to see elementary school teachers or students as potential users. A literature review conducted in 2000 revealed that historical material is rarely used in elementary science classrooms because it has been deemed too complex for young students (Gilliland-Swetland & Kafai, 2001, p. 363). Further, in a 1996 survey of twentyseven repositories, k-12 users were not mentioned as an intended audience (Gilliland-Swetland in Lyons, 2002, p. 13). In addition to this perceived barrier, inconsistent access to technology hardware, slow Internet connectivity and a high level of support needed by teachers further exacerbated issues of access (Berenfeld, 1999). Recent Developments Increasing Access The state of technology in education in British Columbia today is promising. According to the Ministry of Education, all schools in our province have high-speed Internet access and some level of hardware accessible to students and staff.3 In my experience as a technology facilitator for the Surrey School District, teachers are increasingly integrating technology in the classroom with a greater degree of efficacy. Of course, this is not necessarily the case in the developing world, or even all areas of North America. These issues of access remain a barrier to properly accessing and utilizing digital materials.4 With improvements in hardware and connectivity, has come a growing trend in which

Making Learning Relevant museums and libraries are actively digitizing their archival collections. These collections are increasingly being made public, with open access and Creative Commons or fair use licensing. This development is improving access in the following ways: proximity is no longer an issue; wait time is eliminated; wear and tear on original documents is reduced (Lyons, 2002). Further, many of these archives are creating user-friendly websites with resources for teachers and students. Many offer Kid Zones for young children to explore. Fueling this improved access is the fact that elementary and secondary students and teachers are now being viewed as a large potential audience for on-line collections (Hendry, 2007, p. 115). This shift has been brought about by a body of research indicating an impact on student learning given access to these resources (Swetland et al, 1999; Follansbee, 1996). Changes in curriculum standards focusing on the importance of inquiry-based learning, combined with the content of many standardized tests, makes the use of primary materials de

rigueur in many elementary and secondary school classrooms (Hendry, 2007, p. 116). This shift is evident in the American Association of the Advancement of Science Project 2061. The benchmarks set out in this project explicitly outline ways to employ archival materials in science class, specifically biographical information about scientists5 at various grade levels. The Benchmarks suggest that the use of these materials can begin at grade three. (AAAS, 2008) The current BC curriculum also values the use integrating subject matter and the use of these resources in several prescribed learning outcomes including: students will gather information from a variety of sources; students will apply a variety of strategies for information gathering and identify from historical sources how animals were part of the lives of Aboriginal peoples (B.C. Ministry of Education, 2005). The inclusion of aboriginal content in science (and other) PLOs increases the possibility that teachers will access primary source

Making Learning Relevant

material such as audio clips of native speakers, video and photographic evidence from aboriginal settlements, etc. While inquiry based learning has long been popular in science classes due to the importance placed on experimentation (Hendry, 2007, p.118), a growing focus on the need for students to learn to think like scientists lends itself more readily to the use of digital archives. By exploring Darwins notes and letters, for example, a student might gain an understanding of the social context, the dominant forms of thinking, the numerous blind alleys and the difficulties of persuading others of the validity of [any] new theoretical interpretations (Monk & Osborne, 1998, p. 409). Digital archives afford teachers the ability to integrate primary source historical content into the science classroom with relative ease. Digital archives in practice The inclusion of archival materials in science instruction entails not only a shift in focus, but a shift in practice and even training, if this inclusion is to be authentic. Much literature points to the need to train teachers in using archives efficiently and effectively (Berenfeld, 1999; Fulton, 1997; Gilliland-Swetland et al, 1999). Tally and Goldenberg (2005) cite a variety of research suggesting that students need to be emotionally engaged while using primary source documents if the use of these sources is to enhance students learning. Further, teachers need to develop lessons and activities in which students use documents for multiple purposes6 (p. 2). While many of these research findings are aimed specifically at history, they can be generalized to include science teaching. Tally identifies five key habits which increase performance across subject areas and grade level if practiced when students are examining archival material: close observation of the documents features; using prior knowledge; speculating about causes and consequences; making personal connections and using evidence to support speculations (p.1).

Making Learning Relevant A frequently cited research case study addressing primary source document use

specifically in the elementary science curriculum is that of Gilliland-Swetland, Kafai and Landis (1999). This case study found that integrating primary sources into the elementary school curriculum can be a fruitful but challenging enterprise (p. 108). Swetland et al. found that integrating historical material such as a naturalists notebook and photographs with field experiences and other hands on activities, increased student motivation and engagement. Further, teachers reported that students were emulating the detailed observations of the scientists in their own field notes and demonstrating an understanding of the concept of interconnectedness. My own teaching experience echoes the results found in this study. Galliland-Swetland et al. also found that the input of teachers was instrumental in helping researchers understand concerns and the needs of students in the context of an elementary school classroom. This interaction, along with the integration of other learning media, field experiences and hands on activities, was central to the success of the project. It can be understood, then, that in developing Online Educational Resources, archivists would be wise to include and consider teachers in the process.7 Further, OERs that allow individuals to create their own collections of archival material would prove particularly useful to educators.8 In this way, educators would best be able to achieve the necessary hands-on, minds-on approach needed when working with young children (Christensen, 1995). Sources of Material for the Elementary Science Classroom An Internet search reveals that numerous indexes and sites are now available that organize and provide access to open source archival material. Few, however, provide access that is relevant to younger children and fewer have materials sorted or tagged in a way that improves access with respect to science curriculum. Table 1 is an in-exhaustive sampling of some relevant

Making Learning Relevant sites. It should be noted that a search for Canadian content specific to elementary school science revealed little in the way of useful material.
Website Library of Congress: Kids and Families page http://www.loc.gov/fa milies Interactive archives Library of Congress: American Memories http://rs6.loc.gov/amme m/index.html Index supporting classroom use of the collections. Historical material pertinent to a wide variety of subject areas: Social Studies; Science; Literature; Technology/ Middle school, up to post-secondary. Browse by topic; time; place; contents. Simple layout one click access. Library doesnt hold copyright. Fair use applies.. No further info readily available.. Allows download of pictures, site contains ask a librarian feature The Brooklyn Expedition http://www.brooklynex pedition.org/ An interactive project developed by three Brooklyn institutions. Three themes: Latin America; Structures; Brooklyn. Links history, art and science through structures/architectu re. Primary to early intermediate students A guided tour sound and flash animation. Index/site map allows browse of content Museums involved hold copyright. No further info readily available.. Smithsonian Institute http://www.si.edu/ Comprehensive index of resources and materials from multiple archives Exhaustive in scope -142million samples. Variety of media, subject areas, bibliographic info, links etc. Educators and students of all ages Browse in many ways: by topic; collection; use; subject area; audience; Clearly defined terms: fair use/intellectual property rights; allows use on personal website; no alteration. Downloadable PDF lesson plans with full page archival graphics. Examples of rich ways to use material. Interactivities include sending ecards of archived photos. Many (but not all) resources are American-based.

Overview Scope of content Contains both historical and current material. Includes links to pop-culture; literacy; history; geography; science etc.. Primary to secondary school. Illustrated buttons to browse by topic. Includes multimedia, interactive content Library doesnt hold copyright. Fair use applies. No further info readily available.. Interactive and engaging, ease of search particularly strong for young children

Potential Audience Format

Copyright

Strengths

Highly interactive and engaging: contains various roll-overs or mouse-overs showing then and now; inside/outside; photograph/architect ural plans etc. Teacher resource page & some links appear to be dead. Fairly limited scope

Weaknesses

Does not allow download of pictures Amero-centric

High reading level Amero-centric

Table 1. This is a brief review of four websites that provide access to archival materials suitable for the elementary science classroom. These were chosen as best examples after a lengthy search of websites from Canada and the

Making Learning Relevant

U.S.

Conclusions An ongoing challenge in the drive to improve access to historical archives will be for archivists to work together with teachers to make relevant materials easily available and accessible. A greater degree of readily accessible Canadian content would further increase the likelihood that teachers in Canada might effectively integrate these materials. Due to the expense and infrastructure needed to digitize vast collections, governments and other sources of funding will need to be convinced of the need for these materials in our school system. This may necessitate additional research studies into the benefits of this medium and lobbying by educators. A move away from a static textbook-based approach to science teaching to a more dynamic constructivist approach9, will further support scientific inquiry and the resultant use of archival material. Through inquiry, students will need to make and evaluate decisions that require careful questioning, seeking of evidence, and critical reasoning (Center for Science, Math and Engineering Education, 2000, p. 39). A growing emphasis on learning by doing (Dewey in Hendry, 2007, p. 117) will encourage teachers to access archival materials to supplement hands on activities. Using these materials in authentic learning environments alongside a range of hands on artifacts and activities will provide a rich and valuable learning experience for students of all ages.

Making Learning Relevant References American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993, updated 2008). Benchmarks for scientific literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved July 16, 2008 from http://www.project2061.org/ Berenfeld, B. (1999) The internet in our classroom: Teaching tomorrows skills for tomorrows world. In S. Ware (Ed.), Science and Environment Education: Views from Developing Countries (pp. 215-235). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2005). Prescribed Learning Outcomes. Retrieved on July 22, 2008 from the Ministry of Education Website: http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/ British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2008). PLNet Background. Retrieved on July 22, 2008 from the Ministry of Education Website: http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/plnet/o_pln_qa.htm National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards: A guide for teaching. National Science Education Standards. p. 5) Christensen, M. (1995). Critical Issue: Providing hands-on, minds-on, and authentic learning experiences in science. Retrieved January 31, 2008, from North Central Regional Education Library: Pathways Critical Issues Directory: http://www.learningpt.org/ D. Cunningham, T.M. Duffy, R. Knuth, Textbook of the future, in: C. McKnight (Ed.), Hypertext: A Psychological Perspective, Ellis Horwood, London, 1993. Fulton, K. (1997). The skills students need for technological fluency. In Learning in a Digital Age: Insights into the Issues. Retrieved June 3, 2007 from Milkin Family Foundation website: http://www.mff.org/edtech/ Folansbee, S. (1996). The role of online communications in schools: A national study. Retrieved

Making Learning Relevant ii July 16, 2008 from http://www.tcet.unt.edu/research/rlonline.htm Gilliland-Swetland, A. & Kafai, Y. (2001). The use of historical materials in elementary science classrooms. Science Education, (85)4, 349-367. Retrieved July 14, 2008 from Wiley InterScience. Gilliland-Swetland, A., Kafai, Y. & Landis, W. (1999). Integrating primary sources into the elementary school classroom: a case study of teachers perspectives. Archivaria, (48), 89116. Hendry, J. (Spring/Summer 2007). Primary sources in K-12 education: Opportunities for Archives. The American Archivist, (70), 114-129. Lyons, M. (2002). K-12 instruction and digital access to archival materials. Journal of Archival Material, (1)1, 19-34. British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2008). PLNet Background. Retrieved on July 22, 2008 from the Ministry of Education Website: http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/plnet/o_pln_qa.htm Monk, M. & Osborne, J. (1998). Placing the history and philosophy of science on the curriculum: A model for the development of pedagogy. Science Education, (81)4, 405424. Retrieved July 14, 2008 from Wiley InterScience. Osborne, K. (Winter 1986). Archives in the Classroom. Archivaria (23), 16-40. Tally, B. & Goldenberg, L. (2005). Fostering historical thinking with digital primary sources. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, (38)1, 1-21.

Making Learning Relevant iii Endnotes

The holodeck, according to Wikipedia, is a simulated reality facility located in starships or

starbases in the fictional Star Trek universe.

2

For the purposes of this paper, references to digital archival materials will refer to primary

rather than secondary source material including, but not limited to: photographs; audio; video and print material such as field notes, letters, logs of experiments, and drawings
3

In my experience, there still exists a discrepancy between schools when it comes to hardware.

Further, secondary schools still tend to receive greater support for technology in the form of dedicated staffing, hardware purchases, improved networking.
4

The limits and scope of this paper do not allow me to delve further into specifics of this aspect

of access.
5

This biographical information might include photographs, notebooks, diaries, letters,

drawings, etc.
6

Multiple purposes might include identifying points of view and bias and comparing accounts

of an event or experiment rather than a more narrow approach such as illustrating an idea or event.
7

UCLA is working on The Digital Portfolio Archives in Learning: Modeling Primary Content

Transformation for Science Education, examining how to best meet the needs of K-12 educators with respect to organizing, storing and retrieving digital archival materials.
8

Such an OER would, perhaps, take the form of a comprehensive index or database that allows

users to access and organize archival documents for presentation, publishing (as a classroom resource) or student use in multimedia projects. The Textbook of the Future by Cunningham, Duffy and Knuth provides one model and a rationale for such a resource.
9

In their article The Textbook of the Future, Cunningham et al suggest that the static

textbook will be replaced by hypermedia and other information systems having databases that can be easily altered to individual needs. This is necessitated by a move towards a constructivist view of learning where students construct their own knowledge through active, situated experience, interpreting

evidence and exposure to multiple perspectives.