CHAPTER 3 Methodology and Procedure This chapter discusses the methods of research, the sources of data and the

mathematical concepts, methods and procedures thoughts made that were used in developing mathematical that

and

facilitating study easier

mathematical to

explanations The

this

understand.

concepts

presented in this chapter serves as pre-requisites in the course of this study.

Methods of Research The main objective of the study is to bring out the definition and properties of Mandelbrot set. To achieve the objective of this study, the descriptive and expository

methods of research were used. Descriptive research is also known as statistical

research; it is concerned with the description of data and characteristics about phenomenon being studied. This type of research describes what exists and may help to uncover new facts and meaning. or Descriptive identify research what attempts It to

determine,

describe,

is.

uses

27

description, classification, measurement and comparison to describe a situation. The main characteristic is that the researcher has no control over the variables.

(http://wikieducator.org/Research) Expository research on the other hand is a type of research that explains, describe, inform or give

information. It is an excellent way for students to know how to express themselves in at writing. various can be It involves of very

communicating understanding. complex,

information Expository on

levels simple is or

writing what

based

topic

chosen.

(http://www.ehow.com/info_7999189_topics-expositoryresearch-paper.html) In this study, the descriptive method of research was used because the concepts related to fractal geometry were described and summarized. The study provides definition of terms, theorems, and other related concepts involved in the study of fractals. Furthermore, several examples were

presented, discussed and simplified to enable the readers to understand the concepts.

28

This type of research doesnt require to prove the views on anything neither asked to find a fresh solution to an unsolved issue nor the writers asked to take instance of their own in a particular issue. All that is needed to do is to give an explanation or description of the given

topic, whichever is applicable. All that are permitted to do is, explain views the or topic from The point only of the right proved that and the

existing

facts.

researchers have will be to write it in their own words and find out their knowledge in the study and their ability in putting it into their own words, effectively and in an interesting way. Therefore, the expository method was used to precisely define, expose and classify the methods and algorithms in constructing fractals. It also elaborates on the concepts, definitions, and theorems leading to the main study of this paper. Sources of Data The data that were used in this study were gathered from selected books in Fractal Geometry, Chaos and Fractals and other mathematics books. Other relevant data were

29

gathered written

from by

mathematics local and

journals, foreign

articles authors.

and

thesis

Additional

information was supplied by the writers in consultations with or as suggested by their adviser, members of the panel committee, and other resource persons. Significant Internet materials solutions fractals. Mathematical Methods and Procedures The concepts, following are the different and basic mathematical that are were to also utilized in order to establish on the

the

equation

and

procedures

generating

properties,

methods

procedures

needed in understanding clearly the discussions in the next chapter. Fractals. 1. Sets One of the basic ideas of all mathematics is set. A set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. A well defined set means that it is possible to determine whether belongs to given set. For a small set, the elements may be listed like the set which consist the They are vital and relevant in the study of

30

elements

of

Each

element

of

the

set

can

be

written as

A set can also be described by the property belonging precisely to the elements

For between

example, . Then

let

be

set

of

an

even

integer

can be written as

1.1 Union of Sets Consider denoted either If by the , two is sets the set . The union of and , to

whose

elements .

belong

. In symbols, and , then

1.2

Intersection of Sets and . The intersection of the

Consider two sets sets and , denoted by

, is defined as .

31

For .

example,

if

and

then

1.3 Subsets If every element of a set set , then is a subset of is also an element of a , written . Any set is , is considered

also a subset of itself and the null set, a subset of every set. Consider the following example, let subsets of are: ,

, then the and {1, 2, 3}.

2. The set of Complex Number The set of all numbers of the form or , where and

are real numbers and of complex numbers; that is

is called the set

The number

is called the real part of .

, and b is

called the imaginary part of Example 3.1 The number

is a complex number where 7 is

the real part and 3 is the imaginary part. 2.1 Operation on Complex Numbers

32

2.1.1 Sum of two complex numbers If and are two complex numbers, then

Example 3.2 Find the sum of Solution:

2.1.2 Difference of two complex numbers If and are two complex numbers, then

Example 3.3 Subtract Solution:

2.1.3 Product of two complex numbers If and are two complex numbers, then

Example 3.4 Find the Product of Solution 1:

33

Using the formula where could get

we

Solution 2: Performing multiplication term by term

2.2 Plotting a Complex Number in the Complex Plane Plotting points in the complex plane is similar to plotting points in the Cartesian plane. The only difference lies in the fact that instead of using the vertical number line as the , it now becomes the number line for the is the

imaginary part of the complex number while number line for the real part. Consider the complex number this point is

. The real component of

and the imaginary component is . Plot the

point as a pair of coordinates in the Cartesian plane. Thus, each point in the plane corresponds to a complex

34

number and conversely, each complex number corresponds to a point in the plane.

Figure 2: The point

in the Complex Plane

2.3 Magnitude of Complex Number The magnitude, by of a complex number , represented . That is,

is its distance from the origin

35

Figure 3: Magnitude of Number a Complex 3. Sequences and Series A sequence is a function whose domain is the set

of positive integers. A sequence is usually represented by listing its values in order. The numbers in this ordered list are called terms of the sequence use to represent the first term, . The is

for the second term,

for the third term, and so on. The nth term is denoted

36

by

The

subscripts,

which

are

all

positive

integers,

indicate the position of the term in the sequence. Example 3.5 The sequence where , , . is written , and

so on. The nth term is 3.1 Geometric Sequence A geometric sequence is a

sequence

such

that

any

element after the first can be obtained by multiplying the preceding element by a constant. The constant multiplier is called the common ratio and is denoted by . Common ration any term by the preceding one. That is, may be computed by dividing

Or

Example

3.6

sequence

is

geometric

sequence. To obtain the next term, multiply the preceding term by 5. Therefore the common ratio is

37

The

sequence .

of

numbers

is

geometric

sequence with

Theorem 3.1 The sum sequence is given by

of the first

terms of the geometric

where

is the first term,

is the nth term and

is the

common ratio of the geometric sequence.

3.1.1 Infinite Geometric Series An infinite sum of the form

with

first

term

and

common

ratio ,

is

called

an

infinite geometric series. If infinite geometric series is given by

then the sum

of the

Example 3.7 Find the sum of the given infinite geometric series.

38

Solution: The first term is

and the common ratio

Substituting gives,

The sum of infinite geometric series is . 4. Iteration Performing a set of rules or a series of steps

repeatedly is called iteration. Iteration can be generator iteration, iteration. Iteration is the repetition of the process, with the output of one stage used as the input of the next. This is the backbone of generating fractals. Generating fractals is a feed-back process drawn in figure 4 below in which the same process is carried out repeatedly where in the output of one iteration is made the input of the next. (Peitgen and Ritcher, 1986, p.5) iterated function system (IFS) and formula

39

The only requirement is a nonlinear relation between input and output.

Figure 4. Feedback Process

Example 3.8 (Using Formula Iteration) Start with two real numbers, say, 2 and 5. This will serve as the first two terms of the sequence. Form the sequence according to this alteration process. Let Add Add Add Add Add to to to to to and divide by and divide by and divide by and divide by and divide by . . . . .

40

Add Add

to

and divide by

. .

to term

and divide by

The recurrence relation is

The sequence is For example, consider a rule, called mapping, (Complex numbers are often called c). If c equals then .

Then the next value to use is the output of the first, which is ,

If this process is continued by applying the mapping to and the succeeding answers, iteration is performed.

5. Fractal Geometry Fractal Geometry is a mathematical field that provides a framework for the analysis of fractal sets. In general a fractal set (1) has the following five properties: has scales. detailed structure on arbitrarily small

41

(2)

Often

has some form of self-similarity, that is

contains copies of itself at infinitely many scales. (3) is too irregular to be described in traditional geometry language, considering either parts of or (4) as a whole. is defined in a very

In most cases of interest,

simple way, often recursively. (5) Usually , the topological dimension of (like

the observable dimension one, two, and three) is less than the fractal dimension of . Various

notions of fractal dimension have been defined, but most often the fractal dimension is not an integer.

6. A Special Family of Functions To understand the concept of iteration, in this study it uses the function of a second degree

polynomials, where each value of function function . Given a fixed

determines a different , to iterate the

constant

choose an initial point

. The first iteration

42

takes the initial point iteration takes the point

to the point to the point

. The next

, and so on. In this fashion, the orbit of under is formed . the behavior under iteration in the by the iterates , for all

nonnegative integers In family studies of

of polynomial function. This study examines the under iteration.

orbit of the initial point When

varies among the real numbers, two kinds of behavior are observed. When and . For and

of the iterates of zero under

, the orbits of zero are bounded between values of

outside of this interval that is, for

, the orbits of zero are unbounded. Roughly speaking, the iterates of zero under farther and farther is away from to in this second case, land zero vary at each successive the complex under has

iteration. numbers,

When

allowed of the

among of

the

behavior

iterates

becomes surprisingly more complex. A complex number the form , where and are real numbers and

. Whereas real numbers can be visualized on the number

43

line, denoted

, complex numbers, which essentially have a , can be visualized in the , which is analogous to the

form of an ordered pair complex plane, denoted

Cartesian plane of real numbers. When the orbits of

is complex valued,

are either bounded or unbounded, just as . The only difference orbit. In the

in the previous case of real-valued is in the meaning of the term

bounded

complex plane, bounded orbits never contain values that lie beyond a certain radial distance from the origin of the plane that is, the magnitude of the iterates remains

bounded.

7. Linear Conjugacy One of the main reasons why the iterative behavior of the family of functions that any quadratic function is is studied is the fact linearly conjugate to a

certain function and the function linear other degree one words,

in this family. A quadratic function are linearly conjugate if there exists a function such that . So, , or in given an

44

arbitrary

quadratic and

function , such that

as

result

, and then Conjugation

is

important

in

that

several

function

properties which are studied in complex analytic dynamics remain invariant, the most important being iteration, since if then necessarily,

k-times This linear conjugacy guarantees that if the iterative dynamics of the special family be understood then of quadratic functions can the dynamics of all

automatically

functions under iteration is understandable.