Mathematics for Computing

'83' '84' '85' '86' '87' '88' '89' '91' '92' '93' '94'

c d e f g h i j k l m

'A3' 'A4' 'A5' 'A6' 'A7' 'A8' 'A9' 'C0' 'C1' 'C2' 'C3'

t u v w x y z { A B C

'D0' 'D1' 'D2' 'D3' 'D4' 'D5' 'D6' 'D7' 'D8' 'D9' 'E2'

} J K L M N O P Q R S

'E9' 'F0' 'F1' 'F2' 'F3' 'F4' 'F5' 'F6' 'F7' 'F8' 'F9'

Z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Table 2.9-1

2.10 Boolean Algebra The most obvious way to simplify Boolean expressions is to manipulate them in the same way as normal algebraic expressions are manipulated. With regards to logic relations in digital forms, a set of rules for symbolic manipulation is needed in order to solve for the unknowns. A set of rules formulated by the English mathematician George Boole describe certain propositions whose outcome would be either true or false. With regard to digital logic, these rules are used to describe circuits whose state can be either, 1 (true) or 0 (false). In order to fully understand this, the relation between the AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate operations should be appreciated. OR operation: The OR operation says if any input is on, the output will be on. It's easy to see all of the combinations by using what are called truth tables, illustrated below. Input 1 0 0 1 1 AND operation: Input 2 0 1 0 1 Output 0 1 1 1

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The AND operation says if and only if all inputs are on, the output will be on. The output will be off if any of the inputs are off. Input 1 0 0 1 1 NOT operation: The inverter or NOT operation, says that the output will be opposite in state to the input. It obviously has only one input and one output. Note that it will change an AND to a NAND, an OR to a NOR and an XOR to a NXOR if connected to their outputs. It simply changes 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s. Input 1 0 1 Output 1 0 Input 2 0 1 0 1 Output 0 0 0 1

2.11 Basic Laws and Axioms of Boolean algebra Note that every law has two expressions, (a) and (b). This is known as duality. These are obtained by changing every AND (.) to OR (+), every OR (+) to AND (.) and all 1's to 0's and vice-versa. It has become conventional to drop the. (AND symbol) i.e. A.B is written as AB. T1 : Commutative Law (a) A + B = B + A (b) A B = B A T2 : Associate Law (a) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (b) (A B) C = A (B C) T3 : Distributive Law (a) A (B + C) = A B + A C (b) A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C) T4 : Identity Law (a) A + A = A (b) A A = A T5 : (a) (b) T6 : Redundancy Law

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(a) A + A B = A (b) A (A + B) = A T7 : (a) 0 + A = A (b) 0 A = 0 T8 : (a) 1 + A = 1 (b) 1 A = A T9 : (a) (b) T10 : (a) (b) T11 : De Morgan's Theorem (a) (b)

2.12 Truth Tables A truth table shows how a logic circuit's output responds to various combinations of the inputs, using logic 1 for true and logic 0 for false. All permutations of the inputs are listed on the left, and the output of the circuit is listed on the right. The desired output can be achieved by a combination of logic gates. A truth table for two inputs is shown, but it can be extended to any number of inputs. The input columns are usually constructed in the order of binary counting with a number of bits equal to the number of inputs. Truth Table for AND Gate X 0 0 1 1 Y 0 1 0 1 Output 0 0 0 1

AND OR NOT Operations .. (Insert from previous document) Boolean Expressions (Insert from previous document)

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2.13 Logic Gates and Circuits Gates and simple circuits The term Gate is used to describe the members of a set of basic electronic components which, when combined with each other, are able to perform complex logical and arithmetic operations. 'Gates' are the physical realization of the simple Boolean expressions. Electronic circuits which combine digital signals according to the Boolean algebra are referred to as logic gates; gates because they control the flow of information.

Example logic circuits

Gate Symbol Truth Table

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Design logic circuit for Boolean expression A B + CD = F In this example A,B,C,D are inputs and F is out put
B Can be represent with A B expression having AND logic, we can take A B = P

CD expression also having AND logic, we can take CD = Q

Then final expression would be in form of P+Q = F, This has OR logic

Therefore we can design final circuit for the Boolean expression A B + CD = F as

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