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ETEL 111

Remedial Grammar a) Simple sentences-their phrase structure b) Parts of speech c) Tense and Concord d) Gerunds, Participles and Infinitives e) Complex and Compound sentences (Use of connectives) f) Conditional clauses g) Question tags and short responses h) Common errors

2.

Vocabulary and Usage a) Synonyms and Antonyms b) One-word substitutions c) Words often confused d) Idioms/Idiomatic Expressions e) Foreign Phrases (Greek and Latin)

Presentation of Technical Information Technical description of a) Simple objects, tools, appliances b) Processes and operations c) Scientific principles Composition: a) Comprehension unseen passages b) Precis Writing Prose Selected prose pieces from prescribed texts

a) SIMPLE SENTENCES-THEIR PHRASE STRUCTURE

Simple sentence A simple sentence is a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses. Examples The runner jumped.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, runner, and one predicate, jumped. The singer bowed.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, singer, and one predicate, bowed. The baby cried.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, baby, and one predicate, cried. The girl ran into her bedroom.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, girl, and one predicate, ran into her bedroom. This example is distinct from the previous three in that its verb phrase consists of more than one word. In the backyard, the dog barked and howled at the cat.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, dog, and one predicate, barked and howled at the cat. This predicate has two verbs, known as a compound predicate: barked and howled. This compound verb should not be confused with a compound sentence. In the backyard and at the cat are prepositional phrases.

The Structure of a Sentence Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses.

The Simple Sentence The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word:

Run! Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:

Melt! Ice melts. The ice melts quickly. The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun. Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun. As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length.

The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.

When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them to the surrounding sentences.

The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) joined by co-coordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":

Simple Canada is a rich country. Simple Still, it has many poor people. Compound Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people. Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to interrupt):

Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ... Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences in written work, your writing might seem immature.

A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of information:

Montreal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas. Special Cases of Compound Sentences There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex sentence:

Compound-complex

The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the contents. The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a coordinating conjunction:

Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober, however, he could be a formidable foe in the House of Commons. Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear near the beginning of the second part, but it is not required:

The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west. The Complex Sentence A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are not equal. Consider the following examples:

Simple My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go. Compound My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go. Complex Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go. In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them together into a single sentence with the coordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.

A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write

My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go. or even

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go. The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.
Phrase structure rules Phrase-structure rules are a way to describe a given language's syntax and are closely associated with the early stages of Transformational Grammar.[1][2] They are used to break down a natural language sentence into its constituent parts (also known as syntactic categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories (aka parts of speech). A grammar that uses phrase structure rules is a type of phrase structure grammar - except in computer science, where it is known as just a grammar, usually context-free. Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed operate according to the constituency relation and a grammar that employs phrase structures rules is therefore a constituency grammar and as such, it stands in contrast to dependency grammars, which are based on the dependency relation.[3] Definition Phrase structure rules are usually of the following form: Meaning that the constituent is separated into the two sub constituents and. Some further examples for English are as follows:

The first rule reads: An S (sentence) consists of an NP (noun phrase) followed by a VP (verb phrase). The second rule reads: A noun phrase consists of a Det (determiner) followed by an N (noun). Some further categories are listed here: AP (adjective phrase), AdvP (adverb phrase),

7 PP (prepositional phrase), etc. Applying the phrase structure rules in a neutral manner, it is possible to generate many proper sentences of English. But it is also quite possible that the rules generate syntactically correct but semantically nonsensical sentences. The following example sentence is notorious in this regard, since it is complete nonsense, even though it is syntactically correct:

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously This sentence was constructed by Noam Chomsky as an illustration that phrase structure rules are capable of generating syntactically correct but semantically incorrect sentences. Phrase structure rules break sentences down into their constituent parts. These constituents are often represented as tree structures. The tree for Chomsky's famous sentence can be rendered as follows:

A constituent is any word or combination of words that is dominated by a single node. Thus each individual word is a constituent. Further, the subject NP Colorless green ideas, the minor NP green ideas, and the VP sleep furiously are constituents. Phrase structure rules and the tree structures that are associated with them are a form of immediate constituent analysis. Constituency vs. dependency Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed result in a view of sentence structure that is constituency-based. Thus grammars that employ phrase structure rules are constituency grammars (=phrase structure grammars), as opposed to dependency grammars[5], which view sentence structure as dependency-based. What this means is that for phrase structure rules to be applicable at all, one has to pursue a constituency-based understanding of sentence structure. The constituency relation is a one-to-one-or-more correspondence. For every word in a sentence, there is at least one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The dependency relation, in contrast, is a one-to-one relation; for every word in the sentence,

8 there is exactly one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The distinction is illustrated with the following trees:

The constituency tree on the left could be generated by phrase structure rules. The sentence S is broken down into smaller and smaller constituent parts. The dependency tree on the right could not, in contrast, be generated by phrase structure rules (at least not as they are commonly interpreted). Representational grammars A number of representational phrase structure theories of grammar never acknowledged phrase structure rules, but have pursued instead an understanding of sentence structure in terms the notion of schema. Here phrase structures are not derived from rules that combine words, but from the specification or instantiation of syntactic schemata or configurations, often expressing some kind of semantic content independently of the specific words that appear in them. This approach is essentially equivalent to a system of phrase structure rules combined with a noncom positional semantic theory, since grammatical formalisms based on rewriting rules are generally equivalent in power to those based on substitution into schemata.

So in this type of approach, instead of being derived from the application of a number of phrase structure rules, the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously would be generated by filling the words into the slots of a schema having the following structure:

[NP[ADJ N] VP[V] AP[ADV]] And which would express the following conceptual content:

X DOES Y IN THE MANNER OF Z Though they are noncompositional, such models are monotonic. This approach is highly developed within Construction grammar[6] and has had some influence in Head-Driven Phrase

9 Structure Grammar[7] and Lexical Functional Grammar[8], the latter two clearly qualifying as phrase structure grammars.

b) PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of Speech Chapter 1 Introduction Learning about the parts of speech is the first step in grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first step to being able to read and write. From learning the parts of speech we begin to understand the use or function of words and how words are joined together to make meaningful communication. To understand what a part of speech is, you must understand the idea of putting similar things together into groups or categories. Let's look at some examples of categories.

COLORS blue red yellow green black

FRUITS banana apple orange grape lemon

DRINKS milk water soda beer coffee

LANGUAGES Spanish Arabic Japanese English Korean

Colors, fruits, drinks, and languages are categories. If I tell you that Grebo is a language, you would understand exactly what Grebo is. If we did not have the category language, it would be hard to explain what is meant by the word Grebo. It is very convenient to have categories to talk about similar things. Let's look at some more examples of categories. In the list below, which does not belong with the others? a) Violin b) hammer c) drums d) piano e) guitar If you chose hammer, you are right. Violin, drums, piano, and guitar are used to make music, but a hammer is not used to make music. Hammer doesn't fit with the other words because it is a tool and all of the others are musical instruments. Let's try another example. Which of these does not belong with the others?

10 a) hammer b) saw c) violin c) screwdriver d) wrench This time, the word violin does not belong because it is not a tool. It is very useful to have categories like musical instruments and tools to organize our ideas. The parts of speech are categories used to organize or classify words according to how they are used. We use parts of speech as a way to make it easier to talk about language. The philosopher Aristotle and later scientists studied animals and classified them according to what they have in common. For example, eagles, robins and sparrows are kinds of birds; sharks, salmon and tuna are kinds of fish; and dogs, horses and elephants are kinds of mammals. Aristotle and others also studied language and classified words according to what they have in common. We usually use 8 categories or parts of speech to classify all the words we use in English. This classification is not perfect. Sometimes it is hard to tell which category a word belongs in. The same word may belong in different categories depending on how it is used. There may be better ways to classify English than by using the 8 parts of speech. But this classification has been used for a long time and many grammar books use it, so it is easier to keep on using it. It is possible to speak or learn a language without knowing the parts of speech, but for most of us, knowing about parts of speech makes things easier. Here is an example of how it can be helpful to know about the parts of speech. Look at the sentence: The man surreptitiously entered the room. You probably don't know the meaning of the word surreptitiously, but if you know about parts of speech, you will recognize that it is an adverb and that it tells you something about how the man entered the room. You may still not understand the exact meaning of the word, but you can understand the whole sentence better than if you did not know about parts of speech. When you look up a word in a dictionary, you will find not only the meaning of the word but also what part of speech it is. This information is very helpful in understanding the full meaning of the word and knowing how to use it. The 8 parts of speech that are used to describe English words are: Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Pronouns Prepositions Conjunctions Articles

Nouns A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. John F.

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Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing. Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing. Some examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, John F. Kennedy, Atlantic Ocean, February, Monday, New York City, Susan, Maple Street, Burger King. If you see a word beginning with a capital letter in in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a proper noun. Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital letter. Many nouns have a special plural form if there is more than one. For example, we say one book but two books. Plurals are usually formed by adding an -s (books) or -es (boxes) but some plurals are formed in different ways (child - children, person - people, mouse - mice, sheep - sheep). Verbs A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence The dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence. In the sentence The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence. In the sentence She is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb. Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form. Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teachtaught). The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice (active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries(do, have, will, etc.) to give them different meanings. One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense. Some examples of verbs in each tense are in the chart below: Present look move talk Past looked moved talked Future will look will move will talk

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Verbs like those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -d or -ed are called regular verbs. Some of the most common verbs are not regular and the different forms of the verb must be learned. Some examples of such irregular verbs are in the chart below:

Present see hear speak

Past saw heard spoke

Future will see will hear will speak

The charts above show the simple tenses of the verbs. There are also progressive or continuous forms which show that the action takes place over a period of time, and perfect forms which show completion of the action. These forms will be discussed more in other lessons, but a few examples are given in the chart below:

Present Continuous is looking is speaking is talking

Present Perfect has looked has spoken has talked

Simple present tense verbs have a special form for the third person singular. Singular means "one" and plural means "more than one." Person is used here to show who or what does the action and can have the following forms: 1st person or the self (I, we) 2nd person or the person spoken to (you) 3rd person or a person not present (he, she, it, they) The third person singular forms are represented by the pronouns he, she, it. The chart below shows how the third person singular verb form changes:

Singular 1st Person (I) see hear come see hear come sees hears comes 1st Person (we)

Plural see hear come see hear come see hear come

2nd Person (you)

2nd Person (you)

3rd Person (he, she, it)

3rd Person (they)

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A verb must "agree" with its subject. Subject-verb agreement generally means that the third person singular verb form must be used with a third person subject in the simple present tense. The word be - the most irregular and also most common verb in English - has different forms for each person and even for the simple past tense. The forms of the word be are given in the chart below:

Number 1st (I) Singular 2nd (you)

Person

Present am are is are are are

Past was were was were were were

Future will be will be will be will be will be will be

3rd (he, she, it) 1st (we) Plural 2nd (you) 3rd (they)

Usually a subject comes before a verb and an object may come after it. The subject is what does the action of the verb and the object is what receives the action. In the sentence Bob ate a humburger, Bob is the subject or the one who did the eating and the hamburger is the object or what got eaten. A verb which has an object is called a transitive verb and some examples are throw, buy, hit, love. A verb which has no object is called an intransitive verb and some examples are go, come, walk, listen. As you can see in the charts above, verbs are often made up of more than one word. The future forms, for example, use the word will and the perfect forms use the word have. These words are called helping or auxiliary verbs. The word be can serve as an auxiliary and will and shall are also auxiliary forms. The chart below shows two other verbs which can also be used as auxiliaries:

Number 1st (I) Singular 2nd (you) 3rd (he, she, it) 1st (we) Plural 2nd (you) 3rd (they)

Person

Present have do have do has does have do have do have

Past had did had did had did had did had did had

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do

did

There is a type of auxiliary verb called a modal which changes the meaning of a verb in different ways. Words like can, should, would, may, might, and must are modals and are covered in other lessons. Adjectives An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such qualities as size, color, number, and kind. In the sentence The lazy dog sat on the rug, the word lazy is an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog. We can add more adjectives to describe the dog as well as in the sentence The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug. We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the sentence The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the adjectives. Usually an adjective comes before the noun that it describes, as in tall man. It can also come after a form of the word beas in The man is tall. More than one adjective can be used in this position in the sentence The man is tall, dark and handsome. In later lessons, you will learn how to make comparisons with adjectives. Most adjectivesdo not change form whether the noun it describes is singular or plural. For example we say big tree and big trees, old house and old houses, good time and good times. There are, however, some adjectives that do have different singular andplural forms. The common words this and that have the plural forms these and those. These words are called demonstrative adjectives because demonstrate or point out what is being referred to. Another common type of adjective is the possessive adjective which shows possession or ownership. The words my dog or my dogs indicate that the dog or dogs belong to me. I would use the plural form our if the dog or dogs belonged to me and other people. The chart below shows the forms of possessive adjectives.

Person* 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person

Singular my your his/her/its

Plural our your their

*Personis used here as a grammar word and has these meanings: 1st person or the self (I, me, we),

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2nd person or the person spoken to (you) 3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them). Adverbs We have seen that an adjective is a word that gives more information about a noun or pronoun. An adverb is usually defined as a word that gives more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives and adverbs in terms of such qualities as time, frequency and manner. In the sentence Sue runs fast, fast describes how or the manner in which Sue runs. In the sentence Sue runs very fast, very describes the adverb fast and gives information about how fast Sue runs. Most, but not all adverbs end in -ly as in But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs (ugly is an adjective, supply and reply can both be nouns or verbs). Many times an adjective can be made into an adverb by adding -ly as in nicely, quickly, completely, sincerely. Adverbs of time tell when something happens and adverbs of frequency tell how often something happens. Below are some common adverbs of time and frequency which you should learn:

Adverbs of Time Do it now. I will see you then. They will be here soon. I can't meet you today. Let's go tomorrow. They told me yesterday. Have you traveled recently?

Adverbs of Frequency I always do my homework We sometimes get confused. He usually gets good grades. I never went skiing. She rarely eats a big breakfast. He was once on TV. He saw the movie twice.

Pronouns A pronoun is often defined as a word which can be used instead of a noun. For example, instead of saying John is a student, the pronoun he can be used in place of the noun John and the sentence becomes He is a student. We use pronouns very often, especially so that we do not have to keep on repeating a noun. This chapter is about the kind of pronoun called a personal pronoun because it often refers to a person. Like nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have singular and plural forms (I-we, he-they). Unlike nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have different forms for masculine/male, feminine/female and neuter (he-she-it). Also unlike nouns, personal pronouns have different forms depending on if they act as subjects or objects (he-him, she-her). A subject

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is a word which does an action and usually comes before the verb, and an object is a word that receives an action and usually comes after the verb. For example, in the sentence Yesterday Susan called her mother, Susan is the subject and mother is the object. The pronoun she can be used instead of Susan and the pronoun her can be used instead of mother. The form of a personal pronoun also changes according to what person is referred to. Person is used here as a grammar word and means: 1st person or the self (I, me, we), 2nd person or the person spoken to (you), 3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them). There is also a possessive form of the pronoun. Just as we can make a noun possessive as in the sentence That is my father's book to mean That is the book of my father, we can make the pronoun possessive and say That book is his. There are possessive adjective forms (such as my, your, his, her etc.) that are discussed with other adjectives in chapter 4. Possessive pronouns can stand by themselves without nouns, but possessive adjectives, like other adjectives, are used together with nouns. There is also an intensive form of the pronoun which intensifies or emphasizes the noun that it comes after as in the sentence I myself saw him. The reflexive form of the pronoun looks exactly like the intensive form but is used when the subject and object of a verb refers to the same person as in the sentence I saw myself in the mirror. All of this may sound confusing, but if you study the chart below, it will be clearer: Singular Person 1st 2nd 3rd Subject I you he/she/it Object me you him/her/it Possessive mine yours his/hers Plural Intensive Reflexive myself yourself himself/herself/itself Intensive Reflexive ourselves yourselves

Person 1st 2nd

Subject we you

Object us you

Possessive ours yours

3rd they them theirs themselves Notice that the form you is the same for subject and object, singular and plural and that there is no neuter singular possessive form. Prepositions A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence She

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went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence They will be here at three o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under is a preposition which shows place. A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the preposition. The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase. The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.

Preposition to by at under

Object of the Preposition the store bus three o'clock the table

Prepositional Phrase to the store by bus at three o'clock under the table

Prepositional phrases are like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading as much as possible. Below are some common prepositions of time and place and examples of their use. Prepositions of time: at two o'clock on Wednesday in an hour, in January; in 1992 for a day Prepositions of place: at my house in New York, in my hand on the table near the library across the street under the bed between the books Conjunctions A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction and connects two nouns and in the sentence He will drive or fly, the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects two groups of words.

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Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways: and is used to join or add words together in the sentence They ate and drank. or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence He will be here on Monday or Tuesday. but is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong. so is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep. Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will be discussed more in another class. For now, you should know some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as: after although as because before if since than unless until when while

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . .and are correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are: both . . .and either . . . or neither . . . nor not only . . . but also Articles An article is a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some information about a noun. There are only two articles a and the, but they are used very often and are important for using English accurately. The word a (which becomes an when the next word begins with a vowel - a, e, i, o, u) is called the indefinite article because the noun it goes with is indefinite or general. The meaning of the article a is similar to the number one, but one is stronger and gives more emphasis. It is possible to say I have a book or I have one book, but the second sententence emphasizes that I do not have two or three or some other number of books. The word the is known as the definite article and indicates a specific thing. The difference between the sentences I sat on a chair and I sat on the chair is that the second sentence refers to a particular, specific chair, not just any chair. Many nouns, especially singular forms of countable nouns which you will learn about later, must have an article. In English, it is not possible to say I sat on chair without an article,

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but a demonstrative or possessive adjective can be used instead of an article as in the sentences I sat on that chair and I sat on his chair. Whenever you see an article, you will find a noun with it. The noun may be the next word as inthe man or there may be adjectives and perhaps adverbs between the article and the noun as in the very angry, young man. Identification of Parts of Speech Now that you have learned all the parts of speech, you can identify the words in a sentence. This chapter will give you some clues that will make identification easier. First of all, a word can be more than one part of speech and you have to look at how the word works in a particular sentence to know what part of speech it is. The chart below shows examples of words that have more than one part of speech.

Word can can only only his his English English I think I can do it.

Sentence verb noun Don't open that can of beans. This is my only pen. He was only joking. That book is his. That is his book. Can you speak English? I am reading an English novel.

Part of Speech

adjective adverb pronoun adjective noun adjective

The verb is the heart of a sentence, so it is a good idea to identify the verb first when looking at a sentence. Verbs can be recognized through: past tense ending (looked) 3rd person singular ending (says) auxiliary verb (will see) modal verb (can hear)

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c) Tense and Concord

Pdf attached

d) Gerunds, Participles and Infinitives

Doc file attached e) Complex and Compound sentences (Use of connectives)

PPT attached f) Conditional clauses

Pdf attached

g) Question tags and short responses

Question Tags and Short Answers Part I

During conversation it is common to make a statement and then ask for confirmation. For example, in the sentence It is very hot, isnt it? we make a statement and then ask for confirmation. Here the later part (isnt it?) is called a question tag. In question tags we use the following patterns: Auxiliary + nt + subject (If the statement is positive) Auxiliary + subject (If the statement is negative) Examples are given below: You are coming, arent you? He is your friend, isnt he? It is raining, isnt it? She can speak English, cant she? John broke the window, didnt he? You arent coming, are you?

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He isnt your friend, is he? She cant speak English, can he? Note that the subject of a question tag is always a pronoun, and not a noun. John is your friend, isnt he? (NOT isnt John) Alice is a doctor, isnt she? (NOT isnt Alice) Note the special cases given below: I am right, arent I? (NOT amnt I?) Lets go for a walk, shall we? Wait a minute, can you? Have some coffee, will you? There is a library in that street, isnt there? There are some boys in your class, arent there? Short answers Short answers to questions beginning with an auxiliary verb have the following structures: Yes + pronoun + auxiliary OR No + pronoun + auxiliary +nt (not) Are you coming with us? Yes, I am. OR No, I am not. Can you drive a car? Yes, I can. OR No, I cant. Does he work? Yes, he does. Did he say anything? No, he didnt. Agreements with affirmative sentences are made with yes + pronoun + auxiliary. She is a good girl. Yes, she is. He looks honest. Yes, he does. Agreements with negative statements are made with no + pronoun + auxiliary + nt/not. He isnt very intelligent. No, he isnt. She doesnt like fish. No, she doesnt. They didnt play well. No, they didnt.

Question Tags and Short Answers Part II

Disagreements with affirmative sentences are made with no + pronoun + auxiliary + nt/not.

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He is drunk. No, he isnt. You are joking. No, I am not. I think she knows him. No, she doesnt. Note that but is often used instead of no in disagreements with a question or an assumption. Why did you steal my purse? But, I didnt. (Here we are disagreeing with the question.) Disagreements with negative sentences are made with yes + pronoun + auxiliary. You cant understand it. Yes, I can. Addition to remarks Affirmative additions to affirmative remarks are made with so + auxiliary + subject. He likes fish. So do I. She must work hard. So must I. He was late for the meeting. So was I. He has finished his homework. So have I. Negative additions to negative remarks are made with nor/neither + auxiliary + subject. John doesnt like sweets. Neither do I. She didnt believe it. Neither did I. I couldnt solve the problem. Neither could my mother. Negative additions to affirmative remarks are made with but + subject + auxiliary + nt/not. Compare: He speaks English. But I dont. He doesnt speak English. Nor do I. I found the answer. But Alice didnt. I couldnt find the answer. Neither did Alice. He can cook. But his wife cant. He cant cook. Nor can his wife. I can play chess. But my sister cant. I cant play chess. Neither can my sister. Affirmative additions to negative remarks are made with but + subject + auxiliary. He doesnt know how to cook. But I do. I didnt see the film. But my sister did. He cant play chess. But I can. She wasnt late. But I was.

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h) Common errors

Most Annoying Grammar Mistakes in English

1. Third conditional

"If I would have known about the party, I would have gone to it."

This is INCORRECT, although commonly used, especially in American English. The correct form is: If + had + past participle, would + have + past participle

* "If I had known about the party, I would have gone."

This is CORRECT.

2. Don't vs Doesnt

"He dont care about me anymore."

This is INCORRECT. Doesn't, does not, or does are used with the third person singular - words like he, she, and it.

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Don't, do not, or do are used for other subjects.

* "He doesnt care about me anymore."

This is CORRECT.

3. Bring vs Take

"When we go to the party on Saturday, lets bring a bottle of wine."

This is INCORRECT.

When you are viewing the movement of something from the point of arrival, use bring:

* "When you come to the party, please bring a bottle of wine."

This is CORRECT. When you are viewing the movement of something from the point of departure, use take:

* "When we go to the party, lets take a bottle of wine."

This is CORRECT.

4. Fewer vs Less

Sign at the checkout of a supermarket: Ten items or less.

This is INCORRECT. You can count the items, so you need to use the number word fewer. These nouns are countable.

* "Ten items or fewer."

This is CORRECT. If you cant count the substance, then you should use less. These nouns are uncountable.

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* "You should eat less meat."

This is CORRECT.

5. However

"We were supposed to go to the dance last night, however, it was cancelled because of lack of interest."
This is INCORRECT. A semicolon, rather than a comma, should be used to link these two complete sentences:

* "We were supposed to go to the dance last night; however, it was cancelled because of lack of
interest." This is CORRECT. It should be noted that there ARE situations in which you can use a comma instead of a semi-colon:

* "The match at Wimbledon, however, continued despite the bad weather."

This is CORRECT. There is only one complete sentence in this example. It is not a compound sentence.

6. Have vs Of

"I never would of thought that hed behave like that."

This is INCORRECT. It should be would have:

* "I never would have/wouldve thought that hed behave like that."
This is CORRECT.

26 Its the same for should and could: "He should of come with me." This is INCORRECT.

* "He should have/shouldve come with me."

This is CORRECT. "She could of had anything she wanted." This is INCORRECT.

* "She could have had anything she wanted."

This is CORRECT.

7. Double negative

"I'm not speaking to nobody in this class."

This is INCORRECT. Since 'not' is a negative, you cannot use 'nobody' in this sentence:

* "I'm not speaking to anybody in this class."

This is CORRECT.

8. Present perfect

"He has took the train."

This is INCORRECT. The correct form for the present perfect is:

27 would + have + past participle

* "He has taken the train."

This is CORRECT.

9. Went vs Gone

"I should have went to school yesterday."

This is INCORRECT. The correct form is: should + have + past participle

* "I should have gone to school yesterday."

This is CORRECT.

10. Its vs It's

"Its going to be sunny tomorrow."

This is INCORRECT. Its is the contraction of It is:

* "Its going to be sunny tomorrow."

This is CORRECT.

"Whats that? I cant remember its name."

This is INCORRECT. Its is a possessive pronoun that modifies a noun:

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* "Whats that? I cant remember its name."

This is CORRECT.