PROBLEM SOLVING

The term problem solving is used in many disciplines, sometimes with different perspectives, and often with different terminologies. For instance, it is a mental process in psychology and a computerized process in computer science. Problems can also be classified into two different types (ill-defined and well-defined) from which appropriate solutions are to be made. Ill-defined problems are those that do not have clear goals or solution paths, while well-defined problems have specific goals and clearly defined solution paths.
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES Problem-solving strategies are the steps that one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to ones own goal. Some would refer to this as the problem -solving cycle. (Bransford & Stein, 1993) In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy. Although called a cycle, one does not have to do each step in order to fix the problem, in fact those who dont are usually better at problem solving. The reason it is called a cycle is that once one is completed with a problem another usually will pop up. Blanchard-Fields (2007) looks at problem solving from one of two facets. The first looking at those problems that only have one solution (like math problems, or fact based questions) which are grounded in psychometric intelligence. The other that is socioemotional in nature and are unpredictable with answers that are constantly changing (like whats your favorite color or what you should get someone for Christmas).

The following techniques are usually called problem-solving strategies: 1. Trial-and-error 2. Divide and conquer 3. Brainstorming

1. Trial and error

Trial and error is a fundamental method of solving problems. It is characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the agent stops trying. It is an unsystematic method which does not employ insight, theory or organized methodology. Trial and error is also a heuristic method of problem solving, repair, tuning, or obtaining knowledge. In the field of computer science, the method is called generate and test. In elementary algebra, when solving equations, it is "guess and check". This approach can be seen as one of the two basic approaches to problem solving, contrasted with an approach using insight and theory. However, there are intermediate methods which for example, use theory to guide the method, an approach known as guided empiricism. This approach is far more successful with simple problems and in games, and is often resorted to when no apparent rule applies. This does not mean that the approach need be careless, for an individual can be methodical in manipulating the variables in an attempt to sort through possibilities that may result in success. Nevertheless, this method is often used by people who have little knowledge in the problem area. Features Trial and error has a number of features:

Solution-oriented: trial and error makes no attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution.

Problem-specific: trial and error makes no attempt to generalize a solution to other problems.

non-optimal: trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution.

Needs little knowledge: trials and error can proceed where there is little or no knowledge of the subject.

It is possible to use trial and error to find all solutions or the best solution, when a testably finite number of possible solutions exist. To find all solutions, one simply makes a note and continues, rather than ending the process, when a solution is found, until all solutions have been tried. To find the best solution, one finds all solutions by the method just described and then comparatively evaluates them based upon some predefined set of criteria, the existence of which is a condition for the possibility of finding a best solution. (Also, when only one solution can exist, as in assembling a jigsaw puzzle, then any solution found is the only solution and so is necessarily the best).

2. Divide and conquer

Explain the divide-conquer strategy with the help of an example Or Explain the techniques of Divide and Conquer with the help of an example. Divide and Conquer Strategy:The principle behind this strategy is that it is easier to solve several small instances of a problem than one large complex problem. The divide - and - conquer technique involves in solving a particular computational problem by dividing it into smaller sub problems, solving the problem recursively and then combining the results of all the sub problems to produce the result for the original complex problem P. The strategy involves three steps at each level of recursion. 1. Divide:- Divide the problem into a number of sub problems. 2. Conquer:- Conquer the sub problems by solving them recursively. If the sub problem sizes are small enough, then just solve the sub problems in a straight forward manner. 3. Combine:- Combine the solutions to the sub problems to form the solution for the original problem. Let n represent the size of the original problem. Let S(n) denote this problem. We solve the problem S(n) by solving a collection of k sub problems- S(n1),S(n2),S(nk), where ni<n for i=1,2,..k. Finally we merge the solutions to these problems.

Skeleton of Divide and conquer Startegy:Let n be the maximum size of the problem. The number of smaller instances into which the input is divided is k. For an input of size n Let B(n) no. of steps done to solve directly. D(n) no. of steps done by divide and let C(n) no. of steps done by combine. Then the general form of the recurrence equation describes the amount of work done by the algorithm which is T(n)=D(n)+

T (size( I )) C (n)
i i 1

for n > smallsize.

Solve(I) n= size(I); if(n smallsize) solution=directlysolve(I); else divide I into I1,..Ik; for each i I1,..Ik Si=Solve(Ii); solution=Combine(S2,Sk); return solution.

3. Brainstorming Brainstorming is a group or individual creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its member(s). The term was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in the 1953 book Applied Imagination. Osborn claimed that brainstorming was more effective than individuals working alone in generating ideas, although more recent research has questioned this conclusion. [1] Today, the term is used as a catch all for all group ideation sessions. What is Brainstorming?

Brainstorming combines a relaxed, informal approach to problem solving with lateral thinking. It asks that people come up with ideas and thoughts that can at first seem a little bit unusual. The idea here is that some of these ideas can be crafted into original, creative solutions to the problem youre trying to solve, while others can spark still more ideas. This approach aims to get people unstuck, by jolting them out of their traditional way of thinking. During brainstorming sessions there should therefore be no criticism of ideas: You are trying to open up possibilities and break down wrong assumptions about the limits of the problem. Judgments and analysis at this stage stunt idea generation. Ideas should only be evolved at the end of the brainstorming session when the exploration of solutions can be further developed along conventional approaches. Individual Brainstorming While group brainstorming is often more effective at generating ideas than normal group problem-solving, study after study has shown that when individuals brainstorm on their own, they come up with more ideas (and often better quality ideas) than groups of people who brainstorm together. Partly this occurs because, in groups, people arent always strict in following the rules of brainstorming, and bad group behaviors creep in. Mostly, though, this occurs because people are

paying so much attention to other peoples ideas that theyre not generating ideas of their own or theyre forgetting these ideas while they wait for their turn to speak. This is called blocking. When you brainstorm on your own, youll tend to produce a wider range of ideas than with group brainstorming you do not have to worry about other peoples egos or opinions, and can therefore be more freely creative. For example, you might find that an idea youd be hesitant to bring up in a group session develops into something quite special when you explore it with individual brainstorming. Nor do you have to wait for others to stop speaking before you contribute your own ideas. You may not, however, develop ideas as fully when you brainstorm on your own, as you do not have the wider experience of other members of a group to help you. Group Brainstorming Brainstorming works by focusing on a problem, and then deliberately coming up with as many solutions as possible and by pushing the ideas as far as possible. One of the reasons it is so effective is that the participants not only come up with new ideas in a session, but also spark off from associations with other peoples ideas by developing and refining them. There are four basic rules in brainstorming (Osborn, 1963) intended to reduce social inhibitions among team members, stimulate idea generation, and increase overall creativity: No criticism: Criticism of ideas are to be withheld during the brainstorming session as the purpose is ton generate varied and unusual ideals then, extend or add to them. Criticism is reserved for the evaluation stage of the process. This allows the members to feel comfortable with the idea of generating unusual ideas. Welcome unusual ideas: Unusual ideas are welcomed because its easier to tame down than to tame up as new ways of thinking and looking at the world, may provide better solutions. Quantity Wanted: The greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a radical and effective solution. Combine and improve ideas: Not only are a variety of ideals wanted, but also ways to combine ideas in order to make them better.

Step by step Brainstorming Gather the participants from as wide a range of disciplines with as broad a range of experience as possible. This brings many more creative ideas to the session. Write down a brief description of the problem the leader should take control of the session, initially defining the problem to be solved with any criteria that must be met, and then keeping the session on course. Use the description to get everyones mind clear of what the problem is and post it where it can be seen. This helps in keeping the group focused. Encourage an enthusiastic, uncritical attitude among participants and encourage all members of the team to have fun! Write down all the solutions that come to mind (even ribald ones). Do NOT interpret the idea, however you may rework the wording for claritys sake. Do NOT evaluate ideas until the session moves to the evaluation phase. Once the brainstorming session has been completed, the results of the session can be analysed and the best solutions can be explored either using further brainstorming or more conventional solutions. Do NOT censor any solution, no matter how silly it sounds. The silly ones will often lead to creative ones the idea is to open up as many possibilities and break down preconceptions about the limits of the problem. The leader should keep the brainstorming on subject, and should try to steer it towards the development of some practical solutions. Once all the solutions have been written down, evaluate the list to determine the best action to correct the problem. Selecting a Solution When you are sure the brainstorming session is over, it is time to select a solution: Use a show of hands (or another voting method) to allow each person to vote. Write the vote tallies next to the ideal. Once the voting is completed, delete all items with no votes. Next, look for logical breaks. For example, if you have several items with 5 or 6 votes, and no 3 or 4 and only a couple of 1 and 2, then retain only the 5 and 6 votes. The group can help to decide the breaking point.

 Now, it is time to vote again. Each person gets half number of votes as there are ideals left. For example is you narrowed the number of generated ideals down to 20, then each person gets 10 votes (if it is a odd number, round down). Each person will keep track of his or her votes. The scribe should again tally the votes next to the ideal, only this time use a different color. Continue this process of elimination until you get down to about 5 ideals. Put the remainder ideas into a matrix. Put each ideal into its own row (first column). Next label some columns using selected criteria. For example e.g. The Idea, Low Cost, Easy to Implement, Feasibility Next, working one column at a time, ask the group to order each idea. Using the above example, which one will cost the least, the most, and will be in the middle. Repeat by working the next column until you have completed all columns. Total each column until complete: Note that you should work each column first (not each row). Some of the columns will require much discussion, as choosing an arbitrary number will not be that easy in some cases. Often, you will have a couple of ideas that tie, but having it diagramed out in a matrix makes it easier to make a decision.

Steps in problem Solving

There are seven main steps to follow when trying to solve a problem. These steps are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Define and Identify the Problem Analyze the Problem Identifying Possible Solutions Selecting the Best Solutions Evaluating Solutions Develop an Action Plan Implement the Solution