Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Guide to
Electronics
by Martin T. Pickering
http://www.satcure.co.uk/accs/kits.htm
LET'S START
What's the Difference between A.C. and D.C.?
Everyone knows a battery or cell gives "d.c." or "direct current" and even though these letters do not
mention the word "voltage" they actually mean "steady voltage." to power your radio or whatever.
Less understood is "a.c." which stands for "alternating current" and this actually means a rising and
falling voltage.
It's important to understand the difference. You wouldn't connect your 12 volt radio directly to a mains
power plug because you know the plug delivers 110v or 230 volts, depending on which country you
live.
Let's take a quick look at the method of making electricity. In a power station, electricity can be made
most easily by using a gas or steam turbine or water impeller to drive a generator consisting of a
magnet spinning inside a set of coils. The resultant voltage is always "alternating" by virtue of the
magnet's rotation. Fig.1 indicates how the voltage rises positive then goes negative. Now, alternating
voltage can be carried around the country via cables far more effectively than direct current because
AC can be passed through a transformer and a high voltage can be reduced to a low voltage, suitable
for use in homes.
The electricity arrives at your house is alternating voltage. Electric light bulbs and toasters can operate
perfectly from 230 volts a.c. Other equipment such as televisions have an internal power supply which
converts the 230 volts a.c. to a low d.c. voltage for the electronic circuits. How is this done? There are
several ways but the simplest is to use a transformer to reduce the voltage to, say 12 volts a.c. (Fig.2)
This lower voltage can be fed through a "rectifier" which combines the negative and positive alternating
cycles so that only positive cycles emerge.
Fig 3
This "rectified" voltage (Fig.3) is suitable for powering things like filament bulbs and electric trains but it
is still no good for electronic circuits. What you need is "regulated d.c." which truly simulates the steady
voltage you get from a battery (cell). The first step is to connect a large value capacitor to the output of
the rectifier. A capacitor acts as a voltage reservoir and has the effect of smoothing the "ripples".
Fig 4
The output (Fig.4) is still not the same as a battery but it's often good enough for charging batteries in
mobile phones, but if you connect it to stereo equipment, you will hear the ripple as an annoying
background hum. The final step is to pass this "rippling d.c." through a regulator unit. This effectively
reduces the ripple to leave almost pure "regulated d.c," suitable for powering electronics equipment
such as stereos.
Imagine water flowing through a pipe. If we make the pipe narrow then this will restrict
the flow of water. If we force the water (current) through the narrow gap by increasing
the pressure (voltage) then energy will be given off as heat. In addition, there will be a
significant difference in pressure (voltage) above and below the restriction. As an
example, imagine pumping up a tyre by hand. The narrow pipe of the pump gets hot
doesn’t it? In electronics we use a resistor when we need to reduce the voltage across
the terminals of a circuit. This reduced voltage will cause a lower current to flow.
On the left is the symbol used to represent a resistor. You may also see it drawn as a
zigzag line. A resistor is defined by several parameters: Resistance in Ohms (R) Heat
Dissipation in Watts (W) Manufacturing tolerance (%)
I = V/R
Current (in mA) = Volts divided by Resistance (in k) or
Current (in Amps) = Volts divided by Resistance (in ohms).
V=IxR
or resistance
R=V/I
A resistor drops voltage by turning excess power into heat.
The amount of power turned into heat can be calculated from
W = V x V/R or
W = V2/R or P = V2/R
Or substituting for V in the above equation gives
W = I x I x R or
W = I2R or P = I2R
From these equations we can work out the required "wattage" of any resistor provided
we know the value
of any two of the three variables, Voltage, Current and Resistance.
W = V x I gives 10 x 1 = 10 Watts
How do Diodes Work?
A diode allows current to flow in
only ONE direction. If the
cathode end (marked with a
stripe) is connected so it is more
negative than the anode end,
current will flow. The diagram
shows three types of diode:
Small signal diode, Rectifier
diode, and Fast recovery diode.
A diode has a forward voltage
drop. That is to say, when current
is flowing, the voltage at the
anode is always higher than the
voltage at the cathode.
The actual Forward Voltage Drop varies according to the type of diode.
For example:
A Red LED
A ZENER diode does not allow current to flow until the voltage on its
cathode reaches a value called the "Zener Voltage." At this voltage the
diode "breaks down" and a LOT of current will flow and must be
restricted by connecting a resistor in series. At this point the supply
voltage can increase and the voltage across the zener will remain
constant.
Values of 2.4 volts to 100 volts or more are common.
Zener diodes are used to "clamp" a voltage in order to prevent it rising
higher than a certain value. This might be to protect a circuit from
damage. Zener diodes are also used to provide a fixed "reference
voltage" from a supply that varies. They are widely used in regulated
power supply circuits.
How do Transistors Work?
Here is a picture of a transistor. It runs on water but
is a very good example of how a transistor
operates.
There are three openings labelled "B" (Base), "C"
(Collector) and "E" (Emitter).
We provide a reservoir of water "C" (the "power
supply voltage") but it can't move because there's a
black plunger in the way which is blocking the outlet
to "E". The reservoir of water is called the "supply
voltage". If we increase the amount of water
sufficiently, it will burst our transistor just the same
as if we increase the voltage to a real transistor. We
don't want to do this, so we keep that "supply
voltage" at a safe level. If we pour water current into
reservoir "B" (the base “voltage pressure”) this
current flows along the "Base" pipe and pushes the
black plunger upwards, allowing quite a lot of water
to flow from "C" to "E". Some of the water from "B"
also joins it and flows away. If we pour even more
water into "B", the black plunger moves up further
and a great torrent of water current flows from "C"
to "E".
2. The amount of current that can flow from "C" to "E" is limited by the "pipe diameter". So, no matter
how much current we push into "B", there will be a point beyond which we can't get any more current
flow from "C" to "E". The only way to solve this problem is to use a larger transistor. A "power transistor".
3. The transistor can be used to switch the current flow on and off. If we put sufficient current into "B,"
the transistor will allow the maximum amount of current to flow from "C" to "E". The transistor is
switched fully "on".
If the current into "B" is reduced to the point where it can no longer lift the black plunger, the transistor
will be "off". Only a small "leakage" current from "B" will be flowing. To turn it fully off, we must stop all
current flowing into "B". Notice that we need a certain amount of “voltage pressure” in reservoir “B”
before the plunger will move at all. This voltage is approximately 0.6 volts for a silicon transistor. If B is
less than 0.6 volts, no current can flow at all. But it can’t be more than 0.6 volts because the black
plunger opens and relieves the pressure. In a real transistor, any restriction to the current flow causes
heat to be produced. This happens with air or water in other things: for example, your bicycle pump
becomes hot near the valve when you pump air through it. A transistor must be kept cool or it will be
damaged. It runs coolest when it is fully OFF and fully ON. When it is fully ON there is very little
restriction so, even though a lot of current is flowing, only a small amount of heat is produced. When it is
fully OFF then NO heat is produced. If a transistor is half ON then quite a lot of current is flowing
through a restricted gap and heat is produced. To help get rid of this heat, the transistor might be
clamped to a metal plate which draws the heat away and radiates it to the air. Such a plate is called a
"heat sink." It often has fins to increase its surface area and thereby improves the efficiency.
Getting Technical
The difference between PNP and NPN transistors is that NPN use electrons as carriers of current and
PNP use a lack of electrons (known as "holes").
Basically, nothing moves very far at a time. One atom simply robs an electron from an adjacent atom so
you get the impression of "flow". In the case of "N" material, there are lots of spare electrons. In the case
of "P" there aren't. In fact "P" is gasping for electrons. Bear in mind that the Base is only a few atoms in
thickness - almost a membrane - so any electrons allowed into the base "membrane" act as a catalyst to
allow other electrons to break through from collector to emitter.
Imagine a pool of water near the edge of a table. It rests there with surface tension holding it in place.
Now put one tiny drop of water on the table edge and let it touch the pool of water. Suddenly, the pool
drains onto the floor as gravity takes over! Your tiny drop provided the catalyst to get it moving. So the
base electrons do a similar job for the "pool" of electrons in the emitter - helped by the "gravity suction"
of the power supply voltage on the collector. A transistor doesn't "increase" current. It simply allows
power supply current to pass from collector to emitter* - the actual amount depends on the (small)
current allowed to flow into its base.
The more electrons you allow into the base, the more (x100) that flow from collector to emitter. I put "x
100" because that is the typical gain (amplification factor) of a transistor. For example, one electron put
into the base could allow 100 to escape from collector to emitter.
The best way to understand this is to get your soldering iron and start building!
The purist might argue that current flows from emitter to collector - dependent on whether we are
discussing electron flow or "hole" flow. I don't want to get involved in the real physics of current flow.
You don't need to know this to understand a circuit. This discussion relates to Bipolar transistors. Other
types of transistor such as "FETs" (Field Effect Transistors) are in common use and work in a slightly
different way in that the voltage applied to the "gate" terminal controls the current flowing from "cathode"
terminal to "anode" terminal. In effect, a FET is simply a semi-conducting (one-way) resistor whose
value is controlled by the voltage applied to its "gate."
Example Transistor Circuits
It is easy to calculate.
The voltage at Q1 base is 5.6 volts. The voltage between base and emitter of a silicon transistor is
always 0.6 volts if the transistor is "on".
So the voltage at the Q1 emitter (Vout) must be 5.6 - 0.6 = 5.0 volts.
The output voltage will remain at a constant value of 5.0 volts provided the input voltage from the supply
is more than 6 volts (the zener voltage plus a little to compensate for that "lost" across the resistor). In
fact the input voltage can swing up and down between say, 6 volts and 12 volts and the output voltage
at Q1 emitter will still be a steady 5.0 volts.
The limiting factors are the amount of heat generated by R1, ZD1 and Q1 since all excess voltage must
be shed as heat. The "wattage" ratings of the individual components must be calculated to suit:
1. The average input current (through R1 and ZD1) and
2. the output current (through Q1).... ... can be calculated from Ohms Law and is determined by the
voltage being supplied as Vout.
Ohms Law:
I = V/R
V = Volts
I = Amps if R = Ohms or
I = mA if R = k
Suppose the maximum supply voltage might be 9.6v. Then the maximum voltage across R1 will be 9.6 -
5.6 = 4.0v.
From Ohms Law, the current through R1 will now be V/R = 4.0/200 = 0.02A = 20mA
Watts = Volts x Amps
milliWatts = Volts x milliAmps
Watts = Volts x Amps so the minimum
Wattage of R1 must be 4.0 x 0.02 = 0.08W - not a lot!
A standard 0.25 Watt resistor will be more than adequate for R1.
Let's check the zener diode rating under the worst conditions:
The voltage across ZD1 will still be 5.6v
The current in the worst case will be 20mA, assuming none goes through Q1.
So the Wattage of ZD1 must be at least 5.6 x 0.02 = 0.112W = 112mW
A BZX zener diode will dissipate up to 500mW so the circuit is safe.
R1 = 200 0.25W
ZD1 = BZX55C5V6
Q1 = BC337
VOLTAGE REGULATOR - 5A
Before we go any further, let me say that currents up to 700mA can be easily handled with components
including transformers, diodes, pass-transistors or 3-terminal regulators.
With a current above 1amp and up to 3 amp, another set of components is available and these are fairly
rugged, robust and fairly expensive. But when you need a current as high as 5 amp, a lot of thought has
to go into the design to minimize heat. The following circuit produces a lot of wasted heat and is an old-
design. It is only presented as an example. New designs use switch-mode circuitry.
The 100mA circuit can be converted to provide more current. All we need to do is to add a second
transistor (which has a higher rating to handle the extra current) and change the zener diode to clamp at
6.2 volts in order to compensate for the b-e voltage of BOTH transistors. 6.2 - 0.6 - 0.6 = 5.0 volts
If the first transistor provides 5.6 volts at 100mA (0.1 Amps)
and the gain of the second transistor is 50 then it can provide 5.0 volts at 0.1 x 50 = 5 Amps.
Be sure to use a power transistor rated at 5 Amps or more!
Abbreviations
Although we use the Greek symbol Omega Ω to represent “Ohms” it is frequently written as “R”.
So, for example, a resistor of 47 Ohms may be written as 47Ω or 47R.
A resistor of four point seven Ohms may be 4.7Ω or 4.7R but, because the decimal point may disappear
during printing, it is common practice to put the letter in place of the dot, thus: 4R7
A thousand Ohms is called a “kiloOhm” and abbreviated to “k”.
So, for example, 6800 Ohms may be written as 6.8k or 6k8
A million Ohms is a “MegaOhm” and abbreviated to “M”.
So, for example 1,000,000 Ohms may be written as 1M
3,300,000 Ohms may be written 3.3M but the preferred way is: 3M3
How does a Capacitor Work?
Capacitor Symbol
This is also called a decoupling capacitor
A capacitor consists of two separated plates and it is obvious that electricity cannot pass from one side
to the other. And it doesn't. No electricity flows through a capacitor.
But something does happen and it APPEARS that electricity flows through a capacitor.
A capacitor "passes" AC
The next effect produced by a capacitor is called "influence." You have possibly seen people walking
along a wall and others on the ground teasing them to fall off by pretending to push. Eventually the
person falls.
The same with a capacitor.
When a voltage on the left side of the capacitor rises, the left-hand plate rises and pulls the right hand
plate with it, because both plates at the same zero potential.
As the left plate rises, it also collects some of the charge from the rising voltage and it ends up with a
slightly higher voltage than the right plate. Let us assume the left plate rises to 20v and the right plate
rises to 10v.
When the voltage falls, the right plate pushes the left plate down and in the process it loses most of the
original charge (potential) and the right plate decreases to zero.
The voltage on the right-plate can be used to power a circuit and it would appear that the current has
passed through the capacitor.
Where does the current come from? It actually comes up from the 0v (ground) lead. This is something
that has never been covered before in any text book.
There are hundreds of different shapes and sizes of capacitor and you cannot tell
any of the characteristics by looking at the size or shape. You must look at the
values printed on the side of the component and refer to the manufacturers
specifications.
Sometimes the shape and colour of the capacitor can take you to a specification
sheet for more information.
The photos on the left show some of the capacitors available on the market.
We could not possibly outline the range of values, the working voltage and the
different types of dielectric in this short discussion.
The only way for you to gain experience is to desolder some capacitors from the
printed circuit boards of salvaged equipment and sort them into different groups.
Most of the capacitors will be perfect except for very old electrolytics - as they may
have dried out and lost their capacitance.
Some of the mall capacitors have coloured shots to identify their capacitance and
tolerance. You will need to refer to a chart to determine their value.
In most cases there is a reason why a particular type of capacitor has been chosen.
It may be due to cheapness, high stability, low impedance, size, shape, high
capacitance, low capacitance, high frequency, high voltage, durability, high
temperature, temperature stability, variable capacitance (air trimmer) or a number of
other factors.
Some of the
capacitors
currently on
the market
How do Inductors Work?
Whereas a resistor limits the flow of current, an inductor opposes a change of flow of current.
So, it allows a steady current to flow freely, but it will not let the current change rapidly.
It causes a delay to occur in the change and this creates a delay-factor that can be used in electronics.
An inductor also produces a voltage in the opposite direction when the voltage is suddenly removed.
This voltage can be considerably higher than the voltage energising the inductor.
Actually, the operation of an inductor is very complex and would take many pages to discuss. We will
just look at some types:
This one looks very much like a transformer but is clearly a choke
since it has only two connections. A transformer needs at least
three.
LED TORCH
The circuit shows a LED torch running a
LED from just 1.5 volts. An Ultra-bright
white LED usually needs at least 3.6 volts
across it before it will light. This simple
circuit uses a single transistor and a
transformer comprising just 60 turns and
40 turns of fine wire on a tiny ferrite slug
to form an oscillator. The circuit will
operate off an almost dead battery (just
0.75 volts) and produces around 20 volts
with the LED disconnected. Up to four
LEDs may be connected in series but the
brightness decreases as the number of
LEDs is increased.
The circuit demonstrates the
characteristics of an inductor mentioned
above and the 10n capacitor shows how
stabilizing the voltage at the connection of
the transformer and 2k7, improves the
output of the circuit by 300%.
Bread Board and building a LED Flasher
The circuit is powered by two 1.5 volt AA cells in a battery holder. Compare the physical layout
with the circuit diagram. Notice the I.C. is pushed into eight holes, straddling the central channel.
Each of the eight holes is one of a group of 5 which are all connected together horizontally
under the plastic. There are two columns, each with 29 rows of 5 interconnected holes. A further
four columns, at each side, are connected together internally in vertical sets of 25 holes. (These
vertically connected holes were not used in our layout).
This type of “breadboard” layout requires no soldering and circuits can be assembled in a few
minutes and the components are fully re-usable.
I’ve marked these with arrows. Resistors R1 and R4 protect the LEDs from excessive current. The
actual value is dependent on the characteristics of the LEDs but 270 Ohms should be fine for supply
(voltages of between 3 volts and 12 volts are suitable for this circuit). R3 and R4 determine the speed at
which the LEDs flash alternately (the frequency of oscillation). Capacitors C1 and C2 also have a big
influence on the frequency. For a slow flash of about one Hertz (one flash per second) you can use
100µ electrolytics. For a rapid flash use 4µ7 capacitors. For other speeds try different values.
http://www.talkingelectronics.com
by Martin T. Pickering
http://www.satcure.co.uk/accs/kits.htm