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The University of the West Indies

PHYS1412
WAVES, OPTICS & THERMODYNAMICS


Department of Physics
(Revised 2011)
The University of the West Indies


PHYS1412
WAVES, OPTICS & THERMODYNAMICS
Department of Physics
WAVES, OPTICS & THERMODYNAMICS
ii

CONTENTS

WRITING A PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT .......................................................................... iii
ASSESSING A PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT ....................................................................... iv
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS CONCERNING THE PHYSICS LAB .............................................. v
ON THE ESTIMATION OF ACCURACY ..................................................................................... vi
PHYS1412 SYLLABUS ............................................................................................................. xi

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXP 1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION USING A
HELIUM-NEON LASER ............................................................................................. 1
EXP 2 MECHANICAL RESONANCE ..................................................................................... 6
Exp 3 PROPERTIES OF SINE WAVES ................................................................................... 8
Exp. 4 PLANE TRANSMISSION DIFFRACTION GRATING .................................................... 13
EXP. 5 NEWTON'S RINGS ................................................................................................. 15
EXP. 6 INTERFERENCE FROM A THIN WEDGE ................................................................... 18
EXP. 7 CLEMENT AND DESORMES EXPERIMENT ............................................................... 21
EXP. 8 CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER ............................................................ 24




iii

WRITING A PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT
The format required in the report is fairly standard and is briefly discussed here.
1. EXPERIMENT NUMBER, TITLE, DATE AND PARTNER
These must be written at the beginning of the report.
2. PURPOSE
A brief statement of the purpose of the experiment is required even if this is already given on
the instruction sheet for the experiment.
3. THEORY
This is normally given on the instruction sheet and need not be reproduced.
4. METHOD
This is also is normally given and can be omitted. Diagrams given also need not be included in
the report.
5. RESULTS
Readings are to be tabulated where necessary. Graphs are to be drawn using a suitable scale and
must be properly labelled.
6. ESTIMATION OF ACCURACY
An estimation of the accuracy of numerical results must be done. Examples of how this is to be
done are given beginning on a page vi.
7. DISCUSSION
The discussion should include results and conclusions related to the purpose of the experiment.
It is a good idea to reread the aim before starting to write your discussion. In your discussion you
should include descriptions of the graph(s) obtained and say what conclusion(s) can be drawn
from them. Do they relate to the theory given? Similarly, you should analyse your overall results
and draw some conclusions. Discuss the magnitude of error and how it affects the results and
comment on whether or not the purpose of the exercise has been achieved. Important
precautions that are observed in performing the experiment should also be noted. Appraisal of
the experiment should be constructive. It is particularly useless to say that 'better' results would
have been obtained if 'better' equipment had been provided.
iv

ASSESSING A PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT

Reports are marked on a scale 0-10 marks. Below is a rough guide of how marks are
allocated. However since experiments differ in their requirements, instructors may alter
slightly how the marks are apportioned depending on the emphasis of the experiment.
Maximum Marks
a. For successfully setting up the apparatus so as to
run the experiment. 1
b. For obtaining data and presenting it in tabloid or
graphical form where necessary. 3
c. For all calculations and manipulation of data,
equations or graphs. This includes finding slopes
and error calculations, where relevant. 3
d. For discussion/conclusion. This includes:
A detailed discussion of errors in the
experimental results and what they show
quantitatively and/or qualitatively.
A detailed discussion of the results of the
experiment as they relate to the purpose of the
experiment and the physical laws concerned.
This includes a discussion of the graphs
obtained or equations used. 3

It should be noted that a student will obtain a maximum of 4 marks for simply gathering the
data and plotting graphs, where relevant.
Instructors will apportion marks in each category above according to the accuracy,
correctness and relevance of the work done. In other words, it will not be automatic to get
marks for any section just by presenting something.


v

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS CONCERNING THE PHYSICS LAB

1. Students are required to sign the ATTENDANCE SHEET provided by the Lab Supervisor in
the space appropriate to the experiment to be performed.
2. In general, students are required to work in pairs. More than two persons will be
allocated to use one set of equipment at the same time only in the event of equipment
failure.
3. Students should attend only the Lab session to which they have been assigned. A
student may be allowed to attend another Lab to make up for an assigned Lab that
he/she cannot attend only if permission is granted before the assigned Lab.
4. Absence from a Lab session will be counted against the student unless permission is
given before the Lab or a medical certificate is presented afterwards.
5. Lab reports should be written in Lab books which are on sale in the bookshop.
6. The name of the student and the day on which Lab is attended should be carefully
printed on the bottom edge of the book.
7. Lab reports are to be completed and submitted by the end of the session in which the
experiments arc performed.
8. Under normal circumstances it should then be unnecessary for the students to remove
the books from the Lab.
vi

ON THE ESTIMATION OF ACCURACY
Whenever a numerical result is calculated, it is essential that the reliability of the result be
established even if this is done in a simplified manner. This estimation of accuracy is often
referred to as the estimation of errors. It is important that one realizes that the word "ERROR"
used in this context DOES NOT REFER TO MISTAKES BUT TO THE DEGREE OF UNCERTAINTY
ABSOLUTE ERROR
The absolute error in a quantity is usually expressed in the same unit as the quantity itself.
Example: Length of table, L = 1.65 0.05 m. In this case the absolute error L = 0.05 m.
If the same reading is taken more than once, the average value is used in the calculation and the
mean deviation is used as the absolute error,
Example: Suppose the length of the table is measured three times to obtain values of:
1.65 0.05 m
1.60 0.05 m
1.85 0.05 m
The average value = 1 65+1.60+1.85 = 1.70 m
3
The deviations from the average are then: -0.05, - 0.10 and + 0.1 5
Now the mean deviation = Sum of deviations regardless of sign
Number of readings
Therefore the mean deviation = 0.05+0.10+0.15 = 0.10
3
So we now express the length of the table as L = 1.70 0.10 m
Note that the absolute error in the average value may at times be larger than that in a single
reading.
FRACTIONAL ERROR (AND PERCENTAGE ERROR)
FRACTIONAL ERROR = ABSOLUTE ERROR
QUANTITY MEASURED
PERCENTAGE ERROR = FRACTIONAL ERROR 100%
vii

For the average value of the length of the table quoted above,
The fractional error = 0.10 = 0.06
1.70
The percentage error = 0.06 x 100 = 6 %

SIMPLE RULES FOR ESTIMATING ACCURACY IN A CALCULATED RESULT
(1) When quantities are ADDED or SUBTRACTED, their ABSOLUTE ERRORS ADD.
(2) When quantities are MULTIPLIED or DIVIDED, their FRACTIONAL (AND PERCENTAGE)
ERRORS ADD.
Application of these rules will now be demonstrated in a few examples:
Ex. 1. In calculating a quantity, y, using the formula y = a + b - c,
one measures a = 2.1 0.2 mm b = 1.6 0.1 mm c = 0.50 0.05 mm
Hence, y = 2.1 + 1.6-0.5 = 3.2 mm
Absolute error in y, y = 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.05 = 0.35 mm
The result is then y = 3.20 0.35 mm.
Ex. 2 In calculating a quantity, z, using the formula
s
pq
z =
one measures p = 7.5 0.5 kg q = 4.0 0.2 m s = 7.0 0.3 m
Hence, kg z 3 . 4
7
4 5 . 7
=

=
Fractional error in z = fractional error p + fractional error in q + fractional error in s
In symbols |

\
|
+ + =
|
|

\
|
+

0 . 7
3 . 0
0 . 4
2 . 0
5 . 7
5 . 0
s
s
q
q
p
p
z
z

= (0.067 + 0.05 + 0.043) = 0.16
Absolute error in z, z = 0.16 z
z = (0.16 4.3) = 0.7 kg
The result is then z = 4.3 0.7 kg
Ex.3 If is calculated using the formula
c
d b a ) ( +
=
viii

|
|

\
|
+

+
+
+
=

c
c
d
d
b a
b a
) (

; therefore
|
|

\
|
+

+
+
+
=
c
c
d
d
b a
b a
) (

Ex.4 If u and v are measured in order to calculate f using the formula
v u f
1 1 1
+ =
it is easier to simplify the formula before calculating the absolute error in f
Simplification gives
) ( v u
uv
f
+
= and therefore
|
|

\
|
+
+
+

) ( v u
v u
v
v
u
u
f
f

Hence f may be obtained.
Ex.5 Consider an experiment in which values of y and x are measured and a graph of y against
x is plotted. Suppose a relationship x
l
z
y
2
= applies and z is to be calculated.
The slope of the graph is
l
z 2
so l
slope
z
2
=
Since 2 is a known constant, there is negligible error in it.
Therefore
|
|

\
|
+

l
l
slope
slope
z
z

So in order to calculate z, it is necessary to calculate the error in the slope of the graph.

FINDING THE ERROR IN THE SLOPE AND INTERCEPT OF A GRAPH
Let us examine the typical graph illustrated below.
The best straight line is drawn so that
(i) the deviations of the points from the line are kept to a minimum, and
(ii) the points not on the line are approximately evenly distributed on either side of the line.
From this line one obtains the desired value of the slope.

ix


The following steps are then taken to determine the error in the slope:
(1) A rectangle is drawn with its long sides parallel to and straddling the best straight line.
The size of this rectangle is the smallest that will enable it to enclose all (or nearly all) of
the points.
(2) The diagonals of the rectangle are now drawn and it will be noticed that one has a slope
greater than that of the best line while the other has a smaller slope. The slopes of the
diagonals are called MAX and MIN respectively.
(Note: The diagonals usually intersect on the best straight line at about the middle of the
range of the measured values).
(3) The best possible slope is the slope of the best straight line.
(4) The error in the slope is then calculated from the formula

n
slope
2
slope MIN slope MAX
) (

= where n = number of points.

Similarly the best intercept is the intercept of the best straight line. To obtain the error in the
intercept, proceed as follows:
(1) Draw the best straight line and the lines of MAX and MIN slopes. Extend the lines of
MAX and MIN slopes to cut the axis on which the intercept is required (the following
figure shows this for an intercept on the y-axis), then measure the max and min
intercepts.
x


(2) The error in the intercept is then calculated from the formula
n 2
intercept min intercept max
) intercept (

=
NOTE: If all points fall on the same straight line (e.g. as in figure below), then the error in the
slope can be obtained by estimating the errors in reading Y and X from the graph and
computing:
|

\
|
+

X
X
Y
Y
slope
slope

Y and X are usually taken as the smallest divisions on the y and x axes respectively. In this
case also, the error in the intercept will be:
Y(for the intercept on the y-axis) OR X (for the intercept on the x-axis)

xi

PHYS1412 SYLLABUS

Textbook: FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS, 8th Edition
by Halliday, Resnick and Walker.

WAVES AND OPTICS (11 lectures)
Waves on a String
Sound waves
Optics
Coherence
The Phasor Method

HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS (7 lectures)
Temperature
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Entropy and the Second Law

P14 students are strongly advised to read ahead. Lectures will usually follow (lie above
sequence and it is therefore quite easy to spend about 1 hours of private study for each
lecture and about the same for each tutorial.
An above average student should therefore expect to "beat books" for approximately six
hours per week for physics alone. This figure could be substantially increased - perhaps to
eight or ten hours - for a student with a weaker background in either physics or
mathematics.
Please arrange your work schedule accordingly.
1

EXP 1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENT INTERFERENCE AND
DIFFRACTION USING A HELIUM-NEON LASER

PURPOSE: To investigate the fringe patterns produced by single slit diffraction and double slit
interference.
PRECAUTION: Do not look into the laser bean or point it towards anyone.
The beam, or even its reflection off glass can damage the eye.
THEORY: Interference and Diffraction are discussed in Ch36 Halliday, Resnick & Walker
In this experiment we study the interference and/or diffraction patterns produced when
collimated, monochromatic light (i.e. laser light) passes through various arrangements of
apertures, and are observed on a viewing screen. When the apertures/slits are sufficiently
small, the light intensity on the viewing screen exhibits variations (successive maxima and
minima) which depend upon the wavelength of the light and the size and number of the
apertures. The existence of the patterns is confirmation of the wave nature of light.
(A) Single Slit Diffraction
A single slit diffraction pattern results when the light passes through one aperture in an
otherwise opaque surface. The light intensity on the viewing screen exhibits a bright central
peak surrounded by subsidiary peaks. The single slit diffraction pattern is shown in Figure1.





Fig. 1

2

y
m
When the path difference between light from one edge of the slit and light from the center of
the slit is a multiple of half of the wavelength, the waves destructively interfere and there is a
minimum in the pattern. Therefore for a point of minimum intensity we can write:
a sin
m
= m ----- (1)
where, a = the single slit width
m = order of the minima = 1, 2, etc.

m
= the angular position of the m
th
minima
= the wavelength
From the geometry of the experimental arrangement (Figure 2 below) we can also show
that: tan
m
= y
m
/L or
m
= tan
-1
( y
m
/L) ----- (2)
Where, y
m
= the distance from the centre of the pattern to the m
th
minima
L = the slit to screen distance










Fig. 2

(B) Double Slit Interference
A schematic of the double slit interference apparatus is shown in Figure 3. Waves from slits
S
1
and S
2
combine at P an arbitrary point on the screen, to produce the interference pattern.
3










Fig. 3
The path difference between the waves (r
1
and r
2
) is S
1
b. The condition for a maximum
intensity at P is: d Sin = m
The condition for a minimum intensity at p is:
d Sin = (m+ )
where d = the centre to centre distance between the slits.
It can also be shown (see text) that
x
L
d

= ----- (3)
where x = the average separation between the fringes in the double slit interference
pattern.
METHOD:
Note: The Helium-Neon gas laser is a delicate and expensive piece of equipment. Please
handle it with care. Do not switch the laser on and off repeatedly during the experiment. It is
better for the laser if it is left on for the entire experiment.
The laser has a wavelength of 632.8 nm.
S
1
S
2
r
1
r
2
b
4

(A) Single Slit Diffraction
1. The plate provided contains a number of single and double slits. For this section use only
the single slit labelled 5 on the plate (see also Figure 4). Switch on the laser and direct
the beam through the single slit. Observe the diffraction pattern on a sheet of paper
placed a distance, L , approximately 2 metres from the slit.
2. The diffraction pattern should have an intensity distribution as shown in Figure 1.
3. The values for y
m
for m = 1 to 6 are shown in Table 1. These readings were taken using a
ruler
Table 1 Results for Single Slit Diffraction
m y
m
/cm
1 1.6
2 2.7
3 3.7
4 4.9
5 5.9
6 6.9

(Note that in determining y
m
it is more accurate to measure the distance between the
corresponding fringes on the right and left of the central bright pattern and halving the
distance).
4. L is given as 2.0m.
5. From your results plot a graph of sin
m
versus m.
6. Find the slope of the graph. Hence determine a value for the slit width a.
7. Calculate the error in the slope and the error in the slit width a.
(B) Double Slit Interference
1. For this section use the double slits labelled A on the plate. Direct the laser beam
through the double slits and observe the interference pattern on a sheet of paper placed
a distance, L , approximately 2 metres from the slits.
2. The values for the interference fringes are shown in Table 2.
m x/cm
1 0.9
2 1.0
3 1.1
4 0.9
5 1.0
6 1.1
5

3. Calculate the average fringe separation x.
4. The distance L to the screen is given as 2.358m.
5. Use the relationship to calculate d for the double slits.
6. Also sketch the intensity distribution for the interference pattern produced by slits.
7. Discuss your results.


Plate With Labels
2
4
3
1
A
D
C
B
5
Fig. 4
6

EXP 2 MECHANICAL RESONANCE

PURPOSE: To observe the phenomenon of resonance by studying standing waves on a
string under tension.
THEORY: Mechanical Resonance is discussed in Ch17-12 Halliday, Resnick & Walker
Whenever a system is given a periodic series of impulses at a frequency equal to (or very
nearly equal to) one of its natural frequencies of oscillation, the amplitude of the oscillations
becomes fairly large. This is the phenomenon of resonance.
In this experiment a string under tension as in Figure 1 has one of its ends vibrated
periodically by a mechanical rotator. The rotator has a knurled-head screw which permits
the spindle speed to be varied continuously by moving the spindle friction ring toward the
edge or centre of the drive plate on which it rests. The friction ring may be locked in any
position on the drive plate by a set screw provided. A revolution counter is mounted on the
spindle and can be engaged by applying finger pressure to its starting lever.

Fig. 1
CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN NOT TO APPLY MORE PRESSURE THAN IS NECESSARY TO ENGAGE
THE GEAR ON THE COUNTER AS IT MAY BE DAMAGED BY EXCESS PRESSURE.
At resonance the standing waves must be such that the ends of the string are nodes. This
condition is satisfied if the length of the string is given by where n =
1,2, 3, n therefore represents the number of half-wave segments in
the envelope of the vibrations of the string.

l
pulley
rotator
Mg
2
n
l =
7

It can be shown that the natural frequencies of vibration of the system are given by
where = mass/unit length of the
string
and Mg = tension in the string.
If we express f in Hz , l in metres, M in kg ,g in m/s
2
, then will be in kg/m.
METHOD:
(a) Varying tension, constant frequency
1. Set up the apparatus as in Figure 1. Adjust the spindle frequency close to its maximum
and lock it in place.
2. Measure the number of revolutions that occur over a period of about a minute, and
hence calculate the frequency. This measurement should be repeated during the
experiment to ensure that the frequency remains fairly constant.
3. By adjusting the value of the hanging mass obtain standing waves for as many values of
n as possible. Record corresponding values of M and n.
4. Plot a graph of n
2
against
M
1
.
(b) Varying frequency, constant tension
1. Attach a mass of about 50g to the end of the string.
2. By varying the frequency, obtain standing waves for as many values of n as possible.
Record corresponding values of f and n.
3. Plot a graph of f against n and determine its slope.
(c) Calculation of the mass/unit length
1. Measure l and M and hence calculate the value of from the slope of the graph of f
against n.
2. Obtain a value of by direct measurement using the sample string provided. Do not
detach the string from the rotator.
Discuss your results

Mg
l
n
f
2
=
8

EXP. 3 PROPERTIES OF SINE WAVES

PURPOSE: To investigate the properties of sine waves.
THEORY:
If there are two waves with the same amplitude, frequency and wavelength travelling in
the same direction within the same space, with a phase difference of between them we
may represent the two waves using the equations:
(1)
and (2)

where, y
m
is the amplitude, k = 2/, = 2f.
If we superimpose the two waves the resultant wave may be expressed as:
(3)
Where ( ) 2 cos 2
m
y is the amplitude of the resultant wave.
If there are two waves with the same frequency and wavelength but different
amplitudes travelling in the same direction within the same space, with a phase difference
of between them we may represent the two waves using the equations:
(4)
and (5)
Since we cannot factor out the amplitudes, the equation for the resultant wave is written as:
( ) + = t kx y y
Rm R
sin (6)
The phasor method is then applied to find the components of
R
and complete the wave
equation as shown in Figure 1.
2 1
y y y
R
+ =
( ) + = t kx y
m
sin
( ) ( ) [ ] + + = t kx t kx y
m
sin sin
( ) { } ( ) 2 sin 2 cos 2 + = t kx y
m
(

\
|
|

\
|
+ =
2
cos
2
sin 2

t kx y
m
( ) + t kx y
m
sin
( ) t kx y y
m
= sin
1
( ) + = t kx y y
m
sin
2
( ) t kx y y
m
= sin
1 1
( ) + = t kx y y
m
sin
2 2
9



Figure 1 Phasor method for solving wave equations
Using the Cosine rule we get:
2
2 m
y

= Cos y y y y
Rm m Rm m 1
2 2
1
2 + (7)
Using the Sine rule we get:
)
=
sin( sin
1 2 m m
y y
(8)
METHOD:
Switch on the oscilloscope. If the single horizontal green line trace appears on the screen
and is suitable proceed to part (a). If not, adjust the INTEN and FOCUS controls for clarity
and centre the trace on the screen using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. The TIMEBASE
control may have to be set to a value which produces a steady trace. See Figure 2.




10




Figure 2 Diagram of Oscilloscope

(a) Frequency/Wavelength Analysis
1. Connect the the signal generator in parallel to the input terminal channel 1.
2. Set the generator frequency to 100Hz and the Y-AMPL variable control to the calibrate
position.
3. Adjust the size of the signal from the generator to give a convenient reading and
measure the corresponding peak-to-peak distance using the oscilloscope. This is
obtained by measuring the vertical distance between the top of the sinusoidal trace to
the bottom of the trace. This is the amplitude of the sine wave.
4. When a steady trace is observed the oscilloscope may be used to obtain the wavelength
of the trace.
5. Vary the frequency of the signal generator and measure the corresponding wavelength.
6. Draw a graph of f vs. and find its gradient.
7. What does this graph suggest about the relationship between f and ?
8. What does the gradient of the graph represent?

Input
Y-POS X-POS
Timebase
Variable
Focus
Intensity
Voltage
Gain
Display
(with
11

(b) Superposition Analysis of waves with the same amplitude, frequency
and wavelength
1. Connect the signal generator in parallel to the input terminal channel 1.
2. Set the generator frequency to 50Hz and the Y-AMPL variable control to the calibrate
position.
3. Adjust the size of the signal from the generator to give a convenient reading and
measure the amplitude of the sine wave.
4. When a steady trace is observed the oscilloscope may be used to obtain the wavelength
of the trace.
5. Using equation (1), write an expression for the equation of the wave.
6. Connect the signal generator in parallel to the input terminal channel 2 while still
connect to channel 1. This produces a second wave with a phase shift () of zero.
7. Using equation (2), write an expression for the equation of this second wave.
8. Switch the position knob to DUAL to observe both waves. Ensure that the voltage gain
on both channels is the same.
9. Now switch the position knob to ADD to superimpose the two waves.
10. Sketch the input and output waves on the same graph sheet denoting the values for y
and .
11. Using equations (3) write an expression for the equation of the resultant wave.

(c) Superposition Analysis of waves with the same frequency and
wavelength
1. Connect the signal generator in parallel to the input terminal channel 1.
2. Set the generator frequency to 160Hz and the Y-AMPL variable control to the calibrate
position.
3. Adjust the size of the signal from the generator to give a convenient reading and
measure the amplitude of the sine wave.
4. When a steady trace is observed the oscilloscope may be used to obtain the wavelength
of the trace.
5. Using equation (4), write an expression for the equation of the wave.
6. Connect the signal generator in parallel to points A and C on the board provided as
shown in Figure 3.





Figure 3 Schematic for phase shift circuit.
1k
1F
12

7. Connect the input terminal channel 2 to points B and C. This produces a second wave
with a phase shift ().
8. Using equation (5), write an expression for the equation of the wave.
9. Switch the position knob to DUAL to observe both waves. Ensure that the voltage gain
on both channels is the same.
10. Now switch the position knob to ADD to superimpose the two waves.
11. Sketch the input and output waves on the same graph sheet denoting the values for y
and .
12. Using the phasor method and equation (7), calculate the value for and hence complete
the wave equation given in equation (6).
13. Calculate also the magnitude of the phase shift () using equation (8).
14. Given that
fRC

2
1
= tan calculate the theoretical value of and compare with the
value obtained from the experiment.
15. Discuss your results.


EXP. 4 PLANE TRANSMISSION DIFFRACTION GRATING

PURPOSE: To observe the mercury spectrum and to
to the observed lines to calcul
THEORY: The Diffraction Grating
Light incident normally on a plane diffraction gra
given by where
grating, and m is an integer denoting the order of
METHOD:
1. Adjust the spectrometer for parallel. This may be done by focussing
distant object outside the lab.
this point the slit image should lie exactly on the
telescope. The width of the slit may have to be adjusted to give a suitably narrow line
image. Now rotate the telescope through exactly 90 using the tele
ensure this and clamp the telescope in this position.
d
m
= sin
PLANE TRANSMISSION DIFFRACTION GRATING
To observe the mercury spectrum and to use the wavelengths corresponding
observed lines to calculate the spacing of the grating.
ffraction Grating is discussed in Ch 37-7 Halliday, Resnick & Walker
Light incident normally on a plane diffraction grating will be diffracted through angles
where is the wavelength of the light, d is the spacing of the
integer denoting the order of the spectrum.

t the spectrometer for parallel. This may be done by focussing the telescope
e lab. Set the telescope exactly in line with the collimat
e slit image should lie exactly on the cross wires in the field of the
he width of the slit may have to be adjusted to give a suitably narrow line
he telescope through exactly 90 using the telescope angle scale to
s and clamp the telescope in this position.
13
PLANE TRANSMISSION DIFFRACTION GRATING
use the wavelengths corresponding
Halliday, Resnick & Walker
ing will be diffracted through angles
is the spacing of the
the telescope on a
tly in line with the collimator. At
cross wires in the field of the
he width of the slit may have to be adjusted to give a suitably narrow line
scope angle scale to
14

2. Mount the grating on the prism table and adjust the table until light is reflected into the
telescope. Adjust the levelling screws on the table until the slit image is exactly in the
centre of the field of view. This adjustment sets the grating upright. Adjust the grating
until the reflected slit image is on the cross-wires. This sets the grating in a plane at 45
to both the telescope and collimator. Read the prism table scale and then rotate it
through exactly 45 so that the plane of the grating is perpendicular to the collimator.
3. Unclamp the telescope and locate a diffracted image of the slit at as large an angle of
deviation as possible. Adjust only the table levelling screw that is approximately in the
plane of the grating until the image is in the centre of the field of view. This adjustment
is to get the grating rulings vertical. If a large adjustment has to be made at this point, it
is advisable to repeat the adjustment procedure.
4. Measure the angle of diffraction for as many lines of the mercury spectrum as you can
identify, for the first and second orders. For accuracy you should take readings of the
images on both sides of the direct beam and halve the angle between them. Note that
short wavelength light is diffracted less than the long wavelength and that the second
order spectrum is diffracted more than the first.
5. For each wavelength and order observed, calculate a value of the grating spacing d,
using the values of listed below.
6. Calculate the average value of d and its mean deviation.
7. Discuss your results
MERCURY LINES
VIOLET (moderate) 405 nm
VIOLET (weak) 408 nm
VIOLET (strong) 436 nm
BLUE-GREEN (weak) 492 nm
GREEN (strong) 546 nm
YELLOW (strong) 577 nm
YELLOW (strong) 579 nm


EXP. 5

PURPOSE: To investigate the interference pattern known as
THEORY: Interference is discussed in
If monochromatic light is incident on the air film formed when a lens
R is resting on a plane glass surface, the interference pattern known as Newton's Rings is
observed. Interference takes place between rays that are reflected at the lower lens surface
and those reflected at the plane glass sour
path difference of twice the thickness of the
lens surface (see Figure l). On reflection from the glass block the ra
change of 180 as the rays are reflected from a medium of refractive index higher than that
of the medium in which the incident rays are travelling.
Because the thickness of the air film changes as the point under observation moves away
from the point of contact of the lens and glass block,
are alternately satisfied. Since the contours of constant air film thickne
nature, the interference pattern is circular.
The condition for MAXIMA is: 2d
= wavelength of light used and
The term is introduced because of the phase change of 18
NEWTON'S RINGS
the interference pattern known as Newton's Rings.
discussed in Ch 36 Halliday, Resnick & Walker
is incident on the air film formed when a lens of radius of curvature
is resting on a plane glass surface, the interference pattern known as Newton's Rings is
observed. Interference takes place between rays that are reflected at the lower lens surface
reflected at the plane glass source. Rays reflected from the plane glass travel a
he thickness of the air film more than those reflected at
On reflection from the glass block the rays undergo a phase
as the rays are reflected from a medium of refractive index higher than that
of the medium in which the incident rays are travelling.
Because the thickness of the air film changes as the point under observation moves away
act of the lens and glass block, the conditions for maxima and minima
Since the contours of constant air film thickness are circular in
rference pattern is circular.

Fig.1
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
m d where m =0, l, 2 .
and d= thickness of film.
term is introduced because of the phase change of 180 on reflection.
15
Newton's Rings.
of radius of curvature
is resting on a plane glass surface, the interference pattern known as Newton's Rings is
observed. Interference takes place between rays that are reflected at the lower lens surface
ce. Rays reflected from the plane glass travel a
air film more than those reflected at the lower
s undergo a phase
as the rays are reflected from a medium of refractive index higher than that
Because the thickness of the air film changes as the point under observation moves away
the conditions for maxima and minima
ss are circular in

16

The condition for MINIMA is: 2d = m where m = 0, 1, 2
It can however be shown that where x is the radius of the interference ring
observed and R is the radius of curvature of the lens.
Therefore the condition for MINIMA becomes R m x
2


Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.

Fig.2
2. Switch on the sodium lamp observing carefully the sequence listed on the rheostat.
Adjust the microscope slide in its holder until the light is reflected onto the lens. At this
stage it should be possible to see the rings when looking vertically downwards without
the aid of the travelling microscope. It may be necessary to clean the lens and glass
block surfaces to obtain an interference pattern.
R
x
d
2
2

17

3. Focus the travelling microscope on the pattern and record what is observed. Make sure
that the centre of the pattern lies directly below the microscope. In this arrangement
the microscope will move along a diameter when it is moved horizontally.
4. Record the vernier readings when the cross-hairs of the microscope are set on selected
rings to the left of the centre.
5. Repeat the process on the right of the centre.
6. Calculate the diameter and hence the radius of the ring, x, for each value of the number
of the ring, N, as numbered from the centre.
7. Plot a graph of x
2
against N and determine its slope.
8. Given that = 589 nm for sodium light, calculate the radius of curvature of the lens.
9. Discuss your results and observations.


EXP. 6 INTERFERENCE FROM A THIN WEDGE
.
PURPOSE: To investigate the interference pattern produced by a thin wedge of air (or
water) between two p
THEORY: Interference is discussed in
Consider a uniform wedge of air formed between two
If the wedge is illuminated by monochromatic light as show
pattern due to interference between rays reflected at the lo
slide and those reflected at the upper surface of the gla
like B travel a distance of 2AB more than those
a phase shift of 180 (or /2).
A dark band (minimum) will be observed if
integer.
Suppose A'B' is another minimum.
observed in going from B to B'. With notation i
of the wedge

L
d
l
AB B A
=
' '
INTERFERENCE FROM A THIN WEDGE
To investigate the interference pattern produced by a thin wedge of air (or
water) between two plane glass surfaces.
is discussed in Ch 36 Halliday, Resnick & Walker
wedge of air formed between two plane glass surfaces as in Figure

Fig .1
If the wedge is illuminated by monochromatic light as shown, one should observe a regular
between rays reflected at the lower surface of the microscope
slide and those reflected at the upper surface of the glass block. The rays reflected at points
more than those reflected at A. Reflection at B also
A dark band (minimum) will be observed if 2AB = m. Hence AB = m/2 where
is another minimum. Then A'B' - AB = N/2 where N is the number of minima
With notation in the diagram, it can be seen that
the wedge.
18

To investigate the interference pattern produced by a thin wedge of air (or
in Figure 1.
, one should observe a regular
wer surface of the microscope
block. The rays reflected at points
so introduces
where m is an
is the number of minima
the diagram, it can be seen that , the slope

So if one selects an arbitrary minimum
horizontal distance l against the number of the minima
and are known, the diameter of the wire

If a liquid of refractive index
changed to .

Procedure:
Part One
1. Set up the apparatus as in Fig
Switch on the sodium lamp and adjust it to illuminate the field of view.
1. Observe the interference pattern produced.
2. Repeat the observation with the other wires in turn and describe the effect of changing
the slope of the wedge.
d
L

2
one selects an arbitrary minimum as the origin where N = 0 and l = 0, a graph of the
against the number of the minima N should have a slope of
the diameter of the wire d may be calculated.
a liquid of refractive index is introduced into the wedge, the slope of the
Set up the apparatus as in Figure 2 using one of the three wire samples provided.
Switch on the sodium lamp and adjust it to illuminate the field of view.
Observe the interference pattern produced.
Repeat the observation with the other wires in turn and describe the effect of changing

Fig. 2
19
graph of the
should have a slope of . If L
, the slope of the graph is
samples provided.
Repeat the observation with the other wires in turn and describe the effect of changing
d
L
2

20

Part Two
1. Adjust the smallest wire near to one end of the microscope slide until the lines of the
interference pattern are perpendicular to the horizontal movement of the travelling
microscope.
2. Select a suitable minimum for which N is to be taken as zero and record the reading on
the horizontal vernier scale of the travelling microscope.
3. Move the microscope along a suitable number of minima and again record the vernier
reading.
4. Repeat this procedure for several other values of N.
5. Plot a graph of I against N and determine its slope.
6. Use the microscope to measure L, the distance from the point of contact of the
microscope slide and glass block to the wire.
7. Given that = 589 nm for sodium light, calculate d, the diameter of the wire.
Part Three
1. Introduce a drop of water between the slide and the glass block. Note what happens to
the interference pattern.
2. Measure l for N = 50 and also measure L.
3. Calculate the refractive index of water using the values of d and from Part Two.


EXP. 7 CLEMENT AND DESORMES EXPERIMENT

PURPOSE: To determine the ratio of the specific heats of
THEORY: The Kinetic Theory of Gases
Air is pumped into a vessel of volume V
temperature. The air is allowed to expand rapidly (i.e. adiabatically) until it reaches the
ambient pressure of the room,
had a volume V
1
before expansion. If th
the diagram), i.e. if it had been allow
expansion, it would have ended at a high
allowing the air contained in the vessel
gain heat from the surroundings until it reaches room temperature and has the steady
pressure,
diagram).







For the adiabatic expansion AB
where is the ratio of the specific heat capacities of air.
For the isothermal change AC
Combining (1) and (2), we get
CLEMENT AND DESORMES EXPERIMENT
To determine the ratio of the specific heats of air.
The Kinetic Theory of Gases is discussed in Ch20 Halliday, Resnick & Walker
umped into a vessel of volume V
0
and allowed to reach a steady pressure
temperature. The air is allowed to expand rapidly (i.e. adiabatically) until it reaches the
ambient pressure of the room, p
0
. The air which then fills the vessel, volume V
before expansion. If the air had expanded from V
1
to V
0
isothermally
it had been allowed to maintain room temperature during the
expansion, it would have ended at a higher pressure, p
2
. This state can be attained by
allowing the air contained in the vessel after the adiabatic expansion (AB in the diagram) to
gain heat from the surroundings until it reaches room temperature and has the steady
p
2


0 1 0 1
V p V p = ----- (1)
o of the specific heat capacities of air.

0 2 1 1
V p V p = ----- (2)

|
|

\
|
=
2
1
0
1
p
p
p
p

21
CLEMENT AND DESORMES EXPERIMENT
Halliday, Resnick & Walker
and allowed to reach a steady pressure p
1
at room
temperature. The air is allowed to expand rapidly (i.e. adiabatically) until it reaches the
me V
0
, will have
isothermally (AC in
mperature during the
te can be attained by
in the diagram) to
gain heat from the surroundings until it reaches room temperature and has the steady
2
(BC in the
(1)
(2)
22

Taking logs,
2 1
0 1
log log
log log
p p
p p

= ----- (3)
Now pressures in the vessel are read from a manometer.
Thus
1 0 1
gh p p + = ----- (4)
where h
1
is the height difference between the arms of the manometer and is the density
of the liquid in it.
Similarly, p
2
=p
o
+ gh
2
----- (5)
Substituting (4) and (5) in (3), we obtain
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+

|
|

\
|
+
=
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1 log 1 log
log 1 log
p
gh
p
p
gh
p
p
p
gh
p



so that
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+
=
0
2
0
1
0
1
1 log 1 log
1 log
p
gh
p
gh
p
gh

----- (6)
Expanding (6) by the log series and neglecting squared and higher terms (justified because
gh
1
and gh
2
are much smaller that po).
2 1
1
0
2
0
1
0
1
h h
h
p
gh
p
gh
p
gh

----- (7)
METHOD:
1. Make sure that the release valve is closed. Connect the pump to the vessel at the outlet
on top and pump air into the vessel until a value of h of about 15-20 cm is indicated on
the manometer.
2. For some time after pumping has been discontinued the pressure indicated by the
manometer will fall slowly. This is due to the air, which was heated during the
compression, slowly attaining room temperature. When a stationary pressure is
indicated, read the height difference h
1
.
23

3. Depress the release valve, thus opening the vessel, for about 1-3 seconds. Then allow
the valve to close again. This will allow the pressure to fall to that of the atmosphere
sufficiently rapidly for no passage of heat to occur during the expansion. The expansion
will therefore be adiabatic. The temperature of the air in the vessel will slowly increase
to that at the start of the experiment, during which time the pressure in the vessel will
rise to p
2
.
4. After a steady state is reached, record the height difference h
2
.
The greatest source of error in this experiment will occur if insufficient time is allowed for
steady conditions to be obtained. Five (5) minutes generally suffices but it is an advantage
to take readings of pressure against time before and after releasing the air. This will enable
you to determine the value of h at which steady state is reached.
5. Repeat the experiment four times recording h
1
and h
2
in each case.
6. Calculate a value of for each set of readings. Calculate also the mean value of and the
mean deviation. Find out the accepted value of for air and discuss your results in
relation to this value.

24

EXP. 8 CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

Aim: To plan and design a lab to calibrate and test a constant volume gas thermometer.

Theory
The relationship between the pressure, temperature, mass, and volume for gases at
relatively low pressures and high temperatures is referred to as the ideal gas equation of
state:
pV = nRT [1]
where, p = pressure
V = volume
T = temperature
n = number of moles
R = universal gas constant = 8.315J/(mol.K)

From this is equation we see that p T. Thus we may use this thermometric property of
gases to design a thermometer. Given that the volume of the system is constant equation
[1] becomes:
T
V
nR
p = = (constant)T
Procedure:

Part 1 Taking Temperature and Pressure Readings

1. Calibrate the sensor:

Connect the pressure sensor to one of the Analog Channels of the interface. Open DataStudio
and create a new experiment. Click on the Add Sensor or Instrument tab and add the pressure
sensor (absolute). Make sure the syringe is not attached and that the tube and sensor are
open to the atmosphere. Select a sample rate of 20Hz. Select the Calibrate Sensors tab and
select the option 1 Point (Adjust offset only) then click on the button Read from Sensor. This
should give the reading for atmospheric pressure.
25

2. Connect the pressure sensor to the side arm of the round bottom flask via the rubber
tube.
3. Insert the rubber bung with the thermometer at the mouth of the flask to seal the flask.
Ensure that the thermometer is not touching the sides of the flask.
4. Pour the boiling water into calorimeter to about half full.
5. Place the flask into the water and cover the calorimeter. Ensure that the flask is
completely immersed.
6. Open the Data window by dragging the graph icon and dropping it in the window. This
shows a pressure vs. time graph.
7. Allow the air in the flask to heat up and record the maximum temperature reached.
8. Press the start collection button to begin taking readings from the pressure sensor.
9. Record the corresponding temperature reading by clicking on the note button (A) and
entering the temperature value for the relevant pressure on the graph.
10. Allow the water to cool and record the temperature every minute.
11. Once the cooling has slowed add a few chips of ice and record the temperature and
pressure after a minute.
12. Repeat for at least 8 additional temperature and pressure readings. Include in these
readings a reading as close to 0
o
C as possible.

Part 2 Calibrate and Test the Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

1. Use the readings from Part 1 to design an experiment to create a constant volume gas
thermometer. Include in your design:

a. Clear description of your experimental procedure including the steps taken to
calibrate the thermometer
b. The use of the theory above to justify your procedure
c. Potential sources of error
d. Appropriate precautions to minimize experimental error.

2. Test your thermometer by measuring the value for room temperature.
3. Compare this value with the value measured directly using the mercury thermometer.
4. Discuss your design and state how this design be improved?

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