CHAPTER ONE 1.

0 INTRODUCTION Water is a transparent, colourless, odourless (at standard condition of temperature) constituting the normal oxide of hydrogen and given the chemical formula H20 (Howarlt and Mc-Gillivray, 2001). It is essential to all forms of life and makes up 50-97% of the weight of all plants and animals and about 70% of human body (Phiri et al 2005), it is also a vital resource for agricultural, manufacturing, transportation and many other human activities. Despite its importance, water is the most poorly managed resource in the world (Fakayode, 2005). Recent advance industrial and agricultural activities have continuously led to generation of various types of waste into the environment. These wastes, into often, ultimately find their way into receiving streams, river and other water bodies, degrading its physical, chemical and biological qualities (Peavy et al. 1985; Peirce et al, 1998; Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). Water pollution arising from the presence of foreign substance (organic, inorganic bacteriological, or radiological) which tends to degrade the quality of water has become a serious concern today. Groundwater is a valuable resource often use for industry, commerce, agriculture and most importantly for drinking. Often, the raw water used for domestic purpose is vulnerable to contamination due to the human influence resulting in pollution. Groundwater pollution is mainly due to the process of industrialization and urbanization that has progressively developed over time without any regard for environmental consequence. In recent times the impact of leachates on groundwater and other water resource has attracted a lot of attention because of its overwhelming environmental importance. Leachates migration from wastes sites, landfills near a stream and the release of pollutants

from sediment, streams (under certain conditions) pose a high risk to groundwater resource, if not adequately managed. Consequently, water quality deserves special attention because of its implications in affecting the public health and quality of life. Unsatisfactory water supplies and un-wholesome sanitation condition can result in poor human health. This portends the fact that there are very strong links between water and health. Water is a natural resource whose scarcity or poor quality can cause a chain of unpleasant situation to mankind, especially in developing countries like Nigeria. There are many ways in which poor water quality and sanitary conditions can give rise to poor health. For instance, classical water borne diseases which include cholera and other diarrhoeal diseases, as well as water-related parasitic disease like schistosomiasis, guinea worm, river blindness, hepatitis and malaria are very common (WHO, 1984 and WHO 1992). High salinity above 500mg/L in public water may lead to people suffering from hypertension and edema due to congestive heart failure and women toxemias of pregnancy (Nwaogazie and Emeka, 1997). They also noted that water contaminated with pesticides may cause leukemia, plastic, anemia, agranula zytosis and other disease of the heart. Nitrate compounds, heavy metals pesticides etc that are contained in our drinking water can also constitute undesirable pollutants when they are not within world health organization guidelines for drinking water (WHO 1984). 1.5 Statement of Problem Okiwge Area of Imo state Nigeria, has witnessed an increase in

population growth since its creation. The rise in population led to the need for subsurface water resource, since the surface water has been polluted as a result of population explosion and improper landuse . Underground and surface water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels. In recent times, the impacts of

leachates on groundwater and other water resource has attracted a lot of attention because of its overwhelming environment importance. Leachates migration from waste site or landfills and the release of pollutants in polluted streams pose a high risk to groundwater resource if not adequately managed. Toxic chemicals that have high concentration fo nitrate and phosphate derived from waste in the stream can filter through and contaminant both surface and ground water. Portable and sage drinking water is a necessary requirement for the health and productive life of human in any society. However, maintaining a portable groundwater supply that is free from microbial and chemical contaminants is far from reality, due to poor waste disposal and management practices. Once contaminated, the ground water becomes unusable due to taste, odour, high microbial, ion and volatile organic content, which has significant, adverse impacts on groundwater quality and health. Aims and objectives This present study is borne - out of the need to evaluate both the surface water and groundwater source in the area. It particularly aims at determining the drinking, domestic and agricultural (irrigation/livestock) usability of the water and also highlights some of the hydro-geological parameter that could be useful in this direction. The result obtained would also add to the hydro-geological information in the study area.

Previous works The hydrological setting of south-eastern Nigeria of which the study area is a part was investigated in 1976 (BRGN Report). In recent times, there has been a lot of studies Etu-Efeotor and Odigi (1983) Egbokat. (1983) Uma and Egboka

(1991), Okony (1983) on different aspect of hydrogeology of the south-eastern region. Cases of water exploitation failures have been reported by Sara et al. (2012) and Offodile(2005). Enuvie et al. (2005) and Uma (1989). observed that the sedimentary sequences of the area are known to contain several aquiferous units. They also observed that the characteristics of the aquifers such as transmissivity hydraulic, conductivity and storage potentials were fully known (Chukwu, 2008; Abii and Nwabienvanne, 2007; Amadi et al, 1989; Ngah and Allen, 2005). Studied the quality status of groundwater in the area they observed that the chemical composition of groundwater and the water types found in an environment are determined greatly by local geology, types of minerals found in the environment through which the recharge and groundwater flows, anthropogenic activities such as mining and waste disposal as well as climate and topography Egboka and Ezeonu (1990) studied the level of Nitrate and Nitrate pollution in groundwater in parts of south-eastern Nigeria. Edet and Okereke 2001; a regional study of saltwater intrusion in south-eastern Nigeria, high nitrate content. Awalla and Ezeigbo 2002 worked on the appraisal of water quality in the Nturu Okposi area, Ebonyi state, south eastern Nigeria.

Chapter two

Geology Of The Study Area stu Nr N O w r tu s ut st r N r wt s t t tu t tu s ut

300m and above. Soils of the area are derived from false bedded sandstones (Ajali Formation) of the Maastrichtian geologic era and proximal to the upper coal measures (Nsukka Formation) of the Danvan geologic era. Okigwe has humid tropical climate, having a mean annual rainfall of 2250mm and a mean annual temperature range of 270-280C (FEDALR, 1985). Orographic rainfall is common in the area occupying over 25km2 land area, and the windward side of hills receive more rainfall than the leeward landscape. It has a sparsely vegetated shrubby rainforest with windward portions of hills having taller and varied plant species occurring in district tiers. The Mamu Formation overlies the Nkporo Shale without evidence of break in sediment. The type locality is along Mamu River in Enugu area of eastern Nigeria. The Mamu Formation contains a distinctive assemblage of shale, mudstone and shaly sand, with coal-seams at several horizons. The sandstones which are fine to medium grained and white or yellow in colour are normally well-bedded, although cross-bedding may be seen in places. The shale and mudstone are dark blue or gray and grade into sandstones (Reyment,1964). The shale frequently alternate with thin band and lenses of sandstone to form a characteristic striped rock. The intercalated shale are of marine origin with a lot of ammonities (Reyment,1964). Carbonaceous material is present in varying amounts and occurs at streak on the bedding or the sandstones or as irregular ramifications. Gray mudstones with scattered plant impression grade into highly carbonaceous shale. Thin lenses of shaly coal occur at numerous horizons. The different rock types alternate with another in beds which are few centimeters to several metres

thick. Ajali Sandstone overlies the Mamu Formation. The type locality is at Ajali River in Enugu area. The higher slope of the Enugu escarpment consist of Ajali sandstone with thickness of about 450 meters (Reyment, 1965). The formation continues into the former Idoma and Igala division where it also forms the higher slopes of the escarpment and underlies a considerable stretch of country further west. It underlies a belt of country on the dip-slope of Awgu Cuesta (Reyment, 1965). In the southern part of the Mamu river, the formation thins rapidly, until over the axis of the Anticlinorium (Reyment, 1962). The thickness is only about 200 metres at Uturu in Abia State, Nigeria. On the south eastern limb of the Afikpo syncline, the Ajali Sandstone cap the ridge between Nguru and Arochukwu (Kogbe 1975, Reyment 1962). The Ajali Sandstone consist of thick friable, poorly sorted sandstone, typically white in colour, but sometimes iron stained (Reyment, 1962). A marked banding of coarse and fine layers is displayed. The sand grain and fragment are sub-angular, with a sparse cement made up of white clay. It is overlain by considerable thickness of red earth, which consist of red sands, formed by the weathering and ferroginisation of the shale occur at intervals, increasing in number toward the base (Reyment,1965). Adeleye and Dessauvagie (1970), reported the presence of marine fossils (mostly gastropods and oysters) of probably Maestrichtian age. The Ajali Sandstone was deposited during a regressive phase. The type locality of the Nsukka Formation is Nadu River, 14km north of Nsukka in southeastern Nigeria. The formation was formally known as the Upper Coal Measures (Tattam, 1944, Reyment and Barber, 1956). It is overlain by the Palaeocene Imo shale and lies conformably on the Ajali Sandstone in south-eastern Nigeria. There is a broad stretch as far as the west of the Udi plateau. In the Okigwe division of south-eastern Nigeria, the basal beds dip at 3 to 4 towards west or south west and form the line of prominent hills along the eastern margin of the outcrop. The basal bed are also

exposed in the upper reaches of the south-westerly flowing tributaries of the Imo river. The Nsukka Formation transgresses directly into the Precambriam in the Okitipupa area of western Nigeria. In the Okitipupa area, the Nsukka Formation consist of sandstone, shale, occasional calcareous sandstone and sandy shale with plant remains. Thin coal seams have been found in a tributary of Owan river. Throughout Nsukka, Udi and Awgu area, the lithology of the formation consist of an alternating succession of sandstone, dark shale and sandy shale, with thin coal seams in places. In these areas the basal sandstone of Nsukka Formation has a thickness of about 15m. In Okigwe area, the Nsukka Formation has no coal present but consist of medium to coarse grained yellow sandstone with bands of shale and sandy shale. There is thin band of limestone which outcrops south of the Okigwe-Owerri road. The basal beds consist of coarse-to-fine grained sandstone which dip 30 to 40 towards west or southwest. The section in the Enem river along Uturu road comprises one decimeter of fossilferous limestone interbedded with sandstone, shale and sandy shale. The beds are mainly coarse ferroginised sandstone and sometimes cross bedded. The Nsukka Formation is about 350 metres thick. There are bands of limestone which occur toward the top of the Nsukka Formation. The limestone contain oyster shells and veinella undata (corad), which suggests an upper Cretaceous age (Reyment, 1965). The Nsukka Formation consist of deposit of proto-Niger delta, which advanced rapidly southward in the Anambra basin and the Afikpo syncline (Kogbe,1975). The formation ranges from Maestrichtian to probably lower Palaeocene and was deposited during a transgressive phase (Kogbe, Calvez, Mehes, Salami, 1975). Hence, the Nsukka Formation is underlain by the Ajali Sandstone. The Campano Maastrichtian in south eastern Nigeria begins with dark gray, often friable, shales with occasional thin beds of limestone and sandstone. This part of

the sequence belongs to the Nkporo Formation, the Owelli Sandstone, Enugu shale and Asata shale are lateral equivalents of the Nkporo Formation. These inner basin sediments are all of shallow water origin and there are frequent sharp face changes. The broad, shallow sea gradually swallowed further and coal-accumulating conditions resulted. The basal part of the coal measur s qu C M sur s ut w w s t pr v us M mu F rm t w st t L w r s m r

intercalations composed of ammoniferous shales (Rayment, 1964). The coal being part of the sequence consists of predominantly fresh water and low salinity sandstones, shales, mudstones and sandy shales, coal seams occur at several levels. Excellent exposures of the Mamu Formation can be seen along the Enugu Onitsha road at the Milliken Hill just on the outskirts of Enugu. The Mamu Formation overlain by the Ajali Formation with its type locality along the valley of the Ajali River near Enugu. This formation was previously known as the false Bedded sandstone and consist of thick friable, poorly sorted sandstones typically white in colour but sometimes iron-stained. A marked bordering of coarse and fine layers is displaced. The sand grains and large fragments are sub angular, with a sparse cement of white clay. Large scale, cross bedding is characteristic, the Ajali Formation consists of thin bands of white mudstone and shale occurring at intervals and increasing in number towards the base. The Ajali Formation is often overlain by a considerable thickness of red earth which consists of red, earthy sands formed by the weathering and ferruginisation of the formation. The Imo Formation consists of thick clayey shale, fine textured, dark grey to bluish grey with occasional admixture of clay and stone and thin band carbonized plant remains may be locally common and the formation becomes more sandy towards the top where it may consist of an alternation of bands of sandstone and shale.

HYDROGEOLOGY OF OKIGWE AREA

The major feature of the hydrogeological group is the occurrence of a deep and thick unconfined aquifer. The aquifer is found mostly within the outcrop area of the Ajali sand stone and has been encountered in much of the area. The total depths of the bore holes range from 70 240m with an average of 140m. The yield of the bore holes vary information indicates an average saturated thickness of 78m. Despite the regional extent for the unconfined aquifer, confined situations also occur in some cases with pressures sometimes above the ground surface. Pumping test data gave transmissivity values ranging from 36-62m2/d and storativity in the order of 2 x 10-2. The potential of the aquifer decreases towards t w st w r t s t s s t N UKKA rm t .

decreasing potential is probably related to the decreasing thickness of the aquifer in this region (UMA and ONUOHA 1991). A striking feature within the hydrogeological group is the occurrence of perched aquifer systems. The perched aquifers develop mostly in areas where the Nsukka formation occurs as outliers on the Ajali sandstone. Such outliers are commonly intensely bedrock beneath them. This forms an environment conducive for the development of perched aquifers. The depth to the perched water table generally varies between 3 10m below ground and depends on the relative elevation of the measurement point as well as on the season. Measured values range from 5 9m at the beginning of the recharge season (April) and 3.6 6.5m at the end of the recharge season (October). The saturated thickness of the perched aquifer is generally less than 5m. Perched aquifers also occur within area underlain by the MAMU and NKPORO formations and constitute the main drinking water supply source for

the rural communities in this area especially those around AWGU and OKIGWE. Generally the perched aquifer system is insignificant for large scale ground water development, but forms the source of many of the springs and streams dotting the severally shaped hills in the area. The Ajali sandstone, the Bende Ameki/Nanka sand and Benin formation/ Alluvium are the most permeable formations in southeastern Nigeria and hold the greatest potential for ground water storage and exploration.