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THE

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE

VOL.
I.

LOXDOS PaiNTKD BY SrOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-8TttKET AND PAULIAMBNT STUBET

:

SQl/'ARE

THE

HISTOEICAL GEOGEAPHY
OF

EUEOPE
BV

EDWAED

A.

FREEMAN,

D.C.L., LL.D.
OXFORD

HONORAHV

FKr.I.OW OP TRTNITT COLLEGE.

IN

TWO VOLUMES

VOL. I. TEXT

LONDON LONGMANS, GREEN, AND NEW YORK

1881

CO.

SCRIBNER AND WELFORD

(^il^
V,
'.

34-0.92

I;

'5

PEEFACE.
It
is

now

several years since this

book was begun.

It

has been delayed by a crowd of causes,

loss of strength,

by a temporary

by enforced absence from England, by

other occupations and interruptions of various kinds,

I
it

mention

this

only because of the

itself.

effect

which

I fear

has had on the book

It

has been impossible

if

to

make

it,

Avhat a

book should,
effort.

possible, be, the

fact that the

result of

one continuous

The mere

kindness of the publishers allowed the early part to be

printed

some years back

has,

fear,

led to

some

repetition

and even contradiction. was

found
unavoidable.

certain change
It

of

plan

proved

im-

possible to go through the

to

whole volume according

chapters.
it

the

method of the
Europe

earlier

Instead

of

treating
it

as a whole, I found

needful to divide

into several large geographical groups.

The

result

is

that each of the later chapters has

had to go over

again some small amount of ground which had been

already gone over in the earlier chapters.

cases later lights have led to

In some

some changes of view

these,

or

expression.

I have

marked

as

far

as

vi

PREFACE.
Additions and Corrections.
If in
is

could, in the

any
the

case I have failed to do so, the later statement

one which should be rehed on,

I

hope that

have made the object of the work

It
is

clear in the Introductory Chapter.

really a very

humble

one.

It

aims at

little

more than

tracing out

the extent of various states at different times, and at

attempting to place the various changes in their due

relation to one another

and

to their causes.

am

not,

strictly speaking, writing history.

I have
I

little

to

do

with the internal

at events

affairs

of any country,

have looked

mainly with reference to their

effect

on the

European map.

This has led to a reversal of what to

things.

many

will

seem the natural order of

In a

constitutional history of Europe, our

own

island

would

claim the very

first

place.

In

my

strictly

geographical
it

point of view, I believe I

I of course

am

right in giving

the

last.

assume

in the reader a certain ele-

mentary knowledge of European

history, at least as

much

as

may be

learned from

my own General

Sketch,

Names and

things

which have been explained there I

it

have not thought

needful to explain again.

need

hardly say that I found myself far more competent to

deal with

some parts of the work than with

in,

others.

No one
Some

can take an equal interest

of, all

or

have an

equal knowledge
parts of
;

branches of so wide a subject.

the book will represent real original

research

others

must be dealt with

in

a far less

PREFACE.
thorough way, and
will represent only

VJi

knowledge got

up

for the

occasion.

In such cases the reader will

for

doubtless

find

out the difference

himself.

But
in the

my own deficiencies most keenly German part. No part of European history is

I have felt

to

me

more

attractive than the early history of the

as such.

German
than

kingdom

No

part

is

to

me

less attractive

the endless family divisions and unions of the smaller

German

states.

In the Slavonic part I have found great

in following

difficulty

any uniform system of

spelling.

con-

sulted several Slavonic scholars.

Each gave me
advice

advice,

and each supported

which
I should

his

own

by arguments
if

have thought unanswerable,

had

not seen the arguments in support of the wholly

ent advice given

differ-

me by

the others.

When the

teachers

differ so widely, the learner will, I

if

hope, be forgiven,
I have tried
to

the result

is

sometimes a

little

chaotic.

to write Slavonic

names

so as to give
it.

some approach

the sound, as far as I

know

But I fear that I have

succeeded very imperfectly.

In such a crowd of names, dates, and the
like, there

must be many small inaccuracies.

smaller dates, those

In the case of the

which do not mark the great

is

epochs of history, nothing

easier than to get

is

wrong

by a year or

so.

Sometimes there

an actual difference

of statement in different authorities.

is

Sometimes there
year.

a difference in the reckoning

of the

For

viii

PREFACE.
In what year was Calais lost to England?

instance,

We

should say 1558.

writer at the time

is

would say

1557.

Then again there

no

slip

of either pen or

press so easy as putting a

wrong

figure, and,

except in

the case of great and obvious dates, or again

when
slip

the

mistake

is

very far wrong indeed, there

is

no

of pen

or press so likely to be passed by in revision.

there
is

And again
which

often

room

for question as to the date

should be marked.

In recording a transfer of territory

from one power to another, what should be the date

given
?

The

actual military occupation

and the formal

diplomatic cession are often several years apart.

of these dates should be chosen
to follow
?

Which
it

have found

hard

any fixed rule

in such matters.

Sometimes

the military occupation seems the most important point,

sometimes the diplomatic cession.

each case where a question of

I believe that in

this sort

might

arise, I

could give a reason for the date which has been chosen

but here there has been no room to enter into

dis-

cussions. I can only say that I shall be deeply thankful

to

any one who

will point out to

me any

mistakes or

seeming mistakes in these or any other matters.

The maps have been a matter

I

of great difficulty.

somewhat regret that

it

has been found needful to

text,

bind them separately from the

as
if

because this looks

they

made some
atlas.

pretensions to the character of

this

an historical
are

To

they lay no claim.

They
no way

meant simply

to illustrate the text,

and

in

PREFACE.

ix

enter into competition either with such an elaborate

collection
collections
as

that

of Spruner-Menke,

or even with

much less

elaborate than that.

Those maps

are

meant to be companions in studying the history of the

several periods.

Mine do not pretend

boundary

to

do more than
way.
It

to illustrate changes of

in a general
it

was found,

as the

work went

on, that

was better on

the whole to increase the

number

of maps, even at the

expense of making each

advantages both ways.

map

smaller.

There are

dis-

In the maps of South-Eastern

Europe, for instance,

it

was found impossible

to

show

the small states which arose in Greece after the Latin

conquest at

all

clearly.

But

this

evil

seemed

to

be

counterbalanced by giving as

many

pictures as might be

of the shifting frontier of the Eastern Empire towards the Bulgarian, the Frank, and the Ottoman.

In one or two instances I have taken some small

hberties with

my

dates.

Thus, for instance, the

map

of
all

the greatest extent of the Saracen dominion shows

the countries which were at any time under the Saracen

power.

But there was no one moment when the

Saracen power took in the whole extent shown in the

map.
Sicily

Sind and Septimania were

lost

before Crete and

as I

were won.

But such a view

have given
it

seemed on the whole more

instructive than

would

have been to substitute two or three maps showing the

various losses and gains at a few years' distance from

one another.

X
I liave to thank a

PREFACE
crowd of
friends, including
hints,

some

whom
of

have never seen, for many

and

for

much

help given in various ways.

Gottingen, Professor

Such are Professor Pauli

of

Steenstrup
Corfu,

Copenhagen,
Galiffe

Professor

Eomanos

of

M.

J.-B.

of

Geneva, Dr. Paul Turner of Budapest, Professor A.

W.
Mr.

Ward

of Manchester,

the

Rev.

H.

F,

Tozer,

Ralston, Mr. Morfill, Mrs.

Humphry Ward, and my

whose praise
is

son-in-law Arthur John Evans,

in all

South-Slavonic lands.
SOMERLEAZE, WeLLS
December

16, 1880.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Definition of Historical Greography
ItvS

I.

INTRODUCTION.
relation to kindred studies

.....
.
. .

PAGB
1

.1-2
.

Distinction l>etween geographical and political

1.

names

3-5

Geographical Aspect of Europe.

.
. .

Boundaries of Europe and Asia

sulas

.5-6
6-7

General geogiaphy of the two continents

..........
gi'eat

the

penin-

2.

Effects

of Geography on Hislorij.

Beginnings of history in the southern peninsulas characteristics of Greece and Italy Advance and extent of the Roman dominion the Mediterranean lands, Gaul, and Britain
;

Effects of the geographical

position of
.

Spain, Scandinavia, Britain

Effect of geogi-aphicjil po.sition

..... ..... .....

Germany, France,
.

7-8
8-9

9-10
lU

on the colonizing powers Joint working of geogi-aphical position and national cha.

i-acter

.11
remnants and
. .

3.

Geographical Distribution of Races.

continent
.

Europe an Aryan
Fins and Basques

non-Aiyan
.

latter settlements
.

.12 .13
.
.

Order of Aj-yan settlements

Celts, Teutons, Slaves,

Greeks and Italians

. . .

Lithuanians

13 14-15
16 16

Displacement and assimilation among the Aryan races Intrusion of non- Aryans Sai-acens Turanian intrusions Ottomans Magyars Bulgarians
;
;

differunccii in their history

.17

Xll

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
CxREECE AND THE

1.

11.
.

GREEK COLONIES.
PAGE

The,

Eastern or Greek Peninsula.

Geo<^raphical and historical characteristics of the Eastern,

Greek, or Byzantine peninsula

Its chief divisions;

18-19

Thrace and Illyria

peninsulas
. .

their relations to

Greece
Greece Proper and
its

19-20 20-21
.

Pelopounesos

.21

2.

Insular and Asiatic Greece.

.

'K^tent oi Continuous Hellas

.21
22

The Islands
Asiatic Greece

3.

........
Uthnologi/ of the Eastern Peninsula.
races

22-23

The Greeks and the kindred

Illyrians, Albanians, or Skipetar Inhabitants of Epeii-os, Macedonia,

Pelasgians

.........
Sicily,

.....
and Italy
. .

23

24

24 24-25
25

The Greek Nation

4. Earliest

Geography of Greece and

:

the Neighhouy'itig
.

Lands.

25-27 Homeric Greece its extent and tribal divisions 26 Use of the name Epeiros The cities their groupings unlike those of later times supremacy of Mykene 28 Extent of Greek colonization in Homeric times The Asiatic catalogue
.
:
.

.......
. . . .

Probable kindred of

all

the neighbouring nations

Phoenician and Greek settlements in the islands

5.

....27 .28 ...

.
.

28 28

Change from Homeric

;

to

Historic Greece.

Changes

in

Pelopounesos

Dorian and Aitolian settlements

Later divisions of Pelopounesos Change in Northern Greece Thessaly

;

..... ....
. . .
.

29

29-30
30

Akarnania and the Corinthian colonies Foundation and destruction of cities

6.

.31 .31
32-33

The Greek Colonies

The ^gaean and Asiatic

colonies.
cities
;

Early greatness of the Asiatic

Miletos

32

CONTENTS.
.

XIU
.

Their submission to Lydians and Persians 32-33 The Thracian colonies; abiding greatness of Thessalonike and Byzantion 33 More distant colonies Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia 33-34 Parts of the Mediterranean not colonized by the Greeks Phoenician settlements ; struggles in Sicily and Cyprus 34-35 Greek colonies in Afi-ica, Gaul, and Spain 35 Colonies on the Euxine abiding greatness of Cherson and
.

........
.
,

Trebizond

Beginning of the

7.

artificial

Greek nation

.... ....

36 36

Growth of Macedonia
sors
;

Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros. Philip; Alexander and the Succes

;

effects of their
;

conquests

37 37 38

Athamania The Macedonian kingdoms Egypt Syria Independent states in Asia Pergamos Asiatic states advance of Greek culture
Epeiros under Pyrrhos
.

38 39
39

Free

cities
;

Herakleia

Sinope

Bosporos

8.

....
Achaia, Aitolia
;

39

Later Geography of Independent Greece.

;

The Confederations
tions

Macedonian possessions
First

......... ......
Greece

smaller confedera

40 40 40
41

Roman possessions east of the Hadriatic Progress of Roman conquest in Macedonia and
Special character of Greek history

....
Roman

42

CHAPTER
Meanings of the name Italy commonwealth
;

III.

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

Characteristics of the Italian peninsula

1.

Ligurians and Etruscans

The

Italian nations

Other nations ; lapygians

Venetia

Greek colonies in Italy

........ ....... ........ ....

its

extent under the

43

the great islands

Sicily.

44

The Inhabitants of Italy and

Latins and Oscans
; ;

45

45-46

Gauls Veneti

use of the

name
46-47
47 47-48

Kyme and Ankon

The southern

colonies

their history

....

XIV
Inhabitants of Sicily
Phoenician and

CONTENTS.
PAOK
;

Sikanians and Sikels

48

Greek settlements Semitic powers

2.

........
;

rivalry of

Aryan and
48-49

Growth of the Roman Power in

;

Italy.

Gradual conquest of Italy

states

different positions of the Italian

49
;

Origin of

Rome

its

Latin element dominant

Early Latin dominion of

Rome

......
. .

49-50
50 50 50-51

Conquest of Yeii

more

distant wars

Incorporation of the Italian states

3.

....
.

The Western Provinces.

.
.
.

Nature of the Roman provinces Eastern and Western provinces

Fii-st

.51 .52
.

Roman

possessions in Sicily
;

conquest of Syracuse
.

53

State of Sicily
Cisalpine Gaul

its

Sardinia and Corsica

Liguria

Venetia

Spain

its

inhabitants

colonies

Conquest and Romanization of Spain Transalpine Gaul the Province

;
.

....... ........ ........ ....

Greek
civilization
.
. .

.53
53-54 54-55
.

Istria
;

foundation of Aquileia
;

55

Iberians

Celts

Greek and Phoenician 55-56 56-57

.
.

.57
57-58 57-58 58-60

Conquests of Caesar
clature

threefold division of
;

Gaul

Boundaries of Gaul purely geographical

........
survival of
.

nomen-

Roman

Africa

restoration of Carthage

4.

The Easterii Provinces.

:

Contrast between the Eastern and Western provinces civilization in the East
Distinctions

among

the

Tauros

The

Illyrian provinces

Dalmatia and Istria The outlying Greek lands

The Asiatic provinces

Syria
;

independence of Lykia
Palestine

Rome and

Parthia
;

...... ...... ...... ........ ........

Eastern provinces
; ;

Greek

60 boundary of 60-61
conquest of

kingdom
:

of Skodra

62-63
63 64
65

Crete, Cyprus,
;

Kyrene

province of Asia

Mithridatic

War

65

Conquest of Egypt

the

Roman

Peace

.66

CONTENTS.

5.

XV

Conquests under the Empire.

PAGK
;

Conquests from Augustus to Nero

kingdoms 66-67 Attempted conquest of Germany fi'ontiei"S of Rhine and 67-68 Danube conquests on the Danube Attempt on Arabia 68 Annexation of Thrace and Byzantion 68 Conquest of Britain the wall 69 Conquests of Trajan ; his Asiatic conquests suri-endered by Hadrian 70 Arabia Petrsea 70
;

........
....
. .

incorpoi-ation of vassal

..... .....
.

change of the name Roman, Greek, and Oriental

Dacia

ro-71
parts of the

Empire

71

CHAPTER

IV.

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

1.

The Later Geoijrcvphy of the

;

E injure
73

Changes under the Empire loss of old div New divisions of Italy under Augustus Division of the Empire under Diocletian

71
74-7.5
7.5

The four Praetorian Prefectures

Prefecture of the East
Its dioceses
; ;

its

character

75-76
76

the East
;

Egypt, Asia, Pontos

Diocese of Thrace

provinces of Scythia and Europa

.

76-77
77 77-78 78 78

Great

cities of

the Eastern prefecture

;

Prefecture of Illyricum

position of Greece

Dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia

Prefecture of Italy
;

its

extent

Dioceses of Italy, Illp-icum, and Africa

thage

Prefecture of Gaul

........ ......
;

....
;

province of Achaia
gi-eatness of

Car
79 79 79

Diocese of Spain

its

African tenitory
;

Dioceses of Gaul and Britain

2.

province of Valentia

79-80

The Division of the Empire.

Change

in the position of

Rome

Division of the Empire, a.d. 395

Rivalry with Parthia and Persia inherited by the Eastern

Empire

...... ..... ......

a

80
81

81-82 82-83

Teutonic invasions

no Teutonic settlements in the East

xvi

3.

CONTENTS.
The Teutonic Settlements within
of the Nations
. .

the

Empire.
PAOK

The Wandering

83
.

83-84 nomenclature of the Teutonic nations Warfare on the Rhine and Danulje Roman outposts beyond
the rivers

New

.........
;

84

Teutonic confederations

Marcomanni; Quadi
;

Franks, Alemaus, Saxons

G-ermans within the Empire

Beginning of national kingdoms

Loss of the Western provinces of
.Settlements within the

Rome

..... ....
sea
.

84-85 85-86
86 86 87

Empire by land and by Franks, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals

.

Early history of the Goths The West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain
;

Alans, Suevi, Yandals the Vandals in Africa The Franks use of the name -^rawcwi. 91 Alemans, Thuringians Low-Dutch tribes Roman Germany Teutonized The Frankish dominions 91-93 afresh; peculiar position of the Franks 93 Celtic remnant in Armorica or Britanny
. .

87-88 88-89 89-90 89-90

The Burgundians
Inroads of the

various uses of the

battle of Chalons

separate history of Provence

Huns

Nominal

I'eunion of the

Empire

in

47G

Reigns of Odoacer and Theodoric

4. Settlement of
tlie

.....91 .... .... .... ....

.

name Burgundy

93-94
94 94

origin of Venice

94-95

English in Britain.

Withdrawal

of the

Roman

troops from Britain

Special character of the English Conquest of Britain

....96
.

95

The Low-Dutch settlers, Angles, Saxons, Jutes the name English The Welsh and Scots
. .
.

origin of
.

.97
98

5.

2'he

Eastern Empire.
;

Comparison of the two Empii'es

in the Eastern

........
. , .

no Teutonic settlements 98 98
98-99
. .
. .

The Tetraxite Goths

Rivalry with Parthia continued under the revived Persian
Position of

kingdom Armenia

Momentary conquests
Jovian
l)ivi:sion of

of Trajan

.99 .99
100

Conc|uests of Marcus, Severus, and Diocletian

.........
; .
.

cessions of

Armenia; Hundred Years' Peace

.100

Summary

101-102

CONTENTS.

xvii

CHAPTEE

1.

V.

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

The Beunion of the Empire.
PAGE
;

Continued existence of the Empire

kings

position of the Tevitonic

103

Extent of the Empire at the accession of Justinian Conquests of Justinian their effects
;

....
.

.104
104-106

Pi-ovence ceded to the Franks

.105

2.

Settlement of the
;

Lombards in
Avars Danube

Italy.
.

Early history of the Lombards

Grepidfe,

106-107
.

Possibility of Teutonic powers on the

107

Lombard conquest

of Italy

its partial

niture

territory

kept by the Empire

3.

107-108
Rise of the Saracens.
tlie

Loss of the Spanish province by

Empire
. .

Wars

of Chosroes and Heraclius

.108 .109
109-110

Extension of

Relation of the Arabs to

Roman power on the Euxine Pome and Persia

Arabs under Mahomet
.
. . .

.110

Union

of the

renewed Aryan and

. .

Semitic

strife

Loss of the Eastern and

Afn can
.

provinces of
. .

Rome
, .

Saracen conquest of Peisia

.110 .111 .111

.112 .112 .113

Conquest of Spain

Saracen province in Gaul

;

Effects of the Saracen conquests

distinction
.

111-112 between the

.

Latin, Greek, and Eastern provinces

Greatest extent of Saracen provinces

Loss of Septimania

4.

Settlements of the Slavonic Nations.

.

Movements

of the Slaves; Avars, Magyars, &c.

.

113-114

Geographical separation of the Slaves

Analogy between Teutons and Slaves

Slavonic settlements under Heraclius
;

.114 .114
.115
115-116

the Dalmatian
.

cities
.

displacement of the Illyrians

Slavonic settlements in Greece

.....
.

Settlement of the Bulgarians

.116
116-117

Curtailment of the Empire

nople

moral influence of Constanti-

a2

xviii

CONTENTS.

5.

The Transfer of

the Western

Emjnre

to the

Franks.
PAGB
.

y
^

117-119 Their position in Germany, Northern Gaul, and Southern 119-120 Gaul Division of the Frankish dominion Austria and Neustria 120-121 Use of the name Francia Teutonic and Latin Francia
Conquests of the Franks in Grermany and Gaul
.

modern forms of the name The Karlings their conquests

;

.121

power.
Sai-acens

The great powers

........ .........
;

German

character of their

of the eighth century

121-122 Romans, Franks, 122

. .

Character of the Caliphate

its

divisions

Relations between the Franks and the Empire

.
.

Lombard conquest of the Exarchate Conquest of the Lombards by Charles the Great ; be Lombardy as a separate kingdom
. .

.122 .123 .123

holds

.123
123-124

His Roman
pire

title

of Patrician
;

Effects of his Imi>erial coronation

final division of

the

Em124
their

The two Empires become severally German and Greek ;

separation and rivalry
.

.....
.

The two Empires and the two Caliphates Extent of the Carolingian Empire
.

124125 125-126

.126
126-127

Conquest of Saxony
the Eider

dealings with Scandinavia

frontier of

Relations with the Slaves

overthrow of the Avars

.127
128
128

The Spanish March Divisions of the Empire

kingdoms

of

Aqnitaine and
, .

Italy J] &Q oi i\xQ iaSiVXQ& Francia, Gallia,

Germania

.129

6. Northern Europe.

Lands beyond the Empire

states

Scandinavia and Britain

;

129

Stages of English Conqviest in Britain

Teutonic and Celtic

129-130
of AVessex
.

Supremacy

Denmark; Norway; Sweden

Different directions of the Scandinavian settlements

Summary

.........
. .
.

.....
.
.

.130
130-131

.131
131-133

Religious changes

.132
133

Note ou the Slavonic settlements

CONTENTS.

Xix

CHAPTER

VI.

THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

1.

The Division of the Frankish Empire.

PAGE

Break-up of the Frankish power; origin of the states of modern Europe .134 Kingdoms of Italy and Aquitaine .134
.
.

Division of 817

135
;

Union of Neustria and Aquitaine

France
Division of
;

first

glimpses of

modem
135

Yerdun Eastern and Western Francia Lotharingia; the Western Kingdom or Karolingia .137 Middle Kingdom or Burgundy .137 Union under Charles the Fat division on his deposition 137 No formal titles used various names for the German
;
. . .
. .

Kingdom
Empire

138

Connexion between the German Kingdom and the

Extent of the German Kingdom
Lotharingia
its

Roman
139

Extent of the Western Kingdom .141 Normandy cut ofi" from Its great fiefs ; Aquitaine ; France France 142 union of the Origin of the French kingdom and nation duchy of France with the Western kingdom .143 New use of the word Frcmce; title of Hex Frmicorum 143-144 Paris the kernel of France .144 Various uses of the name Burgiiv/ly .144 The French Duchy; the Middle Kingdom; Transjui^ane 144-145 and Cisjurane Burgundy
. .
.
.

........
; ; ;
. . .

duchies and marks

39-140 140-141
1

Burgundian kingdom Separation of Burgundy from the Frankish kingdom

Great
cities of the
.

union with Germany

Its
later

..... ......
.

.145
;

its

145-146

mainly swallowed up by France, but partly represented by Switzerland .146 146-147 Kingdom of Italy its extent separate principalities
history;
.
.

Italy represents the

Lombard kingdom
;

Milan

its capital

147

Abeyance of the Western Empire

its

restoration by Otto
. .

the Great; the three Imperial kingdoms

147-148

Rivalry between France and the Empire

.148

XX

CONTENTS.
The Eastern Empire.
PAGE
;

2.

Kivalry of the Eastern and Western Empires and Churches

Greek character of the Eastern Empire

its

extent

.........
;

fluctuations in

149

149-151 The r/iemes; Asiatic Themes 151-152 The Em-opean Themes Hellas; Lombardy Sicily Older Greek names supplanted by new ones .151 Character of the European and Asiatic dominion of the Em; ;
. . .

pire

its

supremacy by sea
;

.152
;

Losses and gains

Crete

Sicily

Syria; Bulgaria; Cherson

.....
Italy
;

Dalmatia

Greece

Greatness of the Empire under Basil the Second

3. Origin of the

152-153 153
.

Spanish Kingdoms.

Special position of Spain

the Saracen conquest

Growth
Castile;

of the Christian states

.....
.

153-154 154-155

Aragon

Portugal

Break-up of the Western Caliphate

4.

.155 .156

Origin of the Slavo7iic States.

;

Slavonic and Turanian invasions of the Eastern Empire

Bulgarians; Magyars; Great Moravia

Special character of the
religious connexion

156-157

Hungaiian kingdom
with the West
.

effects of its
. .

.157

The Northern and Southern Slaves split asunder by the Magyars 158 The South-eastern Slaves .158 The North-western Slaves Bohemia; Poland 159
.

.........
. .

Special position of Russia

.15^

5.

Northern Eurojie.
.
.

Scandinavian settlements

159-160

Growth of the kingdom of England .160 The Danish invasions division between ^5^]lfred and Guthrum Bernicia Cumberland .161 Second West-Saxon advance Wessex grows into England submission of Scotland and Strathclyde Cumberland
. . .
.

and Lothian

.162

Use

of the Imperial titles

Empire of Cnut
Conquest

by the English kings Northern England finally trnited by the Norman

;

Summary

162-163 163-165

, ;

CONTENTS.

XXI

CHAPTER
Permanence

A^II.

THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

PA fire

of ecclesiastical divisions

they preserve earlier

.

divisions; case of

Lyons and Rheims

.

166-167

Patriarchates, Provinces, Pioceses

,167
167-168

Bishoprics within and without the

Empire

1.

The Great Patriarchates,

.
.

The Patriarchates suggested by the Prefectures Pome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem
Later Patriarchates

.168
168-169 169-170

2.

The

Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy.

Great numbei-s and

bishoprics
. .

smaller
.

importance of
.
.

the
.

Italian
.

Rivals of Rome Milan, Aquileia, Ravenna The immediate Roman province other metropolitan
;
.

.170 .171
171-172

sees

3.

The EcclesiaMical Divisions of Gaul and Germanij.

Gaulish and

German

dioceses
;

.172

172-17o Lyons New metropolitan sees Toulouse, Alby, Avignon, Paris 174 comparison of civil and ecclesiastical divisions Provinces of Northern Gaul and Germany histoiy of Mainz 178-179
Provinces of Southern Gaul
;

position of

The

archiepiscopal electors

other

burg, Bremen,

Magdeburg
in France,

.....
German provinces
;

Salz-

Modern arrangenients
lands

4.

176-177 Germany, and the Nether177

The

Ecclesiastical Divisions

of Spain.
;

Peculiarities of Spanish ecclesiastical geography

eftects of
.

the Saracen conquest

.178
178-179

Gothic and later dioceses

rier

neglect of the Pyrensean bar-

.5.

The

Ecclesiastical Divisio'ns of the British Islands.

.

Analogy between Britain and Spain

Tribal nature of the Celtic e])isco])ate

....
. . .

.179
179-180
180-181

Scheme

of Gregory the Great

the two English provinces

..
.
. .

relation of Scotland to

York

XXil

CONTENTS.
PAGB
.

181 Foundation of the English sees ; territorial bishoprics Canterbury and its suffragan ; effects of the Norman Con181-182 quest 182-183 Province of York Scotland and Ireland
.

.........
;
. .

6.

The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Europe.

;

The Scandinavian provinces Lund, Upsala, Trondhjem Poland and neighbouring lands; Gnezna, Riga, Leopol. Provinces of Hungary and Dalmatia
. .
.

184 184-185
.

.186

CHAPTEE

VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

The German Kingdom
falling off of Italy
;

its

relation to the

Loss of territory

and Burgundy by the German kingdom

Western Empire 188-190

.

its

extension to

the north-east
Geogi-aphical contrast of the earliei-

190-191

and the

later

Empire

191

1.

The Kivgdom of Germany.

Changes of

boundaries and nomenclature in Germany; 191-192 Saxony; Bavai^ia Austria; Burgundy; Prussia Extent of the Kingdom fluctuations of its western boundary Lorraine; Elsass the left bank of the Rhine 192-194 Fluctuations on the Burgundian frontier; union of Burgundy 194 with the Empire. .195 Frontier of Germany and Italy union of the crowns 195 Northern and eastern advance of the Empii-e the marks
; ;

Hungai-ian frontier
niola

marks of Austria, Carinthia, and Car196

Danish

fi'ontier

Danish mark
.
.

boundary of the Eider

. . .

196

.197 The Slavonic frontier Slavonic princes of Mecklenburg, The Saxon mark 198-199 Liibeck the Hansa 199 Marks of Brandenburg, Lausitz, and Meissen .199 Bohemia and Moravia
.
.

Polish frontier

Pomerania,

Silesia

Germanization of the Slavonic lands

Internal geography
;

..... ....
.

200 200-201

Growth

.201 growth of the principalities Brandenburg or Prussia, and 202 Austria analogies elsewhere 202 Decline of the duchies end of the Gauverfassung
.

of the marchlands
;

.....
,
.

CONTENTS.
Growth
of the

xxiii
PAOl

House

of Austria

and the Netherlands 203 The Circles 203 Powers holding lands within and without the Empire Austria Sweden Brandenburg and Prussia ; Hannover and Great Britain 203-204 Dissolution of the kingdom the Confedei*ation 204
;

.......
; ;
.

separation of Switzerland

Greatness of Prussia and Austria

The new Empire 204 Germauy under the Saxon and Prankish kings vanishing of Francia analogy of Wessex 205-206 Changes in the twelfth century beginning of Brandenburg and Austria the duchies and the circles 206-207 Duchy of Saxony its divisions and growth 207 Break-up of the duchy Westfalia the new Saxony 207 Duchy of Brunswick electorate and kingdom of Hannover 208 The new Saxony Lauenburg the Saxon Elector-ate 208-209 The North Mark of Saxony or Mark of Brandenburg 209 House of Hohenzollern union of Brandenburg and Prussia. 210 Advances in Pomerania, Westfalia, &c. .210
;

..... ..... ........

; . .

204

....
;
. .
.

German

character of the Prussian state

its
.

contrast with
. .

Austria; use of the name Prttssia

Conqi;est of Silesia
;

210-211
East

Polish acqmsitions of Prussia

Friesland

Saxon Possessions of Denmark and Sweden Free cities of Saxony; the Hansa; the
bishoprics

211-212 212-213
the

cities

and

213-214
;

Duchy

of Francia

hel<l

by the bishops of Wurzburg

.

the

Franconian

circle

.214
;

The Rhenish

circles;

ecclesiastical

Hessen Bamberg; Nurnberg states on the Rhine

;

....
.

the

214-215

Palatinate of the Pthine

Upper Palatinate

.215
215

Bavaria;

its relations

Austria
Lotharingia

.........
.
.

towards the Palatinate and towards

Archbishopi-ic of Salzburg

.215

the later Lorraine ; falHng off from the Empire and Elsass 216 Swabia; ecclesiastical powers .216 Swabian lands of the Confederates .216 Baden and Wiirttemberg 216 Circle of Austria house of Habsburg .217 Extent of its Grerman lands Tyrol Elsass loss of Swabian
;
.

lands

217
its

Bohemia and

dependencies

.217

XXIV
Trent and Brixen
Cii-cle of

CONTENTS.
PARK

217
;

Burgundy
2.

not pm-ely CTerman

its

origin

.218

The ConfeJeration mtd Empire of Germany.

.

.218 Germany changes from a kingdom to a confederation The Bund the \\q\n Confederation and Empire the Empire
; ;

still

federal
;

219
loss of the left

Wars

of the French Eevolution

bank
states
.

or the

PJiine

220
free
. .

Suppression of
electorates

cities
.

and
.

ecclesiastical
.
.

new

.220
221
;

Peace of Pressburg
Title of
'

new kingdoms
;
'

cessions

made byAnstiia
. .

Confederation of the PJiine Emperor of Austria .221 end of the Western Empire 221-222 German territories of Denmark and Sweden 222 Losses of Prussia and Austria French annexations Kingdoms of Saxony and Westfalia; Grand duchy of
. .
.

Frankfurt

222
of the

Germany wiped out

Losses of Prussia
;

map
;

.222
222-223

Danzig; duchy of

Warsaw

The German Confederation

princes holding lands within

;
.

223 and without the Confederation kingdom of Hanover dismemberment of Saxony 224 Increase of Prussian territory Lands recovered by Austria German possessions of Denmark and the Netherlands Sweden withdraws from 224-225 Germany
; .

Comparison of Prussia and Austria; Hannover 225 Kingdoms of Bavai'ia, Saxony, Wiirttemberg other Gei'man the free cities Liittich passes to Belgium. 226-227 states
.

Revival of
Affairs of

German national Luxemburg

and
.

War

...... ......
life
;

227 228-229
to

of

Sleswick

Holstein
.

the
.

duchies
.

ceded
.

Austria and Prussia

.228

War War

of 1866;

North German Confedei-ation

.

exchision of
. .

Austria; great advance of Prussia 228-229 with France; the new German Empire; recovery of Elsass-Lothringen 229-230
;

Comparison of the old kingdom and the new Empire of Prussia

3. The Kingdom of Italy. Small geographical importance of the kingdom the Alpine frontier

name
230-231

changes on

Case of Trieste

231-232 233

; ;

CONTEXTS.
Apulia,
Sicily,

XXV
p..c;r
;

Venice, no part of the kingdom

their relation

to the Eastern

Empire
.
.

233-234
.
.

Special history of the house of Savoy

.234

Extent of the kingdom; Neustria and Austria; Emilia, 234235 Tuscany Romagna
;

Lombardy proper the marches Comparison of Germany and Italy

;

...... ......
;

23.5

the commonwealths, the

tyrants, the

Popes

four stages of Italian history.

235-236

Northern Italy
cities
;

the Marquesses of Montfeirat

236-238 march the Ancona march of the and Central Italy Eomagna Tuscan commonwealths Pi^^a and Genoa Rome and
the Veronese
; ; ;

....
;

the

Lombard

the Popes

238-2.39
:

The

tyrannies; Spanish dominion practical abeyance of the

Empire

in Italy

Imperial and Papal

;

fiefs

239-240
;

Palaiologoi at Montferrat house of Visconti at Milan the duchy of Milan ; its dismemberment ; duchy of Parma

242-243 Mantua, of Ferrara and 243-244 Modena difference in their tenure 244 Ptomagna Bologna; Urbino; advance of the Popes The Tuscan cities Lucca rivalry of Pisa and Genoa Siena 245 Florence

Land power

and Piacenza of Venice

principalities
;

......
.

240-242

Other

duchy of

Duchy

of Florence

grand duchy of Tuscany

246

4. The Later Geography of Italy.

The kingdom

practically forgotten

position of Charles the

Fifth Italy a geographical

states

246
expression
;

changes in

the

Italian

246-247
.

247 Dominion of the two branches of the house of Austria Italy mapped into larger states ; exceptions at Monaco and 247 San Marino Venice ; Milan Spanish and Austrian its dismemberment 248-249 in favour of Savoy end of Montferrat and Mantua. Parma and Piacenza separation of Modena and Ferrara Genoa and Lucca Grand Duchy of Tuscany advance
;
;

of the Popes

249
; .
.
.

The Norman kingdom of Sicily Benevento The Two Sicilies their various unions and
;

250

divisions

their relations to the houses of Austiia,

Bourbon

Savoy and 250-251

. .

Use

of the

name

S'an?ima

.251

XXVI

CONTENTS.
PASS of the French Eevohition
;

Wars

the

new

republics
to

Treaty
,

of

Campo Formio
;

Piedmont joined

France

Restoration of the Pope and the

King
Italy

of the

The French kingdoms

Various annexations ;
of Naples

Etruria

....
Sicilies
.

Two
;

251-253 253 253

Eome
;

becomes French

Murat King

Italy under French dominion revival of the Italian

name

253-254 254-255

Settlement of 1814-1815; the princes restored, but not the

255 commonwealths Austrian kingdom of Lombardy and Venice; Genoa annexed 255-256 by Piedmont

........
;

The smaller
Sicilies

states

the Papal states

Kingdom
;

of the

Two
256
;

Union of Italy comes from Piedmont earlier movements war of 1859; Kingdom of Italy: Savoy and Nizza
ceded to France Recovery of Venetia and
recovered

.........
Rome
;

parts of the

257-258 kingdom not

258 258

Freedom

of

San Marino

5.

The. Khvjdor.i

of Burgundy.
;

Union

of
;

Burgundy with Germany

chiefly

dying out of the king-

dom

swallowed up by France, but represented

by Switzerland Boundaries of the kingdom

prevails in
it
. .

258-259
;

fluctuation
. .

Romance tongue
.

259
261

History of the Burgundian Palatinate

beliard

Besan^on

Mont-

The Lesser Burgundy partly German The Dukes of Zahringen the ecclesiastical
.

.261

states

the free

cities

the free lands

High Gei*many Growth of Savoy Burgundian

;

........
;

gi-owth of the Old League of

possessions of its counts

;

262 263

States between the Palatinate

andBugey;

principalities

and the MediteiTanean and free cities

. .

Bresse
.

.263

263-264 County of Provence; its connexion with France Progress of French annexation: 1310-1791: Lyons; the Dauphiny Vienne Valence; Provence; Avignon and 264-265 Venaissin
. :

Nizza

265

History of Orange

265-266 States which have split off" from the Imperial kingdoms Switzerland Savoy tlie duchy of Burgundy by Belgium and the Netherlands 266-267
:

.....

; ;

CONTENTS.
The
Austi'ian power
;

XXvii
PAGE
its

its

position as a marcliland

union
.

with Hungary ;

its relation

to Eastern

Europe

267-268

6.

The Swiss Confederation.

;

German

origin of the Confederation

popular errors

sketch

of Swiss history

268-270
;

The Three Lands

Allies

the cities

Luzern, ZUrich, Bern

. .
.

the

Eight Ancient Cantons

;

.270

and subjects dominion of Zurich and Bern conquests from Austria 270-271 Italian conquests; fii-st conquests from Savoy; League of WaUis 271-272 The Thiiieen Cantons 272 League of Graub linden further Italian and Savoyard conquests 272-273 History of Geneva territory restored to Savoy division of Gruy^res 273-274
; ; ; ;

......

The Allied States Neufchatel Constanz The Confederation independent of the Empii^e;
;

.274
274-275
275-276
276

as a middle state

Wars of dom

the French Revolution

of the subject lands; annexations to France.

;

Act of Mediation The present Swiss

the nineteen cantons

Confedei-ation

...... .... .....

its
;

position

Helvetic Republic

free-

276 276

History of Neufchatel

7.

The State of Savoy.

;

Position and gi-owth of Savoy three divisions of the Savoyard lands; popular confusions 277-278 The Savoyard power originally Burgundian; Maurienne Aosta 278
First Italian possessions
;

.....
.
.

Burgundian advance lands north of the lake Relations to Geneva, France, and Bern
Acquisition of Nizza

Italian advance of Savoy; principally of Achaia, of Pied-

283-284 284 decline of Savoy 285 Loss of lands north of the lake; fui'ther losses to Bern and
Savoy a middle state French influence and occupation
her
allies
;
.

mont; Saluzzo

....... ........ ........

. .

279 280-281 281-282 282

recovery of the lands south of the lake

. .

the Savoyard power becomes mainly Italian

286

Savoy

falls

back in Burgundy and advances in Italy

;

history

of Saluzzo

finally acquired in

exchange for Bresse, &c.

287

XXviii

CONTENTS.
rAflR

annexed again French annexation of Nizza; Aosta the one Burgundian remnant Savoyard advance in Italy

Duchy

of

Savoy annexed

to France; restored;

288 288 289

.........
.

8.

The Duchy of Burgunrly mid

the Lovi Countries.

;

Position of the Valois dukes as a middle power

their twofold vassalage

result of

290

Schemes 290-291 Belgium and the Netherlands History of the duchy of Burgundy its union with Flanders, Artois, and the county of Burgundy relations to France " 292-293 and the Empire Flanders their Imperial fiefs of 293 counts the The Netherlands 293 Holland and Friesland 294 Brobant Hainault union of Holland and Hainault
of a
; ; ;
.

Burgundian kingdom

....
their
final
;

effects

Common points in all these states

and Teutonic
dialects
;

the great cities

Romance
;

South-western states

Liege

Luxemburg Limburg
;
;

of Geldern union Middle position of these states French influence .296 under the Burgundian dukes Advance under Philip the Good; Namur, Brabant, and 296-297 Limburg, Holland and Hainault The towns on the Somme; Flanders and Artois released 297^298 from homage Philip's last acquisition of Luxemburg; advance under
;
.

294-295 duchy 295

.......
;

Charles the Bold and Charles the Fifth

union of the

Netherlands

298
to Spain
.

The Netherlands pass

imperfect results

war
.

of independence
. .

its

.299

The Seven United Provinces; their independence of the

Empire
;

their colonies

lack of a

name

use of the

^ordi Dutch

299-300
;

The Spanish Netherlands

Austria

English possession of Dunkirk

advance of France; the Spanish Netherlands pass to

301

.........
;
;

Annexation by France kingdom of Holland gundian possessions French

Kincdom of the Netherlands Liege of Luxemburg to Germany

Division of the Netherlands and Belgium Luxemburg from Germany

...... ......
;

all

the Bur-

302

incorporated
. . .

relation
.

.303

separation of

General history and

i-esult of

the Burgundian power

303 303-304

; ' ;

CONTENTS.

9.

Xxix
Atistria.

The.

Dominions of
;

PACK

anomalous position of the Austrian power; the so-Gilled Empire' of Austria 305-307 The Eastern Mo.rk becomes a duchy; division of Carmthia union of Austria and Styria 307-308 County of Gorz 309 Austiia, (fee, annexed by Bohemia great power of Ottokar 309
Origin of the
'

name Austria
;

.... .........
; ;

Swabiau and Alsatian lands their loss 309-311 Xing Rudolf break-up of the power of Ottokar Albert duke of Austria and Styria .310 Relations between Austria and the Empire division of the Austrian dominions 311-312 Acquisition of Carinthia and T}to1 commendation of Trieste; loss of Thurgau 312-313 Austrian kings and emperors; possessions beyond the Empire 313-315 Union with Bohemia and Hungary 314-317
of
their
; ;

House

Habsburg

......
; ;

Consequences of the union with Hungary

of the

kingdom

........
;
;

....
;

slow recovery

317 318

Gorz advance towards Italy Austrian dominion and intluence in Italy Connexion of Austria and Burgundy the Austrian NetherAcquisition of
;

.....
of
. , .

lands

Loss

of

Elsass

of

Silesia

acquisition

318-319 Poland
320 320-321 Empiie 321-322 322

Dalmatia
Position and dominions of Maria Theresa

New

use of the
in

name Austria

the Austrian

'

1811

Misuse of the IllyrLm name

of Ragusa; of

Austria in 1814-1815; recovery of Dalmatia; annexation

Cracow
;

..... .....
; '

322-323

Separation from

Hungary reconquest the Austro-HuuBosnia, Herzegovina, Spizza garian Monarchy 323-324

;
'

CHAPTER
Origin and growth of France

IX.

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

How

far Karolingia spht off

comparison with Austria from the Empire

;

325

France a nation as well as a power 326-327 Use of the name of France its dukes acquire the western kingdom ; extent of their dominion 327-328
;
.

....
.

.326

;;

XXX
Two

CONTENTS.
PAGK

forms of annexation

first,

of

fiefs

of

the crown
.
. .

secondly, of lands beyond the

kingdom
;

328

Distinctions

among
;

Britanny

.........
the
fiefs
;

the great vassals

Normandy

328

The Twelve Peers different many and Karolingia

1
.

position of the bishops in Ger-

.....
;
.
.

328-329

Incorporation of the Vassal States.

;

The duchy of France in 987 the King cut off from the sea 329-330 330 The neighbouring states position of the Parisian kings The kings less powerful than the dukes advantages of their
;
.

kingship

first

advances of the kings

;

.331

The House

of

Anjou

gradual union of Normandy, Anjou,

.

331-333 333-334 Normandy, Anjou, &c. 334 The English kings keep Aquitaine and insular Normandy 334 Sudden gi-eatness of France coxmts of Toulouse and Fiefs of Aragon in Southern Gaul
Maine, Aquitaine, and Gascony
. .

Acquisition of continental

334-335 French annexations 335 Roussillon and Barcelona freed from homage 335 Languedoc 335-336 Other annexations of Saint Lewis temporary possession of NaAnnexation of Champagne 336-337 varre The Hundred Years' War relations between France and momentary possession of Aquitaine by Aquitaine 337 Philip the Fair Aquitaine and other lands freed from Peace of Bretigny 337-338 homage Peace of Troyes; momentary union of the French and 338 English crowns beginning of the modern Final annexation of Aquitaine 338-339 French kingdom Growths of the Dukes of Burgundy the towns on the Somme momentary annexation of Artois and the Comity of 339-340 Burgundy Annexation of the duchy of Burgundy Flanders and Artois 340-343 released from homage analogy with Aquitaine
Barcelona
of
Effects

...... ........
;

the

Albigen^ian war

......... .... ........

.

........ ........ ......

;
;

2.

Foreign Annexations of France.

;

Kelations betweou France and England

Boulogne

Dun341-342

kirk

; ;

CONTENTS.
Relations between France and Spain
;

XXXI
PAGE
;

Roussillon

Navarre
first

Andorra Advance at the

342-343
cost of the Imperial

343 with of France relations Burgundian conquests Effect of the .344 Savoy and Switzerland 345 History of the Langue cVoc slight extent of real annexaFrench dominion in Italy 345-346 tion the Three Bishoprics French annexations from Germany
;
.

gundy, then Germany

...... ......
kingdoms,

Bur-

346 French acquisitions in Elsass France reaches and passes the 347-34S Rhine increased isolation Temporary annexation of Bar annexation of Roussillon
effect of isolated

conquests
;

...... .....
;

348-349 Annexation of Franche Comte and Besangon ; seizure of 349-350 Strassburg annexation of Orange Annexation of Lorraine thorough incorporation of French 350-351 conquests; effect of geographical continuity Purchase of Corsica its effects; birth of Buonaparte 351-352
advance in the Netherlands
;
.
.

....

3.

The Colonial Dominion of France.

;

French colonies in North America

Louisiana

Colonial rivalry of France and Eagland

of Canada French West India Islands The French power in India

......... .........
Acadia
;

Canada

352 353

English conquest

.353

Bourbon and Mauritius

353-354

4.

Acquisitions of France during the Revolutionary Wars.

Distinction between the Republican and

quests

........
'

Imperial

'

Con355-356

First class of annexations

;
;

Avignon, MUlhausen, MontbeHard Geneva bishopric of Basel 355 Second zone; traditions of Gaul and the Rhine; Netherlands; Savoy,&c. feelings of Buonaparte towards Switzerland 355-356 Character of Buonaparte's conquests dependent and incorporated lands division of Europe between France and Russia 356-357 357-358 The French power in 1811 Arrangements of 1814-1815 358-359 Later changes annexation of Savoy, Nizza, and Mentone
;
;

....

loss of Elsass

and Lorraine

.359

XXXU
Losses

CONTENTS.
PACi a

among

the colonies

independence of Hayti

sale of

Louisiana

359-360
;

Conquest of Algeria

character of African conquests

360

CHAPTER

X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Comparison of the Eastern and Western Empires the Western fills to pieces from within the Eastern is broken to
;

pieces from without

......
;
.
.

36ti-363

Tendencies to separation in the Eastern Empire Closer connexion of the East with the elder Empire
tion of the

.363
363-364
.

reten.

Roman name

Romania

Importance of the distinction of races in the East The original races; Albanians, Greeks, Vlachs
Slavonic settlers

364 364 364 365

........
.

Turanian invasions fi'om the North

Bulgarians, Magyars, &c.

365 The Saracens The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks comparison of Bulgarians, 365 Magyars, and Ottomans The Eastern Empire became nearly conterminous with the 366 Greek nation reappearance of tlie other original races The Latin Conquest, and the revived Byzantine Empire 366-367 States which arose out of the Empire or on its borders Bulgaria Hungary Asiatic powers 367-368 Sicily; Venice
;

......
.

Distinction between conquest and settlement

1
.

368

Changes in

the

Frontier of the Einjnre.

.

.369 Power of revival in the Empire Western possessions of the Empire losses in the islands 369 advance in the mainland Loss of Sardinia; gi*&dual loss and temporary partial recovery 369-370 of Sicily Fluctuations of the Imperial power in Italy; theNoi-mans 370^371 separation of Loss and recovery of Crete and Cyprus 371-372 Cyprus 372-373 Summary of the history of the great islands
.
. .

......
;

Relations to the Slavonic powers

three Slavonic groups

;

373

Bulgarian migrations

373-374 374 375 375 Relations between the Empire and the Bulgarian kingdom

kingdom south

of

White Bulgaria the Danube

Use of the Bulgarian name The slaves of Macedonia, &a

.... ...... .....

the
first

Bulgarian

CONTENTS.
Recovery
of

XXXlll
PAOX
;

Macedonia and Greece

Hellenes
Servia, Croatia,

and Dalmatia
of

Greatest

extent

Simeon

First conquest of Bulgaria

Second Bulgarian kingdom under Samuel; second conquest 377-378 378 Venice and Cherson 378-379 Asiatic conquests annexation of Armenia
; . .

........ ........ ........

use of the

name

375-376

.376

the

first

Bulgarian

kingdom under 376-377

.
.

.377

New

enemies ; Magyars
;

Turks
Belgrade

Revolt of Servia

loss of

.379 .379
379-380

Advance

of the Seljuk Turks;

Sultans of

Roum;
.

loss of

Antioch

Normans advance
in Asia

loss of

Corfu and Durazzo

380

Revival under John and Manuel, Komnenos; recovery of lands

and Europe
of Cyprus

.381
Latin

Splitting off of distant possessions

loss of
.

Dalmatia
.
.

Kingdom
Greek

.381
382

Third Bulgarian kingdom

the

Empire more thoroughly

;

Latin conquest of Constantinople

Latin Empire of Romania Latin kingdom of Thessalonike

Despotat of Epeiros
separation

.........
;

...... .....
Act
of Partition
.

383 383-384 384-385

.

Greek Empii-e of Thessalonike

their

385

Empire of Trebizond loss of its western dominion 386 The old Empire continued in the Empire of Nikaia its advance in Europe and Asia; recovery of Constantinople 386-387 Loss in Asia and advance in Europe; recovery of Pelo387-388 ponnesos Advance in Macedonia and Epeiros 388 Losses in Asia Knights of Saint John advance of the Turks 389 Losses towards Servia and Bulgaria conquests of Stephen 389-390 Dushan 390 Fragmentary dominion of the Empire Advance of the Turks in Europe loss of Hadrianople loss
;
. .

........ ....
; ;

....
;
.

390 390-391 Recovery of territory after the fall of Bajazet 391 Turkish conquest of Con.stantinople of Peloponnesos States which grew out of the Empire; Slavonic, Hungarian, 391-393 and Rouman Greek; Latin; Turkish
of Philadelphia
.
; .

2.

The Kingdom of Sieily.

The Norman Power in Italy and Sicily Eastern and Western Empires

.....
;

its relations to

the

393

b2

XXXIV

CONTENTS.
PAGE
;

Advance of the Normans in Italy Aversa and Capua duchy of Apulia Robert Wiscard in Epeiros 394-395
;

Norman

conquest of Sicily
Sicily
;

.......
.

39.5

Roger King of
Africa

his conquests in Italy, Corfu,

and
39-5-396
of

Eastern dominion of the two Sicilian crowns

kingdom

Margarito

Acre; Malta

3.

396-397 398
States.
.

The,

Crusading

Comparison between Sicily and the crusading states 398 Jerusalem Cyprus Armenia .399 Extent of the Kingdom of Jerusalem other Latin states in Syria ; loss and recovery of Jerusalem, final loss loss of Acre 399-400 Kingdom of Cyprus its relations to Jerusalem and Armenia 401
.

Frank principalities in Greece commonwealths

4.

.......
;
.

possessions of the maritime

401-402

The Eastern Dominion of Venice and Genoa.

Venice springs from her relation to

The

historic position of

402-403 Connexion of her Greek and Dalmatian rule 402 Comparison between Venice and Sicily 402 Her share in the Act of Partition compared with her real dominion her main position Hadriatic 403-405 Venetian possessions not assigned by the partition Crete ; Cyprus Thessalonike 404 Taking of Zara in the fourth crusade 405 Relations of the Dalmatian cities to Servia, Croatia, Venice, Hvmgary, and the Empire 405-407 Pagania 406

the Eastern Empire

....
.
. .

Magyar Kingdom Hungary

Independence of Ragusa History of Corfu

of the

Venetian posts in Peloponnesos

....... ..... ..... .......... ......... ..... ......

; ;

of Croatia

struggles between Venice and

Polizza

407 407 408

409

history of Euboia

loss

^gsean

islands

Advance of Venice and Dalmatia, Peloponnesos, and the Western islands .410 . Venice the champion against the Turk losses of Venice 410-412 fluctuations in the "Western Islands Conquest and loss of Peloponnesos .412 Frontier of Ragusa .412
.
.

;; ;

CONTENTS.
Venetian
ine
Grcnoese
fiefs
;

XXXV
PAGB

fiefs

history of the duchy of

;

Naxos

.413
413-414

Possessions of

Genoa

Galata

her dominions in the Euxthe

Lesbos

Chios
;

Maona

.414

Revolutions of P^hodes
to

knights of Saint John

Malta

5.

revolutions of Malta

....
;

their

removal 414-415

The Princqjalities of the Greek Mainland.

states; use of the

Greek and Latin

name Moraia

415-416

Lordship and duchy of Athens ; the Catalans ; the later dukes ; Ottoman conquest momentary Venetian occu;

pations

416-417
. . . .

Salona and Bodonitza

Principality of Achaia
;

.417

recovery of Peloponnesian lands by

the Empire

Angevin overlordship
principality
.

in

Achaia
. .

417-418 dismemberment of the

.
.

Patras under the Pope

Conquests of Constantine Palaiologos Turkish conquest of Peloponnesos independence of Maina

.

.418 .418 .418

.

419

dismemberment of the despotat recovery of Epeiros by the Empu-e .419 Servian conquests beginning of the Albanian power kings 419-420 of the house of Thopia Servian dynasty in southern Epeiros ; kingdom of Thessaly
Revolutions of Epeiros
;
.
.

Turkish conquest

.420
420-421

The Buondelmonti
house of Tocco
reconquest
;

in

Northern Epeiros;
;

history of the
.

Karlili
;

effects of their rule

Turkish conquest of Albania

.

revolt of Scanderbeg
.
.

Turkish
.

.421
422 422-423
.

Empire of Trebizond

its relations to
;

Constantinople

Turkish concjuest of Trebizond

6.

of Perateia or Gothia
States.

The Slavonic

on the Slavonic states .423 Comparison of Servia and Bulgaria extent of Servia its relation to the Empire conquest by Manuel Komnenos 423-424 Servia independent Relations towards Hungary shiftings of Rama or Bosnia 424-425
Effects of the Latin conquest
. ; ; ;

......
; ;
.
. .

425 Southern advance of Servia Empire of Stephen Dushan Break-up of the Servian power the later Servian kingdom .426 conquests and deliverances of Servia Kingdom of Bosnia loss of Jayce ; duchy of Saint Saba or
.

; ; ; ;

XXXVl
;

CONTENTS.
PAGE

Herzegovina Turkish conquest of Bosnia of Herze426-427 govina The Balsa at Skodra loss of Skodra ; beginning of Tzer.428 nagora or Montenegro. 428 Loss of Zabljak establishment of Tzetinje 429 The Yladikas the lay princes 428-429 ]\1 ontenegrin conquests and losses
; ;
. .
.

........ ...... ....

.
.

Greatest extent of the third Bulgarian kingdom

cline
;

its

de-

shif tings of the frontier towards the

Philippopolis

Break-up of the kingdom Turkish conquest

7.

principality

of

Empire 429-430 Dobrutcha

430-431

The Kin<jdom of Hungary.

.

Character and position of the Hungarian kingdom

431-432

Great Moravia overthrown by the Magyai-s

to the two Empires The two Chrobatias separated by the Magyar's

graphical position

Kingdom

of

Hungary

its

Transsilvania or Siebenbiirgen

and other colonies

Origin of the

...... ...... .......

;

their i-elations

432-433

their geo-

relations to Croatia
;

433-434 and Slavonia 434

;

origin of the

name

German
43.5
.

Roumans

their northern migration

;

435-436

Eouman

element in the third Bulgarian kingdom

occupa-

tion of the lands beyond the

Danube
;

Great and Little

. . .

Wallachia

Transsilvania

Conquests of Lewis the Great

Halicz and Vladimir
;

Moldavia Dalmatia

436-437
437

occupation of
.

pledging of Zips

Turkish invasion ; disputes for Dalmatia Reign of Matthias Corvinus extension of Hungaiy east

and west
of

.........
;

....
.

438 438

Loss of Belgrade

Hungary

Turkish conquest fragment kept by the Austrian kings

the Austiian kings
;

their tribute to the

Turk

the

Rouman
;

lands

438-439

Recovery of Hungary from the Turk

of Passarowitz
;

peace of Cailowitz
.

439-440 Belgrade 440-441 Dalmatia Annexation of Spizza administration of Bosnia and Herze440-441 govina; renewed vassalage to the Turk
losses at the peace of
;

Galicia and Lodomeria

;

Bukovina

8.
;

The Ottoman Tower.

The Ottoman Turks

contrast with

special character of their invasion

other

Turanian

with the Saracens in Spain

.....
invasions;

comparison

442-443

;;

CONTENTS.

XXXVll
TXGK

Comparison of the Ottoman dominions with the Eastern

443 Mongolian invasion ; origin of the Ottomans their position in Europe and Asia break-up and re443-444 vmion of their dominion its permanence Advance of the Ottomans in Asia in Europe dominion of 444-445 Bajazet Victory of Timour reunion of the Ottoman power under 445-446 Mahomet the First

Empire

.........
;
;
.

Effects of the

......
;
.
.

Mahomet
his

the Second
;

taking of Constantinople

dominion

taking of Otranto

Conquest of Syria and Egypt his conquests Reign of Suleiman

;

Hungary

Naxos

his African overlordship

;

.... ....
. .

extent of

446

.447
447

Rhodes

447-448 Ottoman power 448 Createst extent of the Ottoman power Crete and Podolia Ottoman loss of Hungary loss and i-ecovery of Peloponnesos Bosnia and Herzegovina union of inland and mari448 time Illyria 449 English vassalage in Cyprus Azof Treaty of Relations between RussLa and the Turk shiftings of Crim Jedisan Bessjirabia Kainardji
Conquest of Cyprus
decline of the
, ;
.

the Moldavian frontier

9.

The Liberated
;

Lands

liberated

from the Turk

with

Gi-eece, Sei-via, kc.

...... ..... ......

;
; ;

449 -450

^States.

comparison of Hungary

450

The Servian people the first The Ionian Islands the first

to revolt

.450

liberated state

the Septinsular
.

Republic; overlordship of the Turk

.451

suiTeiider of The Venetian outposts given to the Turk 451 Parga last Ottoman encroachment .451 The Ionian Islands under British protection The Greek War of Independence extent of the Greek nation 451-452 extent of the liberated land;4
;
;
.

Kingdom

of Greec:?; addition of the Ionian Islands; promised

addition in Thessaly and Epeiros

First delivei-ance

and reconquest of Servia

;

452-453 453 453 Independence and enlargement of Servia 453 Fourfold division of the Servian nation The Rouman principalities; union of Wallachia and Mol453 davia
Second deliverance
Servia a tiibutary pi-incipility
.

Withdrawal

of

Turkish garrisons

..... .....
.
. . . .

.... ....
.

452

.453

....
.

XXXVlll

CONTENTS.
PAGB
. ,

Independence and new frontier of Eoumania Deliverance of part of Bulgaria; the Bulgaria of
Stefano

453-454 San 454

454-455

Treaty of Berlin

division of Bulgaria into free, half-free,

and enslaved
Principality of Bulgaria
;

Eastern Roumelia

General survey

......
.
.

.454
455-460 460-461

Note on M. Sathas

CHAPTER
Lands beyond the two Empires
dinavia
;

XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

Spain

powers C/'omparison of Scandinavia and Spain

Quasi-iiaperieil position of certain

Sweden Eastern and Western aspect

....... ........
;

the British islands

Scan-

462-463 462-463 of Aragon and 463-464

.
. .

of Scandinavia
;

.464
.

General view of the Baltic lands

lands, their relations to

the Northern Slavonic

Germany and Hungary and Russia The primitive nations, Aryan and non-Aryan
Characteristics of Poland
.

.....
.

465
465

,.

455-466

Central position of the North-Slavonic lands

bai-barian

neighbours of Russia and Scandinavia

and colonization by land

always independent
to the

Relation of the Baltic lands to the two Empires

;

relations of

Western Empire 467 The Western Empire and the West- Slavonic lands relations of Poland to the Western Empire .467 Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire
;
.

..... ......
;
.

Russian conquest

467

Norway Sweden and Denmark

;

Imperial style of Russia

1.

.468

The Scandinavian Lands after

Baltic
still

the

Separation of the Emjnres.

The

mainly held by the earlier races ; formation 468-499 of the Scandinavian kingdom Formation of the Danish kingdom ; its extent ; frontier of 469 the Eider; the Danish march

.....
.

....
.

Use

name Northmen Norway

of the
;

formation of the kingdom of

The Swedes and Gauts

towards the north

the Swedish kingdom

Its fluctuations towards

Norway and Denmark

.......
;

its

469-470 470 growth 470

.

; ;

CONTENTS.

XXXIX
PAGE

Western conquests and settlements of the Danes and North

men

Settlements in Britain and Gaul

Settlements in Orkney, Man, Iceland, Ireland,

Expeditions to the East; Danish occupation of Samland

Jomsburg

... .......... ........

cfec.
;
;

471
471

471 471

Swedish conquest of Curland

Scandinavians in Russia

472

2.

The Lands East and South of the Baltic of the Empires.

at the Separation

Slaves between Elbe and Dnieper

their lack of sea-board

. . . .

472-473

Kingdom

of

Samo
;

Great Moravia

Four Slavonic groups

Polabic group
the Empire

......
;

.473
473-474

Sorabi, Leuticii, Obotrites

their relations to

Early conquest of the Sorabi

474-475 marks of Meissen and Lusatia

;

long resistance of the Leuticians

Brandenburg Mark of the Billungs kingdom of Sclavinia

of
;

mark

lenbui-g

relations to
;

Bohemia and Moravia their relations to Poland, Hungary, 477 and Germany The Polish kingdom its relations to Germany rivalry of Poland and Russia .478
;

...... ..... ........

takings of Bi-anibor
;

475-476
476

house of Meck-

Denmark

Lechs or Poles their various ti-ibes .478 Beginning of the Polish state its conversion and relations
; .
. . .

to the

Empire
.

........
;
. .

479

Conquests of Boleslaf ; union of the Northern Chrobatia with

479 479-480 though divided Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire Russia created by the Scandinavian settlement origin 480 of the name First centre at Novgorod Russian advance union of the

Poland

The Polish

state survives,

........
;
;

Eastern Slaves

.481

Second centre at Kief; the princes become Slavonic; attacks on Constantinople and Cherson 481-482 Conquests on the Caspian isolation of Russia Russian lands west of Dnieper 482 Russian principalities; supremacy of Kief 482 Supremacy of the northern Vladimir commonwealths of
;

.... ........ ....

; ;

Novgorod and Pskof; various

of Halicz or Galicia
.
..

principalities;
. . .

kingdom
. .

483

Xl

CONTENTS.
PAGE
;

The Cuman power

the Mongols
;

Mongol invasion

Russia tributary to
.

The The

earlier races

Russia represented by Novgorod Finns in Livland and Esthland

;

Lettic nations

Lithuania

Survey in the twelfth century

.... ......
.
.

Prussia

483-484 484 484 485

3.

German Dominion on

the Baltic.

comparison of Time of Teutonic conquest on the Baltic German and Scandinavian influence German influence
; ;

the stronger

Beginning of Swedish conquest in Finland German conquest in Livland ; its effect on Lithuania and Russia ; the
;

Military orders

Polish gains and losses

Character of the

Temporaiy Swedish possession of Scania union of Calmar abiding union of Denmark and division and reunion 487-488 Norway
; ;

Union

of

Iceland with

avian settlements in the British

Swedish advance in Finland

'Tempoi'ary greatness of

....... ....... ....... ........ .... ......

.

485-486

.487
487
487

Hansa

Norway

loss

of the Scandin-

isles

488 488

Denmark, settlement
;

of Esthland

Danish advance in Germany 488-490 Holstein, &c. long retention of Riigen Duchy of South-Jutland or Sleswick its relations to Denmark and Holstem royal and ducal lines conquest 490-491 of Ditmarschen
conquest of Sclavinia
; ;
. .

Efifect of

the Danish advance on the Slavonic lands

losses of

Poland

Kingdom

of

Bohemia

burg kings Annexation of Silesia and Lusatia

Corvinus

....... ........
;

western
.

Pomemnia;
;

Silesia.

491-492 492-493 493

dominion of Ottocar

the

Luxem-

..........
;
;

territory lost to Matthias

Union with

Avistria

later losses
;

.493

German
The

corporations

the

a territoiial poAver
Military
Ot-ders;

......
Hansa
;

its

nature

not strictly

494-495
of

knights

and their connexion with the Empire

Sword-brothers
in

Teutonic
;

their rule

.........
eflfects

495

The Sword-brothers
their

Livland and Esthland

Prussia: union with

extent of

dominion
the

495-496
Sword-

The Teutonic order in

; ;

CONTENTS.
brothers; acquisition of Culm, Ponierelia, Samogitia,

xli
PAGE

496 and part of Prussia to Poland the remainder a Polish fief 496-497 Advance of Christianity Lithuania the last heathen power its great advance 497-498 Consolidation of Poland; conquests of Casimir the Great
Losses of the oi'der
;
;

Gotland; the

New Mark

cession of Pomerelia

shiftings of

Red Russia

...... ......
;

498

Union

of Poland
;

and Lithuania

recovery of the Polish

.

498-499 closer union power of Moscow ; name of Mtiscovij 499-500 Break-up of the Mongol power; the Khanats of Crim, Kaz:in, Siberia, Astrakhan 501 Deliverance of Russia Crim dependenr on the Turk .501 Advance of Moscow ; annexation of Novgorod, (fcc. Russia united and independent .501 Survey at the end of the fifteenth century 502
duchies

Lithuanian advance
;

Revival of Russia

.......
.

....
.
.

4.

The GrovAh of Russia ami Siveden.

;

Growth of Russia of Sweden

Prussia
;

creation of Prussia

temporary greatness

503

Separation of the Pitissiau and Livonian knights; duchy of

union of Prussia and Brandenburg

independent of Poland

.....
; ;

Prussia

503-504
;

Fall of the Livonian knights; partition of their dominions

duchy of Curland and Russia

Lublin

.........
;

shares of Denmark, Sweden, Poland,

504

Greatest Baltic extent of Poland and Lithuania

union of

Advance

of Russia

its

order

the Euxine reached last

;

505 505-506

Recovery of Russian lands from Lithuania Polish conquest second Russian advance Peace of Andrasof Russia zovo recovery of Kief
; ;

......
; ;
.
.

506

Russian supeiiority over the Coss icks

Podolia ceded to the

Turk 506-507 Comparison of Swedish and Russian advance .507 Advance under and after Gustavus Adolphus conquests from Russia and Poland Ingormanland Livland 507-508 Conquests from Denmark and Norway Dago and Oesel
;
;

Fiefs of

<tc. restoration of Trondhjem 508-509 Sweden within the Empire; Pomerania; Bremen and Verden 509

Scania,

Fluctuations in the duchies

Danish possession of Olden509

burg

xlii

CONTENTS.
PAOB

Sweden

after the peace of Oliva

.510
511

Eastern advance of Russia; Kasan and Astrakhan

5.

Siberia

The Decline of Sweden and Poland.

extinction

Decline of Sweden;

Prussia; empire of Russia

.....
of

Poland;

kingdom of 511-512
foundation
. .

Russia on the Baltic

conquest of Livland, &c.

;

of Saint Petersburg

advance in Finland
:

.512
of

German

losses
.

of

Sweden
. .

Bremen,
.
.

Verden,
. .

part
.

Pomerania Union of the Gottorp lands and Denmark

First partition of Poland
;

.513 .513

recovery of lost lands by Russia

;

geographical union of Pr-ussia and Brandenburg

.

Polish
.

513-514 and Russian lands acquired by Austria .514 Second partition Russian and Prussian shares 514-515 Third partition extinction of Poland and Lithuania No strictly Polish territory acquired by Russia; the old Poland passes to Prussia, Chrobatia to Austria .515 515-516 Russian advance on the Euxine, Azof; Crim Jedisan superiority Temporary Russian advance on the Caspian
:
.

over Georgia

Survey at the end of the eighteenth century

6.

.516 .517

The Modern Geography of

the Baltic

Lands.

Effects of the fall of the Empii-e; incorporation of the

German
.
.

lands of

Sweden and Denmark

.

Russian conquest of Finland

.518 .518

Union of Sweden and Norway; loss of Swedish Pomerania 518-519 Denmark enters the German Confederation for Holstein and
and of Sleswick. 519 commonwealth of Danzig Duchy 519-520 of Warsaw Polish territory recovered b)' Prussia Russian kingdom of Poland commonwealth of Cracow its annexation by
Lauenberg
;

loss of these duchies

;

Polish losses of Prussia

Austria

.........
;
. . . . . .

520

Fluctuation on the Moldavian border

Russian advance in the Caucasus and on the Caspian

.521 .521

Advance

Turkestan and Eastern Asia racter of the Russian dominion Russian America ,
in
.

Final survey of the Baltic lands

.... ....
;
. .

extent and cha-

522-523

.523
523-524

CONTENTS.

xliii

CHAPTER

XII.
ITS COLONIES.
PAGK

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

Analogy between Spain and Scandinavia ; slight Spain with the Empire break between its
;

relation of
earlier

525 and the Eastern Empire the Spanish nation formed by the Saracen wars ; analogy between Spain and Russia 525-526 Extent of West-Gothic and Saracen dominions two centres of deliverance, native and Frankish 526-527 History of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal use of the phrase Spain and Portugal 527-528 Navarre 528
later history

ComparLson

of Spain

........ ......
;
;
.

and

'

..........
' .

1.

The Foundation of

the

Spanish Kingdoms.
. , . .

Beginning of the kingdom of Leon

.529
.

The Ommiad emirate

529 Navarre under Sancho the Great 529-530 Break-up of the kingdom of Navarre, and of the Ommiad caliphate small Mussulman powers 530
;

the Spanish

March;

.... ....
its

divisions

name Moors. 530 kingdoms Castile, Aragon, and Sobrarbe union of Aragon and Sobrarbe .530 Shiftings of Castile, Leon, and Gallicia ; final union Castilian Empire 531 Decline of Navarre ; growth of Aragon union of Aragon and Barcelona end of French superiority .531 County and kingdom of Portugal 532 Advance of Castile taking of Toledo ; checked by the Almoravides .532 Advance of Aragon taking of Zaragoza 532 Advance of Portugal taking of Lisbon 533 Second advance of Castile; invasion of the Almohades;
Invasion of the Almoravides; use of the
.

New

........
;
;
. '. . .
.

.....
.

their decline

........
. .

.... ....
. .
,

533

Aragon and Portugal Final advance of Castile kingdom

Advance

of

.533

of

Granada

Gibraltar
. .

Gteogi'aphical position of the

Spanish kingdoms

Title of

'

King

of Spain

;
'

the lesser kingdoms

534 534-535 535-536

.

2.

Growth

a/nd Partition of the Great

Spanish Monarchy.
;

Little

geographical change in the peninsula territoiies beyond the peninsula ; the great Spanish Monarchy
.

536

xliv

CONTENTS.
PAG
.

536-537 Conquest of Granada ; end of Mussulman rule Union of Castile and Aragon ; loss, recovery, and final loss of 537-538 Roussillon annexation and separation of Portugal
. ;

Gibraltar and Minorca

.537

Advance of Aragon beyond the

Sicilies

penin.sula
.

union with the

.

and Sardinia

.538
539

Extension of Castile dominion

the Burgundian inheritance;

duchy of Milan Extent of the Spanish Monarchy lands lands lost to France
;

loss of the
.
.

United Nether. .

.539
539-540

Partition of the Spanish

Sicilies
;

duchy of

Monarchy Parma

later relations

with the

3.

The Colonial Dominion of Spain and Portugal.

. .

.540 Character of the outlying dominion of Portugal African conquests of Portugal ; kingdom of Algarve beyond
the Sea; Ceuta, Tangier
. .

.541

Advance in Africa and the islands dominion in India and Arabia

Settlement and histoiy of Brazil
;

Cape of Good Hope 541-542 the one American mon;

. .

....
.
.

archy

'

542

Division of the Indies between Spain and Portugal

542-543 and insular dominion of Spain American dominions of Spain revolutions of the Spanish 54-3-544 two Empires of Mexico colonies 544 The Spanish West Indies
;

....
;
.
. .

African

CHAPTER
Isolation

XIII.

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

and independence of Britain late Roman conquest and early loss Britain another world and Empire Shiftings of the Celtic and Teutonic kingdoms little geo;

545 546

graphical change in later times

.....
;

English settlements beyond sea

1.

new English

nations

.547

The Kingdom of Scotland.

;

Greatness of Scotland due to its English elements

lish

two Eng548 549 549

kingdoms in Britain

Use

of the Scottish

name
in the later Scotland
;

Analogy with Switzerland

The three elements

Irish
]

Lothian, Strathclyde, Scotland

....

English, British,

549

CONTENTS.
The
Picts
;

xlv
PAOB
;

their

union with the Scots

clyde

Galloway

Scandinavian settlements
English supremacy
;

taking of Edinburgh

berland and Lothian

........ ......
;

Scottish Strath-

Caithness and Sutherland

;

550 550

grants of

Cum550-551

Difference of tenure gradually forgotten

Effects of the grant of Lothian
;

.551

shiftings of

CarUsle, and Northumberland Boundary of England and Scotland kingdoms

.........
;

....
relations
.
.

Cumberland,

551-552 between the

552
55.3

Struggle with the

Northmen recovery
;

way, and the Sudereys

History of

Man

......
.

of Caithness, Gallo-

of
2.

Orkney

.553

The Kingdom of Englatid.

;
.

Changes of boundary toward Wales conquests of Harold 553 Norman conquest of North Wales 554 Princes of North Wales English conque.'-t 554 The principality of Wales; full incorporation with England 554-5.55 The English shires two classes of shires ancient principal.

....
.
. . . .

ities

shire.s

mapped out

in the tenth

century

555

The new shires; Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, Rutland 555-556

3.

Ireland.

Ireland the

first

Scotland

its
;

provinces

....

556

Settlements of the Ostmen land

Lord.-^hip
;

increasing connexion with Eng;

the English conquest

fluctuations of the Pale

;

and kingdom of Ireland and Great Britjiin

4.

Outlying European Possessions of England.

;

The Norman Islands

Outposts and islands

....... ........
its relations to

556-557 England
557

Aquitaine, Calais,

<fec.

Greek possessions

5.

the Ionian Islands

Cyprus

558 558 558-559

.

The American Colonies of England.

The United
First

States of

America
;

559

English settlements

Virginia

States; Maryland; Carolina

....
;

the

New

England
559-561

Settlements of the United Provinces and Sweden

Netherlands; New Sweden New York The Jerseys; Pennsylvania; Delaware; Georgia
;

New .561
561-562

xlvi

CONTENTS.
PAGE

The

thirteen Colonies
;

their independence

Nova Scotia Canada; Louisiana; Florida A new English nation formed lack of a name name America
;

562 562-563
.

Second English nation in North America

confederation
. . .

The West India

6.

Islands, &c.

Other Colonies and Possessio7is of England.

The Australian colonies The South- African colonies Europe extended by colonization dominion; Empire of India

....... ...... ...... ......

; ;
. . .
.

use of the

563-564

the Canadian

.564
565

565-566 566
567 568-569

contrast with barbaric

....

Summary
Index
.
.

571

xlvii

ADDITIOXS AND COEEECTIONS.

P. 19,
into
1.

10.

Lattei'ly the
use.

name Balkan
of

Peninsula, has come

moie general
38,

P.
'

side-note.

For

'

Cities

independent state

'

read

Growth

of independent states.'
1.

P. 41,

10 from bottom.

This

is

true in a rough pi'actical

way,

Bnt when

I wrote this, I hardly took in the fact that not

a few Greek

cities,

not finally incorporated with

though practically subject to the Empire, were it till ages later, perhaps never forall.
' ' '

mally incorporated at
P. 55,
1.

For south-east read south-west.' P. 55, 1. 8, For north-west read north-east,' P. 71, When I Avrote this, I had not taken in the tiue history of the Exjuman people. See below, p, 435. P, 88, 1. 14, Since this was written, I wrote the article ' Goths,' in the Encyclopredia Britannica, where I have gone rather moie fully into their history from later and minuter study.
7.
'
'

P, 90,

1,

4 fi'om the bottom.

I believe the existence of a

a little doubtful. As to the Gotlda in Gaul, otherwise Septimania, and the other GotMa in the Tauric Chersonesos, there is no doubt.
that

GotMa by

name

in Spain

is

P, 105,

1.

14 from bottom,

I believe hoAvever that the coins of

some of the Provencal cities point to a retention of allegiance to Still there is no doubt as to the formal the Empire much later.
cession.

P. 115, 1, 5 from bottom. I now see no reason to believe in any Albanian migrations into Greece till long afterwards. But I still have no doubt that the Albanians stiictly represent the old
Illyrians.

P. 119.

Dele side-note, "The cession of Gaulish possessions.'

1.

P. 126.
gi'eat

6.

For

'

tJie

great

Mahometan powers

'

read

'

the

two

Mahometan
1.

powers.'

P. 138,
P. 154.

9,

Dele

'

much

as,'

The growth of the Christian states in Spain will be found more fully and accurately given in the specially Spanish
chapter, Chapter XII.

xlviii

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

1.

P. 156,

4.

It will be at once seen that this

was written

be-

fore the events of 1877-8.

be found described in P. 167,

1.

The later changes Chapter X.

'

in these lands will

For 'division read divisions.' For province read provinces.* P. 180, side-note. For schemes' read 'scheme.' P. 189, 1. 12. For 'were read 'some were.' P. 216, side-note. For ecclesiastical towns read ecclesiastical
10.
'

P. 172, side- note.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

powers.'

P. 221, side note.

P. 258,
fore
1.

much,

if

For kingdom read kingdoms.' was here speaking purely geographically, beanything, had been heard of the cry of Italia irre'

'

'

14.

denta.

How
1.

far I

go with that

cry,

how
'

far not,

I have ex-

l)lained in Historical Essays,

Thiid

Series, p. 206.

P. 261, lead

1.

For

'

Montbeilliard,' read

Montbeliard.'
its

P. 263, side-note.
'

For
'

'

Burgundian possession of
'

county

'

Burgundian possessions of its counts.' 1. 1. For maps' read map.' For 'High and P. 288, 1. 11 from bottom. Savoy and High Savoy.' P. 300, side-note. For 1662 read 1663.'
P. 267,
' '

Low Savoy

'

i-ead

'

P. 306,

I.

8.

At

present

it

would seem that

this mysterious

name takes

in all those kingdoms, counties, lordships, &c.,

which

are held by the

Archduke of Austria, and which do not form part For these I of the kingdom of Hungary and its ^^rti-^es annexm. have elsewhere, according to an old analogy, suggested the more intelligible name of Nungary.
P. 319, P. 334,
P. 340,
freed from
1.

3.

That

is

Philip

'

the Handsome,' son of Maxi-

milian and father of Charles the Fifth.

1.

9.

Aquitaine, the inheritance of Eleanor, did not

foi-feituie of

come under the

1.

the

fiefs

actually held by John.

is

4 from bottom.

Roussillon

another case of a land

P. P. P.
P.
'

homage and afterwards annexed as a foreign conquest. 369, 1. 17. For farther read further.' 389, side-note. For con(juest read conquests of.' 408, side-note. For final read first.' For possession of Venetian cities read 413, side-note.
'
' '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

possessions of Venetian families.'

P. 429,

1.

15.

Since this was printed, Dulcigno has Ijeen re-

stored to Montenegro, in
territory given

back to the Turk.

exchange for some inland Albanian The formation of the Albanian

League is not unlikely to affect the geography of Herzegovina; but no change has yet (January 1881) taken place which can be
sliown on the map.

ADDITIONS
P. 441,
(quarters, is
1. 8.

AND CORRECTIONS.
is felt

xlix

How

unpleasant this truth

to be in certain

shown by a small incident of last year. I sent a set of manuscript maps of Dalmatia to Mr. Arthur Evans foi- his Those maps vanished in the Imperial. Royal, and suggestions.
Apostolic post-office, and nevei- reached his address at Ragusa.
If therefore

the revolutions of

Dalmatian geogiaphy are

less
is

accuiately marked in this book than they should be, the fault

In Imperial, Royal, and Apostolic quarters it is doubtless inconvenient to allow any memoiy of days when free Ragusa had not bowed to any self-styled Emperor, either fi"oni
not mine.
Corsica or from Lorraine, or of
I'eached to her
still

later days

when free Tzernagora

it

own

sea at Cattaro.

Those who have made

their business to filch the substance

it

may

naturally enough think

their business to filch the picture also.

P. 450,

1.

5 from bottom.

It

is

quite accurate to say that the

Turk has never ruled at Tzetinje. It is perfectly true that the Turk has more than once hairied iNIontenegro and Tzetinje itself; the Turk has professed to consider the land as included in a
pashalik
;

tributaiy state, as Servia and

is still.

but Montenegro has never been a regulai-ly and avowedly Roumania were, as fi-ee Bulgaria

The promises of Eiu-ope on thi^ 7 from bottom. It is hardly remain unfulfilled (January 1881). needful to notice the diplomatic qui1)ble that the European order for the liberation of these lands was not contained in the document strictly called the Ti-eaty of Berlin, but in another paper signed at the same time and place. The order has been i-enewed during the present yeiir at the Second Berlin Conference. P. 492, side-note. For and read under.' P. 529, 1. 9 from bottom. For western read eastern.' P. 554, side-note. For Northerners,' read Northmen.'
P. 452,
still
1.

head

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

HISTOPJCAL GEOGEAPHY

OF EUROPE.
CHAPTEE
I.

INTRODUCTION.

The work which we have now

before us

is

to

trace

out the extent of tenitory which the difierent states

'

Geo-

chap.

and nations of Europe and the neighbouring lands have

held at different times in the world's history, to

of iMsturicji!

mark

giapiy.

the different boundaries which the same country has

had, and the different meanings in which the same

has been used.
It is of great

name

importance carefully to

make

these distinctions, because great mistakes as to the

facts of history are often

caused through

men

thinking

and speaking
for instance

as

if

the

names of

different countries, say

England, France, Burgundy, Austria, have

always meant exactly the same extent of territory. Historical

geography, in

this sense, differs

from physical

geography which regards the natural features of the

earth's surface. It differs also

from studies

like

ethnology

and comparative philology, which have

to

do directly

with the differences between one nation and another,with

their

movements from one part of the world

relations to

to another,

and with the

be found among the languages

it is

spoken by them.

But, though

distinct

from these

INTRODUCTION.
CHAP,
^

studies,

it

makes much use of them.

For the physical

effect

'

geography of a country always has a great

its

upon

pohtical history, and the dispersions

and movements

of different nations are exactly those parts of history

which have most

to

do with fixing the names and the

in strictness, the land of the

boundaries of different countries at different times.

England^ for instance,

is,

English wherever they

old

may

settle,

whether

in their

home on

the European

continent, or in the isle of

Britain, or in

New

England beyond the Ocean.

But

the extent of territory which was in this

way

to

become
cir-

England was largely determined by the physical

cumstances of the countries in which
settled.

the

English

And

the history of the English nation has

all

been influenced, above

things,

by the

fact that the

great English settlement which has

made

the English But,

name famous was made

dominion,
its

in

an

island.

when

England had become the name of a

dominion advanced or went back.
of England and
different times,

distinct political

meanino- was liable to chanii:e as that

Thus the borders

changed
at

Scotland have

greatly
tliis

and forgetfulness of
in

has led to
history

many
kind

misunderstandings

reading

the

of

the two countries.

;

And

so with all other cases of the

the physical nature of the country, and the settlewdiicli

ments of the different nations

have occupied
its

it,

have always been the determining causes of

divisions.

political

But

it

is

with the political divisions that

in the
first

historical

geography has to deal

place.

With the nature

occupy
it, it

of the land, and with the people

fiir

who
in-

has to deal only so

as they

have

fluenced the political divisions.

in short
is,

Our present

business

first

to

draw

the

map

of the countries

'

GEOGEAPIIICAL AND POLITICAL NAMES.

with which

3
chap.
^
'.

we

are concerned as

it

appeared after each

of the different changes whicli they have gone through,

and then

to point out the historical causes

which have
shall

led to the changes on the map.

In

this

way we

always see what was the meaning of any geographical

name

at

any particular time, and we

shall thus avoid

mistakes,

some of which have

this

often led to really im-

portant practical consequences.

From

it

follows that, in lookins; at the Geoorraphv

Distinction

of Europe for our present purpose, ^ ^

,

11' we must
may be
well

look

first

giaphicai
3,^^ Politi'*i

at the land itself,

it.

and then

at the nations

which occupy
first

Names,

And,

in

so doing,

it

of

all

to distinguish
shall

between two kinds of names which we

use.

Some names of countries are strictly geographical they really mean a certain part of the earth's surface marked out by boundaries which cannot well be changed. Others simply mean the extent of
have to
;

country which
nation,

is

occupied at any time by a particular

and whose boundaries

is

may

easily

be changed.

Thus Britain

a strictly geographical name, meaning

an island whose shape and boundaries must always be

nearly the same.
Ejif/land, Scotland, Wales, are

names
of

of parts of that island, called after different

nations
all

which have
which have
again
is

settled in

it,

and the boundaries of

differed greatly at different times.

Spain
is

the geographical

name

of a peninsula which

almost as well marked out by nature as the island of

Britain.
Castile,

Aragon, Portugal, are

political

names
names

of parts of the peninsula of Spain.

of states

They

are the

whose boundaries have greatly

varied,

and

which have sometimes formed separate governments

and sometimes have been joined together.^
*

Gaul

In modern use

we speak

of Spain as only one part, tliough

B 2

INTRODUCTION.
CHAP,
I.

again
is

is

the geographical

name
all

of a country which

not so clearly marked out

round by nature

as

the island of Britain and the peninsula of Spain, but

which
south,

is

well

marked on

three sides, to
limits of Gaul,

the north,

and west.

Within the

names

like

France, Flanders, Briianny, Burgimdy, and Aquitaine,

are political

names of parts of the country, whose

and Spain.
This
the

limits

have varied as much at different times as those of the

different parts of Britain
is

differ-

ence between strictly geographical names which do not

alter

and

political

names which do
in

alter.

No

doubt

Gaul and Britain were

names given
just as nuich as the

the beginning political names,

to the land

from those who occupied

it,

names France and England.

But

the settlements from which those lands took the names

of Gaul and Britain took place long before the begin-

ning of trustworthy history, while the settlements from

which parts of those lands took the names of France

and England happened

history began,

in times

long after trustworthy

and

for

which we are therefore ready

with dates and names.

oldest received

Thus Gaul and Britain are the

;

names of those lands

they are the

first

names which those lands bore when we

of them.
It is

hear

therefore convenient to keep

them
mean-

in use as strictly geographical names, as always

ing that part of the earth's surfice which they meant

when we

first

hear of them.

In this book therefore,

Gaul, Britain, Spain, and other names of the same kind,

and of Portugal as another comes from the accident that, for some centuries past, all the other Spanish kingdoms have been joined under In speaking one government, while Portugal has remained separate.
inucli the larger part, of the peninsula,
part.

But

this simply

of any time

till

near the end of the fifteenth century of our

Era,

the word Spain must always be used the name of the whole peninsula.

in the geographical sense, as

THE MEDITEERANEAX LANDS.

will

always be used to mean a certain space on the

its

map, whoever may be

inhabitants,

or whatever

may

be

its

government, at any particular time.

But

names

like

France^ England, Castile, will be used to

mean
phed

the territoiy to which they were politically apat the

time of which

we may be

speaking, a terri-

tory which has been greater and less at different times.

Thus, the

cities

of Carlisle and Edinburgh have always

been

in

Britain since they were built.

They have
The
built.

sometimes been in England and sometimes not.

cities of Marseilles,

Geneva, Strassburg, and Arras have

since
in

always been in

Gaid ever

they were

They have sometimes been

France and sometimes

not, according to political changes.

1.

Geographical Aspect of Europe.

business
is

Our present

with the Historical Geography

of Europe, and with that of other parts of the world

only so far as they concern the geography of Europe.

But we

shall

have

to

speak of

all

the three divisions

of the Old World, Europe, Asia, and Africa, in those

parts of the three

which come nearest

real
hi.storv
all

to

one another,
tfrranean LancL.

and

in

which the

xheMediof the world bei^ins. *"

lie

These are those parts of

Mediterranean

three which

round the
to

sea, the lands

which gradually came

form the Empire of Eome. In these lands the boundaries

between the three great

divisions are verj^ easily

marked.

Modern maps do not Europe and Asia at

river

all

place the boundary between

;

the same point

some make the

But
In the

Don

the boundary and

is

some the Volga.

to

this question

of

little

importance for history.

earliest historical times,

when we have

do only with

the countries round the Mediterranean sea, there can

INTRODUCTION.
CHAP,

'-^

be no doubt

how much

is

Europe and how much

is

is

Asia and Africa.

Europe

the Land to the north of

tlie

the Mediterranean sea and of

great gulfs which

run out of

it.

If an exact boundary is needed in the bar-

barous lands north of the Euxine, the Tanais or

clearl}^

Don

is

the boundary which sliould be taken. In

its

all

these

lands the Mediterranean and

Asia.

gulfs divide Em^ope

from

But the northern parts of the two continents

really

form one geographical whole, the boundary between

them being one merely of convenience.

A vast

central

mass of land, stretching right across the inland parts of

the two continents, sends forth a system of peninsulas

and

islands, to the

north and south.

And

it is

in the

peninsular lands of Europe that European history begins.

Alike in Europe and in Asia, the southern or peninsular part of the continent
is

cut off from the central

is

mass by a mountain chain, which in Europe

The
pcEin-

nearly unconsists of

brokcu.
tlic

Thus the southern part of Europe

ni

Europe and
Asia.

thrcc great peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and wliat

a wide sense, call Greece.

we may,
in

These answer

some

sort to the

three great Oceanic peninsulas of

Asia, those

of Arabia, India, and India

beyond the
historically

Ganges.

But the part of Asia which has

to

had most
insula,

do with Europe

is

its

Mediterranean penIn the north-

the land

known

as

Asia Minor.

ern part of each continent

great gulfs

we
;

find another system of

or inland seas

but those in Asia have

been hindered by the cold from ever being of any

importance, while in Europe the Baltic sea and the
gulfs

which run out of

ing a kind of secondary

may be looked on as formMediterranean. We may thus

it

say that Europe consists of two insular and peninsular regions, north

and south, with

a great

unbroken


THE GREAT PENINSULAS.
mass of land between them.
of Europe which seem as
it

But there are some parts

were connecting
links be-

chap.

tween the three main

divisions of the continent.

Thus

we

said that the

three

great peninsulas are cut off

from the central mass by a nearly unbroken mountain

chain.

But the connexion of the

central peninsula,
is

that of Italy, with the eastern one or Greece,

closer than
its

far

connexion with the western one, or

Spain.
Italy

Italy

and Spain are much further apart than

and Greece, and between the Alps and the PyreWe might nees the mountain chain is nearly lost. almost say that a piece of central Europe breaks through
at this point

and comes down

as a land

to the Mediterranean.
;

This
this

is

the south-eastern part of Gaul

and Gaul may in

way be looked on
all

which joins together the

central

and the southern parts of Europe.

;

But

this

is

not

in the

north-western corner of Europe

lies

that

great group of islands,

of which our

two large ones and many

is

small,

own

Britain

the greatest.
their

The

British

islands are closely connected in

geography and
islands

history with Gaul on one side,

and with the

In

and peninsulas of the North on the other.

tliis

way
tlie

we may

say that

all

the three divisions of

Europe are

brought closely together on the western side of

continent,

and that the lands of Gaul and Britain are

the connecting links which bind

them

together.

2. Effect of

Geography on History.
.

ISTow this ffeogi'aphical aspect of the chief lands of

Europe has had

its

direct effect

on

their history.

^^j

We

Bofrinninof history
in the
i.eninMiia.

might almost take

for granted that the history of

Europe

should begin in the two more eastern

great southern peninsulas.

among

the three

Of

these two, Italy and


8
CHAP.
^ ,'

INTRODUCTION.
Greece, each has
-

its

own

character.

Greece, though
is

it

is the part of Europe which Hes nearest to Asia, certain sense the most European of European

in a

hinds.

The characteristic of Europe

sulas
chiracfer-

is

to

be more

full

of penin-

and islands and inland

seas than the rest of the

itself

Old

World.

And

Grcece, the peninsula

and the

neigli-

gSc^;

bouring lands, are fuller of islands and promontories

and inland

seas than
is

any other part of Europe.

the central land of
all
all

On

the other hand, Italy

southern

Europe, and indeed of

ranean.
It

the land round the Meditertliat

was therefore only natural

all

Greece
is

should be the part of Euro]^e in which

distinctively

that

most

European
so, if

first

grew up and influenced other

city

lands.
of Italy.

And

any one land or

among

the Mediin Italy,

terranean lands was

to rule over all the rest,

it is

as the central land, that

we

should naturally look for

destinies of the

the place of dominion.

sulas

The

two penin-

and their

relati(3ns to

the rest of the world were

position.
it is

thus impressed on them by their geographical

If

we

turn to recorded history,

we
to
it

find that

only

a working out of the consequences of these physical facts.

Greece was the

first

part of

Europe
;

become
was

civilized

and

to play a part in history

it

but

Italy,

and

in

Italy

was

its

most central

cit}^,

Rome, which came

to

liave the

dominion over the civiHzed world of early

is,

times

that

over the

lan'^s

around the Mediterits

ranean.

These two peninsulas have, each in

rest of

own
no

way, ruled and influenced the

other parts have done.
in one

Europe

as

All the other parts have been,

tlieir

way

or another,

subjects or disciples.

The
is

effect of the geographical position of these countries

Advnnceof
d'niu'tl'ion.

also

marked

iu tiie stages

by which Rome advanced

to the

general dominion of the Mediterranean lands.

'

GROWTH OF GREECE AXD

She
first

ITALY.
chap.

subdued

Italy

then she had to strive for Carthage,

a
city

the mastery

with her great rival

which held nearly the same central position on the

southern coast of the Mediterranean Avhich she herself
did on the northern.

Then

she subdued, step

by

step,

the peninsulas on each side of her and the other coast

lands of the Mediterranean

European,

Asiatic,

and

African. Into the central division of

Europe she did not

Into Northern Euat all.

press far, never having any firm or lasting dominion

beyond the Ehine and the Danube.

rope, properly so called, her
])Ut she

power never reached

subdued the lands which we have seen act as

a kind of connecting link

between the

different parts of
pai't

Europe, namely Gaul and the greater

of Britain.

Thus the Eoman Empire,

sisted of the lands

at its greatest extent,

con-

round the Mediterranean, together

with Gaid and Britain.

For the possession of the Medi-

terranean land would have been imperfect without the

possession of Gaul, and the possession of Gaul naturally
led to the possession of Britain.

In

this

way

the early history of Greece and Italy,

Effect of

11 by

and the formation of the

tlie

1-11 geographical character

Eoman

Empire, were affected

/

oi the

-1 countries themThus Gerposition

srapinoni
position of

selves.

lands

The same w^as when they came

as being the
fill

the case with the other European

to share in that importance wliich
Gennany,

once belonged to Greece and Italy only.

many,
at

most central part of Europe, came

something
It

one time to

like

the
to

same

which Italy had once held.

Avhich

came

be the countiy

had

to

do with

all

parts of Europe, east, west,

north, and south, and even to be a ruler over

some of
it

them.

So, as France
it

became

tlie

chief state of Gaul,

France,

took upon

something like the old position of Gaul as

10
CHAP,
'

INTRODUCTION.

r-

a
'

means of

coininunicatioii

between the

different parts

of Western Europe.

MeanAvhile, as the Scandinavian

off in

Seamii""

aud Spanish peninsulas are both cut

such a mai'ked

way from
less to

the

mainhmd

of Europe, each of tliem has

its

often formed a kind of world of

own, having much

do with

otlier countries

than Germany, France,

for a long time the case

and Italy had.

with our

The same was

island.

own

Britain

was looked on
of

as lying

outside the world.

Thus the geograi)hical

European.

position

tlie

European
to send

lands influenced their history while their history was

still

})urely

And when Europe began

less strongly.

forth colonies to other continents, the

working of geo-

graphical causes
position of Spain
to

came out no

Thus the

on the Ocean led

Castile

and Portugal
of the
also

be foremost among the colonizing nations of Europe.

oin*

For the same reason,

for a long time.

own country was one

too,

chief in followmg their example,

and so was France

it

Holland

when

ro>e into impor-

tance,
The
coio-

became a great colonizing

powder,

and so did DenItalian colony

mark and Sweden to some

ever been a

extent.

But an
of,

powers.

beyond the Ocean was never heard

nor has there

in

German colony

in the

same sense

which

there have been Spanish and English colonies.

Mean-

while, the north-eastern part of Europe, whicli in cariy

times was not

the
rest,

known

at

all,

has always lagged behuid

in later

and has become of importance only

is

times.

This

mainly because
it

its

geographical position

has almost wholly cut

off

both from the Mediter-

ranean and from the Ocean.

Thus we
earlier

see

how,
by

in

all

these

Avays,

botli

in

aud

in later times, the history of

every country

has

been

infhienced

its

geograph}'.

No doubt

'

EFFECT OF GEOGRiU^IIY ON HISTORY.

the
history

11
chap.
"-

of each

country has also been largely

tlie

influenced
settled in
-r
1

by the
it,
1

disposition of
is
1

people

who have
has
1

by what
to

called the national character,

1

But then the geographical position

.1'^ national
character.

influence

itself

often

had something
racter,
it,

do with forming the national chait

and

in all cases
it

has had an iniiuence upon

by giving
the

a better or a worse field for working

and showing
neither

itself.

Thus
in

it

has been well said that

Greeks

any other country nor any

other

people in Greece coidd have been what the

Greeks in Greece really were.

country and the
nature
of the

The nature
all

of the

people helped
that
it

one

another, and caused Greece to

in tlie early times of

become
It is

was

Europe.

always useful to

mark

the points both of likeness and unlikeness of the

different nations

whose history we study.

shall

And

of this

likeness

and unlikeness we
always one of
3.

always find that the

geographical character, though only one cause out of

several,
is

tlie

chief causes.

Geographical Distribution of Races.

business then
is

Our present
fluenced

with geography as

in-

by

history,

and with history as influenced

by

geography.
tions

With ethnology, with the

to

relations of nato deal only

and races

one another,

we have

so far as they form one of the agents in history.

it

And
re-

will

be well to avoid, as

far as

may

be, all obscure

or controverted points of this kind.

sults of

But the great

comparative philology

may now
is

be taken for

granted, and a general view of the geographical disposition of the great

European races

needful as an

introduction to the changes which historical causes have

wrought

in the

geography of the several parts of Europe.


12
CHAP.
"'

INTRODUCTION.

Ill
'

European ethnology one Europe

is,

main feature

is

that

the population of

and from the very begin-

nings of history has been, more nearly homogeneous,

more palpably homogeneous, than that of any Whether we look other great division of the world.
at least

at

Europe now, or Avhether we look

at

it

at the earhest
it

times of which
European
contineut.

we have any glimmerings,

as exceptional.

is

pre-

eminently an Aryan continent.

jg
^^^

Eveiything non-Aryan

q^^qq

marked
is

We

cannot

say
ele-

this of Asia,

where, among several great ethnical

so clearly

ments, none

predominant as the Aryan

in

element

is

in

Europe.

There are

Europe non- Aryan

elements, both earlier and later than the

Aryan

settle-

ment but they have,

;

as a rule,

been assimilated
earlier

Non-Arj-an
reuinants.

prevaihusT
^
.

Arvau mass.

The

ment

consists of the

remnants which

...
non-Aryan
still

to the
ele-

remain of

the races which the

Aryan

settlers

found in Europe,

and which they

themselves.
races

either exterminated or assimilated to

later elements consist of

The

non-Aryan

which have made

their

historical times, in

whose case
complete.

way into Europe within the work of assimilation

It follows

has been
rally

much

less

almost natu-

from the position of Europe that the prima3val

non- Aryan element has survived in the west and in the

north, while the later or intrusive

non-Aiyan element
In

has

made
of

its

way

into

the east and the south.

the mountains of the western peninsula, in the border

lands

Spain

and Gaul,
survives.

tlie

non-Aryan

tongue

of the Basque of Europe the

still

In the extreme north

of the Fins and

non-Aryan tongue

Laps

still

survives.

The

possible relations of these

tongues either to one another or to other non-Aryan

tongues beyond the bounds of Europe

is

a question of

'

ARYANS AND NON- ARYANS IN EUROPE.

purely philological concern, and does not touch historical

13
chap.
"

geography.

But

historical

geography

is

touched

by the

probability, rising almost to

moral certainty,
these primitive
pri-

that the isolated populations

by

whom

tongues are

still

spoken are mere remnants of the

mitive races which farmed the population of Europe at

the time

when

the Aryans

first

made

their

way
thcit

into

that continent.

Everything tends to show

the

Basques are but the remnant of

w^e

a great people

whom

may

set

down

with certainty as the

pric-Aryan

inhabitants of Spain and

a large part of Gaul, and

Extent of
the Basques.

whose range we may, with great probability, extend

over Sicily, over part at least of Italy, and perhaps as far
north as our

own

island.

Their possible connexion with

the early inhabitants of northern Africa hardly concerns

us.

The
The

probability that they were themselves preceded

by an
all.

earlier

and

far

lower race concerns us not at

south-western

earliest historical inhabitants of

Europe are those of

ans and Ligurians,

whom
fill

the Basques are the sur-

viving remnant, those who, under the names of Iberia not unimportant place in

European

history.

When we come
Europe were the

to the

Aryan

settlements,

we cannot
of time.

or.ur of
settie-ieut.

positively determine

which among the Arj^an races of

settlers
its

earliest

in

point

The great race which,

tains the Greeks^ the

in

many

sub-divisions, conGreeks and

Italians^

and the nations more

first

immediately akin to them, are the

among
follow

the

European Aryans
history
;

to

show themselves
not

in the light of

but

it

does

necessarily
in point of

that

they were actually the

It

first

settlement.

may be

that, while

they were

pressing

through
Celts
ceiti.

the

Mediterranean peninsulas

and

islands, the

14
CHAP,
^

INTRODUCTION.

were pressing

their

way through
Celts

the soUd

central

'

land of Europe.
of the
first

The

were clearly the vanguard

the

Aryan migration within their own range, the swarm which made its way to the shores of Partially in Spain, more completely in Ocean.
Islands, they displaced or assi-

Gaul and the British and that of

milated the earlier inhabitants, who, under their pressure

later

conquerors,

have been gradually

shut up in the small mountainous region which they

still

keep.

Of the

Celtic migration
all

we have no we

his-

torical accounts,

but

probability

would lead us

to

think that the Celts

whom

in historic times

find

on the Danube and south of the Alps were not emigrants

who had

followed a backward course from the

great settlement in Transalpine Gaul, but rather detach-

ments which had been

journey.

left

behind on the westward

to settle questions as to

Without attempting

the traces of Celtic occupancy to be found in other

lands,
it is

enough for our purpose

that, at the begin-

nings

of their history,

we

find the

Celts the chief

to

inhabitants of a region stretching

from the Eubico

the furthest

known
is

points of Britain.
their

Gaul, Cisalpine

and Transalpine,

great central land, though

;

even here they are not exclusive possessors

they share

the land with a non-Aryan remnant to the south-west,

and

witli the

next wave of Aryan new-comers to the

north-east.

The

settlements of these two great

history.

Aryan

races

come before authentic

Teutonic races,

After them came the

who

pressed on the Celts from the east

and

in their

wake, to judge from their place on the

map, must have come the vast family of the Slavonic

and Slaves,

uatioiis.

But the

mi<]frations

of

the

Teutons and

WAVES OF ARYAN SETTLEMENT.

Slaves come, for the most part, within the range of

15
chap.
~

recorded history.

Our

first

glimpse of the Teutons

already

-^

shows them in their central German land,

occupying both sides of the Ehine, though seemingly

not

very

ol(J

settlers

on

its

left

bank.

The long
Slavonic

wanderings of

the

various

Teutonic

and

tribes over all parts

of central Europe, their settle-

ments

in

the

southern

and western
is

lands, are

all

matters of history.

So

the great Teutonic settle-

ment
leave

in the British islands,

which partly exterminated,

as

partly assimilated, their Celtic inhabitants, so

to

them

as

mere a remnant, though a greater rem-

nant, as they themselves

as the process

had made the Basques.

a

And,

which made the north-western islands

is

of Europe
are the

Teutonic
stages

matter of history, so also

the
process

later

of

which
it is

made
that in

the northern peninsulas Teutonic.

later

But
;

only the

stages

which are

historical

we know

the strictly Scandinavian peninsula the Teutonic invaders displaced non-Aryan Fins
;

we have

only to guess

that in the Cimbric Chersoncsos they displaced

Celts.

Aryan
yet uthuamans.

But beyond the Teutons and Slaves

the most interesting of
still

lies

another Aryan settlement, one which, in a purely philological view,

fast
is

all,

the small and

vanishing group which

survives in Lithuania
is

and

the neighbouring lands.

really nothing to be said,

Of

these there

historically

On

the eastern shores of the

Baltic

we

find people

whose tongue comes nearer than

to

any other European tongue

the

common Aryan
when

model

but

we can

only guess alike at the date

they came thither and at the road by which they came.

These races then, Aryan and non-Arj-an, make up

the immemorial population of Europe.

The remnants

INTHODUCTION.
of the older

non-Aryan

races,

and the successive waves

Aryan settlement, are all immemorial facts which we must accept as the groundwork of our history and our
of

geography.

They must be
strictly

distinguished from other

movements which are

Jinvements
amon.i^ tlie

matters of written history,

.

botli

Aryan
races.

movemcuts auioug the Aryan nations themselves and latcr mtrusions of non- Aryan nations. Thus the
Hellenized
partly

Greek colonies and the conquests of the Hellenized

Macedonians
large
districts

of

Europe,

Asia, and Africa,

assimilation.

by displacement,

partly

by

The conquests of Eome, and

the Teutonic

settlements within the

Roman Empire, brought about

The process indeed was The Eoman conqueror
himself;
the Teutonic

but

little

in the

way

of displacement, but a great deal

in the

way

of assimilation.

opposite

in the

two

cases.

assimilated the conquered to

conqueror was himself assimilated

he conquered.
Britain

by those

whom

and the Rhenish and Danubiaii

exceptions.
far

lands stand out as

settlements in

marked

The Slavonic
displace-

the East wrought

more of

ment than the Teutonic settlements

regions, once Illyrian or Thracian

in the West.

Vast
likely,

that

is,

most

more or
Later intra'^^on

less

nearly akin to
Lastly

the

Greeks

are
in

now

of

Non-Aryan
races.

come the incursions on EurowlioUy Slavouic. kuds made by non- Aryan settlers m historic times. peau ^

-,.....

Their results
Semitic.

have been widely different

differ-

ent cases.

The Semitic Saracens

settled in Spain

and

Sicily, bringing with them and after them their African

converts,

men

possibly of originally kindred race w^ith

the

first

inhabitants both of the peninsula and of the

island.

These non-Aryan

settlers

have vanished.
is

The
that

displacement of large bodies of

paratively recent history, but
it

them

a fact of comfail

can hardly

'

INTRUSION OF NON-ARYANS.

17
place,

some degree of
of those

assimilation

must

also

have taken

Then come the

settlements, chiefly in eastern Europe,

for our purpose
it is

chap.

whom

enough

to

group

together as the Tm^aniau nations.

The Huns
far

of Attila

have

left

only a name.

The more

lasting settlement

of the Avars has vanished,

how

by displacement,
say.
Clio-

how
zars,

far

by

assimilation,

it

might be hard to

Patzinaks^ a
left

crowd of other barbarian

their presence.

races,

have

no sign of

The Bulgarians^
Turanian,

originally Turanian conquerors, have been assimilated

by

their

Slavonic

subjects.

The Finnish Magyars

religious

have received a pohtical and

their

assimilation

kingdom became a member of the commonof Christian Europe, though

lanQ;ua<?e.
still

wealth

they
latest

still

keep

their old Turanian

The

intruders

of

all,

the Ottoman Turks^

first

remain as they were

when they
tian

came,

aliens
is

on Aryan and Chrisa case of assimilation

are an artificial
incor-

ground.

But here again

the

the other way;

Ottoman Turks

nation which has been kept up

poration of
aside the

by the constant

European renegades who have

thrown
of

speech, the creed, and the civilization

Europe.

18

CHAPTER

II.

GKEECE AND THE GKEEK COLONIES.

^ 1.

The Eastern or Greek Peninsula.

CHAP.

The
-

Historical

Geography of Europe,

if

looked at in

chronological order, must begin with the most eastern

of the three peninsulas of Southern Europe.

istS^'of'the
pj'nin'uia.

Here the

historj of Europc, and the truest history of the world,

began.

It

was

in the insular

and peninsular lands befirst

it is

tween the Ionian and ^ga3an seas that the

towards European civilization were taken
that
;

steps

there

we

see the
life.

first

beginnings of

art,

science,

and

poKtical

But Greece or Hellas,

only
as

in the strict sense

of the name, forms

a part of the

lands which

must be looked on
It
is

the great Eastern peninsula.

however

its

leading and characteristic portion.

As the whole peninsular land gradually tapers southwards from the great mass of central Europe,
it

be-

comes
it

at each stage

more and more

the

peninsular,

and

also

becomes
indeed

at each stage

more and more Greek.

lands

Greece
as

and

neighbouring
Strabo,^
is

form,

was long ago remarked by

It

a series of

peninsulas within peninsulas.

^

not easy to find

ii.

See the

first

chapter of his eighth book (voL

p.

139 of the

Tauchnitz edition).

He makes

four peninsulas within peninsulas,

beginning from the south with Peloponnesos, and he enlarges on the general character of the country as made up of gulfs and promontories.

'

THE EASTERN PENINSULA.

a

19

name

for the

whole region, as

it

stretches far
in

beyond
But

any

limits

which can be given to Greece

any age of

^^

chap.

the world or according to any use of the name.

the whole land seems to have been occupied by nations

more or
and

less

akin to the Greeks.

The

history of those

nations chiefly consists of their relations to the Greeks,

all

of

them were brought more or

influences.

less

within the

range of Greek

We may
It

therefore

not

improperly

call

the whole land, as opposed to Italy

and Spain, the Greek peninsula.

has also

been

called the Byzantine peninsula^ as nearly answering to

the European part of the Eastern division of the

Eoman

Empire, when

its

seat of

government was

at Byzantion,

Constantinople, or

New Eome.
diits chief

Taking the great range of mountains which

vides southern from central

Europe

as the northern
it

boundary of the eastern or Greek peninsula,

said to take in the lands
central mass

may be
tlie

which are cut

Alj^s

off

from

by the Dalmatian

and the range of

or
its

Haimos or Balkan. It is washed to the east, west, south, by various parts of the Mediterranean and
great gulf the Euxine.

But the northern part of

this

region, all that lies north of the

in therefore the

^gaaan

Sea, taking
still

whole of the Euxine

great

coast,

keeps

much

of the character of the

central mass of

Europe, and forms a land intermediate between that

and the more

Still

strictly
is

peninsular lands to the south.

the boundary

a real one, for all the lands south

less

of this range have

influences,
tory.

come more or

within

Greek

and have played

w^e got

their part in Grecian his-

But when

beyond the mountains,

into

the valley of the Danube,

we

find ourselves in lands

which, excepting a few colonies on the coast, have

c 2

20

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

hardly at
all

come under Greek

influences

till

quite

modern more

times.

This region between Haimos and the

Greek lands takes in Thrace, Paionia, and lllyria. Of these, Thrace and lUyria, having a sea coast, received many Greek colonies, especially on
strictly

the northern coast of the

^gcean and on the Propontis

this region,

or Sea of Marmora.

The Thracian part of

as bordering on these

more

distinctly

Grecian seas,

became more
Thrace and

truly a part of the Grecian world than

it.

the other lands to the west of

Yet geographically
is.

Thiacc

is

morc wldcly
is

cut off from Greece than lllyria

For there

no such great break on the western shore

of the great peninsula as that which, on the eastern side,

marks the point where we must draw the line between Greece and its immediate neighbours and the lands to This is at the point where a peninthe north of them.
sula within a peninsula breaks off to the south,

comhere

prising Greece, Macedonia, and Epeiros.

There

is

no very

special

break on the Illyrian coast, but the

is

^gajan

coast of Thrace

fenced in as

it

were

at its

two

ends, to the east

by

the long narrow peninsula

known

specially as the Chersonesos, and to the west

by the group

of peninsulas called Chalkidlke.

These have nothing

answering to them on the Illyrian side beyond the

mere bend in the coast above Epidamnos. This last point however marks the extent of the earlier Greek
colonization in those regions,

and which has become

in later times.

still

more important boundary

Beyond Chalkidike to the west, the specially Greek peninsula projects to the south, being itself The ao;ain composed of peninsulas v/ithin peninsulas.
pr'cfpS'.ind

suhir'""

Amhralian Gulf on the west and the Payasaian on the east again fence off a peninsula to the south, by


PENINSULAS AND ISLANDS.
which the more purely Greek lauds are
from Macedonia, Epeiros, and Tkessaly.
peninsula again another
feucecl
off
this
-

21
chap.
r^

Within
off

may be marked

by

a line

drawn from Thermopylai

Delphoi.
Aitolia, and

to the Corinthian gulf near

This again shuts out to the east Akarnania,

some other of the more backward

Greek name.
a further

divi-

sions of the

Thus Phokis,
to

Boiotia,

and

Attica form a great

projects
as

promontory, from which Attica

promontory
southern

the south-east,

while the great peninsula of Peloponnesos

itself

made

Pek.pon-

up on
Corinth.

its

eastern
is

and

sides

of

smaller

peninsulas

joined on

by

the narrow isthmus of

to-

In this way, from H?amos

ever becoming

Tainaros, the

land

is

more and more broken up by

greater or smaller inlets of the sea.

as the land

And
in

in proportion

becomes more
strictly

strictly peninsular, it also

till

becomes more

Greek,

Peloponnesos

we

reach the natural citadel of the Greek nation.

Insular and Asiatic Greece.

1^

2.

Greece Proper then, what the ancient geographers

called Continuous Bellas as distinguished from the

Greek
it is

Continuous

colonies planted on barbarian shores,

is,

so far as

part of the mainland,

made up

of a system of peninsulas

stretching south from the general mass of eastern Europe.

But the neighbouring

continuous Greece
;

islands equally

form a part of

and the other coasts of the ^gasan,

Asiatic as well as Thracian,

Avith

were so thickly strewed

Greek colonies

as to form, if not part of continuous

Greece, yet part of the immediate Greek world.

The

western coast, as

it is

less peninsular, is also less insular,

and the

islands

on the western

side of

Greece did not

side.

reach the same importance as those on the eastern

22
CHAP.

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

Still
'

they too, the Ionian islands of modern geography,

in every sense a part of Greece.

form

To

the north of

The

Is-

Korkyra or Corfu there are only detached Greek colonies, whether on the mainland or in the islands;
but
all

the islands of the vEgEean are, during historical

times, as

much

part of Greece as the mainland

side,

and

one island on each

Leukas on the west and the

greater island of Euboia on the east, might almost be

counted as parts of the mainland, as peninsulas rather

than islands.

To
It

the south the long narrow island of

Crete forms a sort of barrier between

Greek and barthe

barian seas.

is

the most southern of the purely

to the east

Greek

lands.

Sicily

and Cyprus
as Crete

to

west received

many Greek
in the
it.

colonies, but they never

became purely Greek

same way

and the

islands to the north of

Asiatic

But, besides the European peninsulas and the islands,

part of Asia

must be looked on

as forming part of the imstrictly

mediate Greek world, though not

Greece.

of continuous

The peninsula known

With
its

as

Asia Minor cannot be

separated from Europe either

history.

in its

geography or
little

in its

central

mass we have

or nothing

to
its

do

but

its

coasts

form a part of the Greek world, and

less

.^gaean coast was only

itself

thoroughly Greek than

It

Greece

and the Greek

islands.

would seem that

the whole western coast of Asia Minor was inhabited

by
the

nations which, like the European neighbours of Greece,

were more or

less

nearly akin to the Greeks.

is

And

^gasan

coast of Asia

almost as

full

of inlets of the
islands near to

sea, of peninsulas

and promontories and

itself.

the shore, as European Greece

therefore received

All these shores

Greek

colonies.

The

islands

and

the most tempting spots on the mainland were occupied

'

INSULAR AND ASL\TIC GREECE.

Greek by J
]3ut
settlers, ^

Zo

and became the

sites

of Greek

Greek influence never spread very

itself

far inland,

.II.
cities,

chap.

and

even the coast

as the islands.

did not

become
sides

so pm^ely

Greek

When we

pass from the jEgsean coast

of Asia to
to
its

the other

two

of

the

peninsula,
its

northern coast washed by the Euxine and

coast

southern

have

passed

by the Mediterranean, we out of the immediate Greek world.

washed
spots here
is

Greek colonies are found on favourable

and there
barbarian.
;

but the land, even

tlie

coast as a whole,

3.

Ethnology of

the

Eastern Peninsula.
tlien

The innnediate Greek world

tlie

as

opposed
_

to The Greeks
kindred
races.

outlvinjT
"

Greek
sea

colonies,

consists
.

of the shores

of the
it

^gaian

and of the peninsulas lying between

sea.

and the Ionian

Of

this region a great part

was exclusively inhabited by the Greek nation, wliile Greek influences were more or less dominant tliroughout the whole.

But

it

would fmther seem

tliat

the

whole, or nearly the whole, of these lands were inhabited by races

more or
witli

less

akin to the Greeks.

They seem
deal
in

to

have been
the

races

which had a good

and
of

common

Greeks,

whom

the Greeks were sim})ly the foremost and most fortunate, their higher

developement being doubtless greatly

geographical nature of the country

favoured by

tlie

whicli they occupied.

But a

distinction

must be drawn

between the nearer and the more remote neighbours

of Greece.
It is

hardly necessary for our present pur-

pose to determine whether the Greeks had or had not

any connexion with Thracians, European or Asiatic, with

Phrygians and Lydians, and other neighbouring nations.

24
CHAP.
ii.

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

All these were in Greek eyes simply Barbarians, but

modem
Avilli

scholarship has seen in

them

signs of a kindred

Nations
irion; raiiiotv, tiut

the

Greek nation nearer than the share of both

I'-nXabiy

in the coiniiiou

Aryan

stock.

We

need not

settle

here

whether

all

the inhabitants of the geographical district

not,

which we have marked out were, or were

in this sense
;

kinsmen

but with some

among them
race,

the question

assumes a deeper interest and a nearer approach to

iiivrians.

ccrtaiuty.

The great

Ill\Tian

of

whom

the

Albanians or Skipetars are the modern representatives, a race which has been so lai-gely displaced by
Slaves at one end and assimilated
other, can hardly
fail

by Greeks

at the

to

have had a nearer kindred with

the Greeks than that which they both share with Celts

and Teutons,
yet

When we come

to the lands

which are

more

closely connected with Greece, both in geo-

graphical position and in their history, the case becomes

clearer
still.

We

can hardly doubt of the close con-

nexion between the Greeks and the nations which

bordered
F.rxin^
si.'iiy

on Greece

immediately to
as

the

north

in at

I'^peiros
"

and

Macedonia,

well

as

with

some
tlie

and

](^iist

of tliosc
coasts

which thcy found occupying

of

op-

posite

the

^gcan,

as

well

as

in

Sicily

and

Italy.

The Greeks and

Italians,

with the nations

iimnediately connected with

them, clearly belong to

one, and that a well marked, division of the

family.

Aryan

Their kindred

is

shown

alike

by

the evi-

dence of language and by the remarkable ease with

which
Into
is
i'(i,rianH.

in

all

ages they received Greek

inquiries
to

civilization.

more minute
our
Say
to
to

as

to

these

matters

it

hai'dly

province
tluit

go here.

It is

perhaps
has

ciiough

thc Pelasgian name, which

speculation,

given rise

so

much

seems

to

have

THE GEEEKS AND THE laN'DEED XATIOXS.

been
used

25
very
our-

by

tlie

Greeks

themselves
is

in

vague way, mucli as the Avord Sa.von

selves.
It is therefore

among

chap.

dangerous to form any

tlieories

about the matter.

Sometimes the Pelasgians seem to

be spoken of simply as Old-Hellenes^ sometimes as a

people distinct from the Hellenes.
lenes,

Whether

the HelThe Greek

natiuu.

on their enterincf into Greece, found the land

held

by
is

earlier inhabitants,

whether Aryan or non-

Aryan,

a curious and interesting speculation, but one

us.
It
is

which does not concern

purpose
that, as far

enough

for

our

back as history or even legend cim

branch

carry us,
of the

we

find the land in the occupation of a

Aiyan

family, consisting, like all otlier nations,

It is a

of various kindred tribes.

nation whicli
it

is

as
off,

well defined as any otlier nation, and yet

as
it

shades

were, into the other nations of the kindred stock.

Clearly

marked

as

Greek and Barbarian are from the

are frontier tribes in Epeiros and

beginning, there

still

Macedonia which

nuist

be looked on as forming an
tlie

intermediate stage between

are accordingly placed

two

classes,

and whicli

by

different

Greek

writers some-

times in one class and sometimes in the other.

i^i

4,

The Earliest (jeo(jraphy of Greece and Nei(jhbourinii Lands.

picture of
catalogue.

the

Our first the Homeric

Greek geogi'aphy comes from

\\

111' liatevcr may be the historic

The Homeric

mapof
(j

recce.

value of the Homeric poems in general,

it is

clear that

the catalogue in the second book of the Iliad must represent a real state of things.
It

gives us a

map

of Greece

so different from the

that
it

map

of Greece at any later time

it

is

inconceivable that

can have been invented

at iiny later time.

We

have

in fact a

map

of Greece at

26
CHAP,

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

a time earlier than

'

any time

to

which we can assign

certain
itself

names and
various

dates.

Within the range of Greece

their

the

Greek races often changed

or

settlements,
settlers
;

displacing

conquering earlier Greek

and the

different states

which they formed

often

changed

tlieir

boundaries

by bringing

other

states into subjection or

depriving them of parts of

gives us a

their

territory.

The Homeric catalogue

wholly different arrangement of the various branches

of the nation from any that
historic times.

we
are

find in the

Greece of

The Dorian and

so famous,

loniaii names,

which
;

were afterwards

hardly

known

the

Tribal divisious of

Homeric

name of Hellenes itself belongs only to a small district. The iiamcs for the whole people are Achaians, ^4r^ geians [Argos seeming to mean all Peloponnesos), and Danaoi, the last a name which goes quite out of use in historic times. The boundary of Greece to the west is narrower than it was in later times. The land called
'-

Akarnania has not yet got that name,

Greek
at
all.

if

indeed

it

was

It is

spoken of vaguely as Epeiros or

it

the mainland,^ and

appears as part of the possessions

of the king of the neighbouring islands, Kephallenia

and Ithake.

The

islands to the north,

Leukas and Korin Epei-

kyra, were not yet Greek.

ros

The Thesprotians

are

spoken of as

a neighbouring and

friendly

people, but they form no part of the

Greek nation.

'

"llivtipoQ

is

simply the mainland, and came only gradually to

mean

a particular country.

We

may compare

the use of
ii.

'

terr.i

rirma' in South America.

after the island subjects of

In the catalogue {Iliad,

620-G35),

read:

Odysseus have been reckoned up, we ayrnripui hffxorTa. This must mean the land afterwards called Akarnania. It was remarked at a later time that the Akarnanians were the only people of Greece who did
o'i

r'

"HTTfipov ixor,

?/3'

not appear in the catalogue.

'

THE HOMERIC MAP.

The
Aitolians appear as a Greek people, and so do

27
chap.
'

most of the other divisions of the Greek nation, only

their position

and

relative

importance

is

often different

from what

it

was afterwards.

Thus, to mention a few

in historic

examples out of many, the Lokrians^ who,

times, appear both

on the sea of Euboia and on the

the

Corinthian

gulf,

appear in

catalogue

in

their

northern seats only.

When we
is still
.

turn from tribes to

cities,

the difference
first

greater.
.

The

cities

which held the

.

place in

Croupinfis
ofcitie.-i.

historic times are not always those

in the earlier time,

which are greatest

and

their

grouping in federations or
in later history.

principalities

is

wholly unlike anything

Thus
the

in the historic Boiotia

we

find

Orchomenos

as

the second city of a confederation of which Thebes

is
first.

In the catalogue Orchomenos and the

neighbouring city Aspledofi form a se[)arate division,

distinct

from Boiotia.
specially
to

Euboia forms a whole

be noticed, Attica,
as

and,

what
is

is

a land,

not mentioned, but only the single city of At/tens,

with Salamis as a kind of dependency.

sos again
is

Peloponne-

divided in a

manner

quite different from

is

anything

in later times.

The
a

ruling city

Mykene,
over
in

whose
all

king

holds

also
his

general

superiority

Ilellas,

while

immediate dominion takes

Corinth^ Kleonai, Sikyun, and the whole south coast of

the Corinthian Gulf, the Achaia of later times.

rest of the cities

The

of the Argolic peninsula are grouped

is

round Anjos.
groups of
cities

Northern Greece again

divided into

which answer

to nothing in later times.

is

And

its

relative

importance in the Greek world

it

clearly far greater than

was

in the historic period.

The catalogue

also helps us to

our

earliest picture


28
CHAP,
II.

GREECE AND THE GEEEK COLONIES.

of the northern and eastern coasts of the ^Efj-gean of the

and

-"

^giean
tJic

islands.

We
''

see the extent

which Greek
taken
*^

Extent of Greek ccJonizatiuu.

colonization
\\\

had ah-eady made.

It liad as yet

Qnly

southcm
;

islands of the

^gasan.

Crete

was

ah^eady Greek

so
;

were Rhodes, K6s, and the neighlast are

bouring islands
as

but these

distinctly

marked

new

settlements.
still

The
in

coast of Asia

and the northern

islands are

untouched, except through the events of

itself,

the Trojan

war

which the Greek conquest of

In Asia, besides Trojans
as

Lesbos
The Asiatic
Catalogue.
,

is

distinctly

marked.
7
7

and Dcirdanicms, we find Petasgians

people,
i

a
7->7

distinct

as

also

rapluagomans^ iMysians^ rlirygians^

r-.

\ r

Maionians^ Karians, and Lykians.

the nations which
fring;e

We

find in short

the whole jE^iddim coast of

Asia and the south-western coast of the Euxine.

In

Europe again we have Thracians and Paionians, names

familiar in historic times,

and whose bearers seemingly

occupied nearly the same lands which they do in later

times.

The presence

of Thracians in Asia

is

implied
is

rather than asserted.

The Macedonian name

islands of the

not

found.

The northern

^gasan

are

men-

tioned only incidentally. Everything leaves us to believe

that the whole region,

European and

Asiatic, to

which

we

now concerned, was, at this earliest time of which we have any glimpses, occupied by various races
are
less closely

more or
piioenician

alhed to each other.

The

islands

wcrc largely
peoplc froiu

Ivarian, but the Phnenidans,

tlic

a Semitic

and Greek
.settlements

castcm

coast,

seem

to have planted

lands.

colonies in several of the Mediterranean islands.

But
to

Karians and Phoenicians had

now begun

to give

way

Greek

settlements.

The same

rivalry in short

between

Greeks and Phoenicians must have gone on

times in the islands of the

in the earliest

M^SQun which went on

in

'

CHANGES

IN PELOPONNESOS.

29

historical times in the greater islands of Cyi^rus

Sicily.

and
^

II.
.

chap.

5.

Change from Homeric

state of things whicli
is

to

Historic Greece.

The

set before us in the

catalogue was altogether broken up by later changes,

but changes which

still

come before

the beginnings of
chiefly

contemporary history, and which we understand

by comparing the geography of the catalogue with the

geography of
dition, a
later times.

According to received

tra-

changes
nesos.

iu

number

of Dorian colonies from Northern

in

Greece were gradually planted

the cliief cities of

Peloponnesos, and drove out or reduced to subjection

their older
loses
its

Achaian inhabitants. Mykene from

this

time

importance; Argos, Sparta, Corinth, and Sikyon

cities
;

become Dorian
dominion over

and Sparta gradually wins the

all

the towns, whether Dorian or Achaian,

within her immediate dominion of Lakonia.

To the west
is

of Lakonia arises the Dorian state of Messene, which the

name only

of a district, as there was as yet no

city so called.

As
is

part of the
said
to

same mcn-ement, an
Eli.s

Aitolian colony

have occupied
Klis again
;

on the
at
this

west coast of Peloponnesos.

time the

was

name

of a district only

tlie

cities

both of

Messene and

Elis are of

much

later date.

First Argos.

and then Sparta,

rises to a

supremacy over

their fellow-

Dorians and over the whole of Peloi)onnesos.

cal

Histori-

Peloponnesos thus consists

(i)

of the

cities, chiefly

Dorian, of the Argolic Akte or peninsula, together with Corinth on the Isthmus and 3Jegara, a Dorian outpost

beyond the Isthmus

(ii)

of Lakonike, the district im-

mediately subject to Sparta, with a boundary towards

Argos which changed

as S])arta

advanced and Argos

30
CHAP,
II
-

GREECE AXD THE GREEK COLONIES.

went back
'
;

(iii)

of Messene, which was conquered

by

'

Sparta before the age of contemporary history, and was

again separated in the fourth century
B.C.
;

(iv) of Elis,
;

with the border-districts between

of the Achaian
cities

it

and Messene

(v)

on the coast of the Corinthian

Gulf;

(vi)

of the inland country of Arkadia.

The

relations

among

these districts and the several cities

within them often fluctuated, but the general aspect of

the

map

of Peloponnesos did not greatly change from

fifth

the beginning of the

the third.
Changes in
X.irthern Greece.

century to the later days of

of Accordiuo; r> ^ to the received traditions, mio;rations thc samc kiud took place in Northern Greece also be'
.

tween the time of the catalogue and the beginning of

contemporary
divisions
history.
a

Thus Thessaly, whose

different
is

form

most important part of the catalogue,

said to

have suffered an invasion at the hands of the half

Hellenic Thesprotians.

They

are said to have

itself,

become

the ruling people in Thessaly

and

to

have held a

supremacy over the neighbouring

lands, including the

It is

peninsula of Magnesia and the Phthiotic Achaia.

certain that in the historical period Thessaly lags in the

back ground, and that the true Hellenic

less

spirit is

much

developed there than

in

other parts of Greece. There

is less

reason to accept the legend of a migration out of

;

Thessaly into Boiotia

but in historic times Orchomenos but

is

no longer appears

as a separate state,

the second

city of the Boiotian confederacy, yielding the first place

to
also

Thebes with great unwillingness.

The Lokrians

now appear on

the Corinthian gulf as well as on

the sea of Euboia.

And

the land to the west of Aitolia,

so vaguely spoken of in the catalogue, has

seat of a

become the

Greek people under the name of Akarnania.

'

CHANGES
The Corinthian

IN

NORTHEEN GREECE.

31
chap.
II.

colonies alonj? this coast, the city of

island
is

AmbraHa,
B.C.,

the

or peninsula

of Leukas^

the

foundation of which

placed in the eighth centuiy

come almost within the time of trustworthy They are not Greek in tlie catalogue they history.
;

are

Greek w^hen we

first

hear of them in history.

Ambrakia forms the

last

outpost of continuous Hellas

towards the north-west; beyond that are only outlying

settlements on the Illyrian coasts and islands.

These changes in the geography of continental

Greece, botli witliin and without Peloponnesos,
the main differences between the Greece of

make
HochanKe^in
later times.

tlie

meric catalogue and the Greece of the Persian and

Peloponnesian wars.
Durini; "^
tlie sixth, fifth,
'

and fourth
_

centuries before Christ there

political relations of the

were constant changes

states to

in
;

Greek

one another

but there were

the geography.

nr)t

many changes which

greatly affected

Cities were constantly brouglit in sub-

jection to one another,

and w^ere again relieved from

the yoke.

In the course of the fourth century two

cities,

new
r.<..{70-

Peloponnesian
founded.

Messene and Megalopolis^ were

In IJoiotia again, Plataia and Orchomenos

itself

were destroyed by the Thebans, and Tliebes

was

destroyed by Alexander, but these were afterwards

rebuilt.

In Peloponnesos ^Mykene was destroyed by

the Argeians, and never rebuilt.

But most of these

in-

bc. 4G8.

changes do not

aflect

geography, as they did not

volve any change in the seats of the great divisions

of the Greek name.

The only exception

old

is

that of

the foundation of Messene^ which was accompanied

by

the separation of the

Sparta,

Messenian territory from

and the consequent establishment of a new or

restored division of the Greek nation.

32

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

It
6.

The Greek Colonies.

re-

must

liave

been in the time between the days

presented by the catalogue and the beginnincfs of contem-

porary history, that most of the islands of the ^gaean

became Greek, and

that the

Greek colonies were planted

on the ^Ega^an coast of Asia.

catalogue, while

We

have seen that the

southern islands were already Greek at the time of the

some of the northern

did not
dates,

ones,
till

Thasos^
times to

Lemnos, and

otliers,

become Greek

which we can give approximate

to the fifth centuries.

from the eighth

During

this period, at

some time
coast of
to
i

before the eighth century, the whole

(Colonies

^gasan
cities,

Asia had become fringed with Greek

the south, Aioiian to the north,
i i

Dorian

in Asia.

Joman between
itself in

the

two.
is

The

story of the Trojan

war

the land

most likely a legendary account of the beginning of

these settlements,

which may make us think that the

this coast

Greek colonization of

began

in the north, in

the lands bordering on the Hellespont.

At
it

all

events,

by the eighth century these settlements had made the

Asiatic coast

and the islands adjoining

part, not only of the
itself.

a part, and a

most important

Greek world, but

we may
Their early

almost say of Greece

The Ionian

cities.

abovc

all, /S>?i?/r/i<2,

Epliesos^ 31iletos,

and the islands of

Chios and Samos^ were

cities,

among
all,

the greatest of Greek

more

flourishing certainly than

any

in

European

Greece.

Miletos, above
it

was famous
its

for the
turn.

number
But,
if

of colonies which
their

sent forth in

own
to

day of greatness came before that of the Eui'ofirst

pean Greeks, they were also the

the power of the Barbarians.

come under
fifth

In the course of the

century the Greek

cities

on the continent of Asia came

tlie

under the power,

first

of

Lydian kings and then of

THE yEG.EAN COLONIES.

their Persian conquerors,

33
several of the
^

who subdued
which led

chap.
^^

islands

also.

It

was

this

subjection of the Asiatic

to the

Glreeks to the Barbarians

Persian Lydianand
rersian
conquests.

war, with which the most brilliant time in the history

of European Greece begins.
cities

We

thus

know

the Asiatic
coasts of
colonies in

only in the days of their decline.

The

Thrace and Macedonia were also sprinkled with Greek

cities,

but they did not

lie

so thick together as those

on the Asiatic

coast, except only in the three-fingered

peninsula of Chalkidike, which became a thoroughly

Greek
history,

land.

Some

of these colonies in Thrace, as

Olynthos and Potidaia^ play an important part in Greek

and two among them

Therme, under
its

fill

a place in the history

later

of the world.
lonike,

its

name

of Thessa-

has kept on

importance under

all

changes

down

to our

own

time.

And

Byzaniion, on the Thra-

cian Bosporos, rose higher

still,

becoming, under the

form of Constantinople^ the transplanted seat of the

Empire of Eome.

The

settlements which have been thus far spoken of

all

may be

counted as coming within the immediate

Greek world.

They were planted

in lands so near to

the mother-country, and they lay so near to one another,

^gasan may be Some looked on as more or parts were wholly Greek, and everywhere Greek influences were predominant. But, during this same period of distant enterprise, between the time of the Homeric
that

the whole country round

less

the

thoroughly Greek.

Morethv
nies.

catalogue and the time of the Persian War,

settlements were

made

in countries

many Greek much further off

came within
no Greek ever
settle-

from continuous Greece.

All of course
;

the rang;e of the Mediterranean world

passed through the Straits of Herakles to found

34

GEEECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

ments on the Ocean,

CHAP,

But a large part of

tlie

coast

.^ both of the Mediterranean itself and of the Euxine was gradually dotted with Greek colonies. These outposts of Greece, unless they

were actually conquered

;

by barbarians, almost always remained Greek they kept their Greek language and manners, and they often spread

them
But
in

to
it

some extent among

was not often
that

their barbarian neighbours.

any large

tract of country

these
as

Greek

more distant lands became so thoroughly We may the ^gcean coast of Asia became.
Italy,

say however that such was the case with the coast of
Sicily

and Southern

where many Greek colonies

be spoken of more
fully in

were planted, which

another chapter.

will

All Sicily indeed did in the end really

become a Greek country, though not till after its conBut in Northern and Central quest by the Eomans.
Italy, the Latins, Etruscans,

and other

Italian nations

were too strong

Colonies in
tic.

for

any Greek colonies

to

be made in

tliosc parts.

Ou

the other side of the Hadriatic, Greek

as

colonies

had spread before the Peloponnesian war

far north as Epidamnos.

The more northern

colonies

on the coast and among the

Illyrian Epidcniros, Pharos^

islands of Dalmatia, the

Black Korkyra^ and others,

were among the

the
strict sense.

latest ejETorts of

Greek colonization

in

In other parts

of the

Mediterranean coasts the

other.

Greek settlements lay further apart from each

But we may say that they were spread here and there over the whole coast, except where there was some
special hindrance to

keep the Greeks fi'om

of
the

settling.

Thus, in
I'ha-nician
((ilonies,
,
.

great

part

Mediterranean
r o

the

Phceniciaus had got the start of the Greeks, both in

,

their

own country on

the coast ot byria, and ni the

'

MORE DISTANT COLONIES.

colonies
sent forth

35
of Tyre and
^

by

their great

cities

chap.
<-

Sidon.

The PhcEnician
western half

colonists occupied a large part

of

the

of

the southern coast

of the
cities

Mediterranean, where lay the great Phoenician

Carthage^ Utica^ and others.
in

of

They had

also settlements
straits

Southern Spain, and one at least outside the

This
its
is

on the Ocean.
its

Gades or Cadiz, which has kept

as a great city
in

name and

unbroken position

from

an earlier time than any other city

Europe.

The
parts.

Greeks therefore could not colonize in these

In the great islands of Sicily and Cjqirus there were

both Phoenician and Greek colonies, and there was a
long struggle between the
settlers of the

two

nations.
settlers,

In Egypt again, though there were some Greek

yet there were no Greek colonies in the strict sense.

That

is,

there were no independent

Greek commoncoast of

wealths.

Thus the only part of the southern

the Mediterranean which was open to Greek colonization

was the land between Egypt and the dominions of

In that
land
accordingly several Greek
orecii coioAfvi"'.,

Carthage.
cities

were planted, of which the chief was the famous

Kyrene.

On

the

southern

coast

of Gaul

arose the

spaia."'

great Ionian city of Massalia or Marseilles, which also,

like the Phoenician Gades, has kept its

name and

its

prosperity

down

to our

own

time.
cities

Massalia became the

centre of a group of

Greek

on the south coast of

Gaul and the

east coast of Spain,

which were the means

civilization in

of spreading a certain

amount of Greek

those parts.

Besides these settlements in the Mediterranean

self,

it-

there were also a

good many Greek colonies on the

colonies on

western, northern, and southern coasts of the Euxine, of

which those best worth remembering are the

T.

city of

36

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

Chersonesos in the peninsula called the Tauric Chersonesos,
coast.

now

Crimea, and Trapezous on the southern

These two deserve notice as being two most

Chersonesos, under

abiding seats of Greek influence.

the

name of Cherson, remained an independent Greek commonwealth longer than any other, and Trapezous or
Trebizond became the seat of Greek-speaking Emperors,
outlived those of Constantinople.

who

Speaking gene-

rally then,

we may

say that, in the most famous times of

in the time of the Persian

European Greece,

and Pelo-

ponnesian wars, the whole coast of the ^gaean was part

of the immediate Greek

world, while in Sicily and

Cyprus Greek colonies were contending with the Phoenicians,

and

in Italy with the native Italians.

Massalia

was the centre of a group of Greek

west,

states in the north-

and Kyrene

in the south, while the greater part

of the coast of the Euxine

cities

was

also dotted with

Greek

here and there.

In most of these colonies the

Greeks mixed to some extent with the natives, and

Beginning
(if

tlic

uativcs to

somc cxtcnt learned the Greek

the arti-

ficiai

Greek

and mauucrs.
call

nation.
.

We

an

artificial

^ thus get the beginnincr of what we c o Greek nation, a nation Greek in

'-'

lancruasre

speech and manners, but not purely Greek in blood,

which has gone on ever

7.

snice.

Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros.

civihzation,

But while the spread of the Greek language and and therewith the growth of the artificial
nation,

Greek

was brought about

in a great degree

by
Growth
of

the planting of independent

,

Greek

colonies,

it

was

brought about

Macedonia.

tar

to

still more fully by events which went , ./^ destroy the political independence of Greece

,..,.,

itself.

This came of the growth of the kindred nations

MACEDONIA AND EPEIROS.

to the north of Greece, in

37

Macedonia and Epeiros. The

Macedonians were for a long time

hemmed
also

in

by the

barbarians to the north and west of them and by the

Greek

cities

on the

coast,

and they were

weakened
Reisn of
Philip. B.C.

by

divisions

among

themselves.
its

But when the whole

,

nation was united under

ereat Kinof ^' Mace^ Philip, donia soon became the chief power in Greece and the

sgo-ssg.

neighbouring lands.

PhiHp greatly increased

his

domi-

nions at the expense of both Greeks and barbarians,

especially

by adding the peninsulas of Chalkidike

But
in

to his

kingdom.

Greece

itself,

though he took to him-

self the chief

power, he did not actually annex any of

the Greek states to Macedonia, so that his victories there

do not
ajider,

affect the

map.

and the Macedonian

manner held

garrisons in particular

...
;

His yet more fomous son Alexkinj^s

conquests
der,

after

him,
.

in
.

like

336-323.

Greek

cities,

and

brought some parts of Greece, as Thessaly and Euboia,

under a degree of Macedonian influence which hardly

differed

from dominion

but they did not formally

annex them.

The conquests of Alexander in Asia brought most of the Greek cities and islands under
as

Macedonian dominion, but some,

independence.

Crete, Ehodes,

Byzantion, and Uerakleia on the Euxine, kept their

Meanwhile

Epeiros

became

united
Epein
rhus.B.c.

under the Greek kings of Molossis^ and luider Pyrrlios,

who made Ambrakia his capital, it became a powerful state. And a little kingdom called Athamania, thrust in between Epeiros, Macedonia, and Thessaly, now
begins to be heard
of.

The conquests
ern Asia,
all

of Alexander in Asia concern us only ihe Mace"'

"''^
*

so far as they called into being a class of states in West- kingdoms

of which received a greater or less share of

Hellenic culture, and

some of which may claim a place

38
CHAP,
r^

GREECE AXD THE GREEK COLONIES.

in the actual
'

Greek world.

By

the division of the

em-

pire of

Alexander

after the battle of Ipsos,

Egypt be-

came the kingdom of Ptolemy, with whose descendants

it
n.c. 301.

remained down to the

Eoman

conquest.

The

civili-

zation of the Egyptian court

was Greek, and Alexandria Greek

cities.

K-vpt
r'toiemiel

became one of the

greatest of

Moreover

thc carhcr kings of the Ptolemaic dynasty held various

islands in the Jjlgean,

and points on the coast of Asia

entitled

and even of Thrace, which made them almost

to rank as a
The
ciyiLtty.

power

in

Greece

itself.

The great
and
liis

Asiatic

power of Alexander passed

ants.

to Seleukos

descend-

The

early kings of his house ruled from the

^goean
at all

to the Hyphasis,

though

this

great dominion was

times fringed and broken in upon

native princes,
Circa
ij.c.

by the dominions of by independent Greek cities, and by the

]3ut in thc tliird
in the

dominions of other Macedonian kings.

century
tlieir
tlie

dominion was altogether cut short

East by

revolt of the Parthians in northern Persia,

by whom

the eastern provinces of the Seleukid

kingdom
Great

were lopped away.

B.C.

And when

Antiochos

tlie

191-

provoked a war with Eome,

shore to the

his

dominion was cut

up

into a

West also. The Seleukid power now shrank local kingdom of Syria, with Tauros for its
cuttiug short of the Seleukid kingdom,

north-western frontier.
Cities of in-

^7
"^^"^s

^^^^

room

.Sel?"*

given for the growth of the independent states

The iTmH"'' which had already sprung up in Asia Minor. begim, and tlie had already rergamos. kingdom of Pergamos
dominions of
its

kings were largely increased by the

Eomans
Epeiros.

at the

expense of Antiochos.
state,

Pergamos might

count as a Hellenic

alongside of Macedonia and

But the other kingdoms of Asia Minor, Bi-

thynia,Kappadokia, Paphlagonia, and Pontos, the king-


THE MACEDONIAN KINGDOMS.
39

dom

of the famous Mithridates, must be counted as

Tlie Hellenic influence indeed spread itself tar

Asiatic.

cii.vi'.

to the East.

Even the Parthian

culture,

kinjis affected a certain

fp";^"'^."'"

amount of Greek
and
in several of
citie,s.

and

in all the
less

more western

^"'tinv.

kinffdoms there was a greater or

Greek element,

them the kings

which

fixed their cai)itals in

Greek
gamos.

Still in all

of them the Asiatic element

it

prevailed in a

way

in

did not prevail at Per-

Meanwhile other
still

states, either originally

Greek

or largely Ilelleuized,

remained Ea^t of

tlie

jEga3an.

Thus, at the south-western corner of Asia Minor, Lifkia^

thou<rh seemingly less thorouiihlv Hellenized than

some
the
NUM.k.ia.

of

its

neighbours,

became a

federal

state

after

Greek model.
whether under
its

Far

to the A\st, St'U'tdeia

on the

Tigris,

l^yrian or Parthian overlordship, kept

its

character as a Greek colony, and

called a free imperial
city.

position as

what

may be

Further to the

West other more purely

city,

(ireek states 8ur%'ived.

The
nemki.-iii.

Pontic Ilerakleia long remained an independent Greek

sometimes a commonwealth,
;

sometimes
city
till it

under
Ixicame

<*^-

tyrants

and Slnopc remained a Greek

t)f

the caj)ital nf the kings

Pontos.

On

the north of the

Euxine, Bosporus
S,

still

remained a Greek kingdom.

(ireece.
in the
i-nt.rpoUti.al.livi-

The

later

Geography of Jndependeni
t>f

The

i)olitical '
it
'

divisions
*

Greece, independent *
the

davs when
differ

LTaduallv

came under

power of Rome,

M'>n.)f
Grecirc.

almost as

mueh from

those to which

we

are used
last

during the Persian and Peliponnesian wars, as these

differ

from the earlier divisions

in

the

Uomeric

cat^i-

logue.

The

chief feature of these times was the

power

which was held, as we have before seen, by the Macedonian kings, and the alliances made by
tlie

different

10
CHAP.
II.

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

Greek
yoke.
states in

order to escape or to throw off their

The

result

was that the greater part of Greece had ever seen

before.

was gradually mapped out among large confederations,

much
The
Achaian
Leacue.

larger at least than Greece

these,

The most famous of

the

the League of Achaia,

cities

began among the old Acliaian

Corinthian
Gulf.
It

on the south of
spread,
till

ii.(\2m.

gradually

it

took in the whole of

li.c.

Peloponnesos,
cities.

together with

191.

Megara and one or two outlying

Argos,
Elis,

Thus Corinth,
distinct

and even Sparta, instead of being

with a greater or
less

states as of old,

dominion over

other
The
Aitolian

cities,

were now

simply members of one federal

body.

In Northern Greece the League of Aitolia

itself far

now
and

League.

became very powerful, and extended

its

beyond

old

borders.

Akarnania,

Phokis,

Lokris,

Boiotia formed Federal states of less power, and so

did Epeiros, where the kings had been got rid

of,

and

which was now reckoned

times

as a thoroughly

Greek

state.

The Macedonian kings held

:

different points at different

Corinth

itself for

a good while, and Thessaly and

Euboia
Koman
in-

for longer periods,

might be almost counted as

Greece
in

parts of their kingdom.

terference iu Greece.

This was

the state

of things
to

in

at

the

time

when

the

Eomans began

meddle

Greek and

Macedonian
countries,

affairs,

and gradually

to bring all these

like

the rest of the Mediterranean world,

under their power.

this
B.C. 229.

But

it

should be remarked that

was done,

as the conquests of the

Eomans always
Kor-

were done, very gradually.

kyra and the
cities

First the island of

of

Epidamnos and Apollonia on

allies,

the Illyrian coast

became Eoman

which was

al-

ways a
first

step to

becoming Eoman
itself,

subjects.

The Eomans

appeared in Greece

as allies of the Aito-


LATER GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE.
lians,

41

but by the Peace of Epeiros

in

Eome
.

obtaiDcd no

dominion

Greece, and merely some increase of her

197.

chap.

The second Macedonian War made Macedonia dependent on Rome, and all those parts of Greece which had been under the Macedonian power
Illvrian territon^ *'

B.C. 200.

b.c 200-

j.^^^^^f
J5,7quLs.
a.c. 190.

were declared

free at

its

close.

As

the Aitolians

had

joined Antiochos of Syria against Rome, they were

c.

189.

Roman dependency. From that time Rome was always meddhng in the affairs of the Greek states, and they may be counted as really, though not formally,
made
a

dependent

on Rome.

After the third Macedonian

war, Macedonia was cut

up

into four separate

it

coma

b^-

i<59.

monwealths; and

at last, after the fourth,

became

"< '^i^-

Roman
League

province.

About

tlie

siime time the Leagues

;

<

i-*J-

of Ej)ein)s and Boiutia were dissolved

also

the Achaian

became formally dependent on Rome, and

for a time also.
It
is

was dissolved
time,

not certain
;

when
Rome.
Homnininfrif .tntcs
iM<-..r|M.i-

Achaia became formally a

this
all

Roman

province

but, from

Greece was practically

*
.

sul)ject to

Athens remained nominallv indrpendent,

Bvzanlion, and several other islands

Rhodes, ..... and

as did
outlviii<; cities, *
.

nte'i In-

some of which were not

the

ftirmally incorporated with

VespaMun.

Roman dominion

till

the time of the

Emperor

Vespasian.

As we go on with the geogniphy of other countries which came under the Roman dominion, we shall learn more of the way in which Rome thus enlarged
right
this

her
to

territories

bit

by

Ijit.

liut

it

seemed

begin with
not

the geogra[)hy of Greece, uiid

could

be carried

down

to

the time wlien

Greece became a
thing of the

Roman dominion without saying someRoman conquest. From B.C. 146 we must

look upon Greece and the neighbouring lands as being,

42
CHAP,
^'

GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.

some of tliem formally and
part of the
to speak of
till

all

of

them

practically,

Eoman

dominion.

And we

shall not

have

them again

as separate states or countries

many

ages later,

when

the

Eoman dominion began

to fall in pieces.

Having thus traced the geography of

the most eastern of the three great European peninsulas

down

to the time wlien

it

became part of the dominion

around the Mediterranean,

which took

in all the lands

to

we
Special
clifii'fictpr

will

now go on

speak of the middle peninsula.

that dominion,

wliicli
of

bccamc the centre of

namely that

Greek

his-

of Italy.

Grcccc and the neiglibouring lands are the

be said to have a

only parts of Europe which can

history quite independent of
earlier

Eome, Of

and beginning

than the

Eoman

history.

the other countries

it

therefore which
will

became part of the Eoman Empire

in tlieir relation

be best to speak

to Italy, and,

as nearly as possible, in the order in

which they came

under the

Eoman

power.

43

CHAPTER

III.

FORMATIOX OF THE ROMAX EMPIRE.

The second
of Italy.

of the three great peninsulas of southern

lies

chap
III.

Europe, that which

between the other two,

is

that
Difreient

The name

of Italy has been used in several

it

meanings

meanings
either the
Italy.

at different times, but

has always meant

call

of the

name

whole or a part of the land which we now

itself

The name gradually spread

from the ex-

treme south to the north.^

survey
begins,

At

the time

when our
it

the

name
that.

did not

go beyond the
hardly

long narrow peninsula

itself;

and indeed

took in the whole of

During the time of the

Eoman commonwealth
little

Italy did not reach

side,

beyond the
its

rivers

Macra on one
side,
1

near Luna, and Ruhico

meaning

on the other
,

near Ariminum.
A T

The land

north, as lar as the Alps,

after the time of Csesar.

was not counted

to the Kcman commonfor Italy till wealth.

But the Alps are the natural

land from the
so that, looking at the

boundary which fence

matter as

off the peninsular

;

great mass of central Europe

a

piece of geography,

we may count
It will

the

whole land within the Alps as

Italy.

be at

once seen that the Itahan peninsula, though so long

^

We

shall

come as we go on
But

to

two uses of the name

in

which

Italy,

oddly enough, meant only the northern part of the land comso called.

monly

in both these cases the

it

name had

a purely

political

and technical meaning, and

never came into

common

use

in this sense.


44
CHAP,
^^

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

'^

and narrow,

'

by no means cut up into promontories and smaller peninsulas as the Greek peninsula is.
is
is
it

Nor

surrounded by so

many

islands.

It is

only

quite in the south,

splits off into

where the long narrow peninsula

at all

two smaller ones, that the coast has

the character of the

The
Italian islands.

mucli slighter dcofree.

the great island of Sicily^ whose history has always

no
all.

Greek

coast,

and there only

^

in a
lies

this end of Italy Close by J J

been closely connected with that of

lie

Italy.

Further off

the

two other great

in old times

islands of Corsica

and Sardinia,
to

which

were not reckoned

along the

belong to

Italy at
islands,

Besides these there are several smaller

others,
Italian

Elba and
lie

coast;

but they

a good

way from each

other,

and do not
There

form any marked feature in the geography.

is

nothing at

all

like

even the group of islands off

less like the endless multitude,

western Greece,

much

great and small, in the ^ga^an.

Through the whole

off

length

of the

peninsula, like a backbone, runs the

long chain of the Apennines.

These branch

from

the Alps in north-western Italy near the sea, and run

through the whole length of the country to the very

toe of the boot, as the Italian peninsula has been called

from
Italy

its

shape.

From
all

all

this

it

follows that, though

in the

was the land which was destined

likely to begin to

end

to

have the rule over

the rest, yet the people of Italy

were not

make themselves
all

name
and

so

early as the Greeks did.

to take in the

Least of

were they
life,

likely

same way

to a sea-faring

to

plant colonies mi far off lands.

j,^^
Italy.

1.

The Inhabitants of Italy and

Sicily.

We seem to have somewhat clearer signs in Italy than

IXHABITANTS OF ITALY.

45
in the land

we have
ants

in

Greece of the

men who dwelled

before the Aryans

came

into

it.

who appear as its historical inhabitOn the coast of Liguria, the land on
we
find people

^-^

chap.

Ligurians.

each side of the city of Genoa, a land which was not

reckoned

Italian in early times,

who

seem not

to

have been Aryan.

And

these Ligurians

seem and

to

have been part of a race which was spread

settlements,-

through Italy and Sicily before the Aryan

to

have been akin

to the

non-Aryan inhabitants of
the Basques on each

Spain and southern Gaul, of

side of the

whom

Pyrenees remain as a remnant.

And in

his-

torical times a large part of Italy

was held, and

in

earlier times a

still

larger part seems to have been held,

by the Etruscans.
origin

These are a people about whose

theories, but

Etruscans,

and language there have been many

nothing can as yet be said to be certainly known.

Etruscans, in
historical times,

These

formed a confederacy

of twelve cities in the land west of the Apennines, be-

tween the Macra and the Tiber

in earlier times they

and

it is

believed that
to the

had settlements both more

north, on the Po, and

If they

more

to the south, in

Campania.
tlie

were a non-Aryan race, the part of

in the
it

non-

Aryans

geography and history of Italy becomes

has been in any part of Western Europe

greater than

except Spain.

But whatever we make of the Etruscans, the

Italy in the older sense

rest of

was held by various branches of

to the Greeks,

an Aryan race nearly ahied

call the Italians.

whom we may
The
itai-

Of

this race there

were two great

branches.

One
all

of them, under various names, seems to

have held
Italy,

the southern part of the western coast of

Sicily.

and

to

have spread into

Some

of the tribes

of this branch

seem

to have

been almost as nearly akin

46
CHAP,
^^

foe:matiox of the
to the

romax empire.
and other kindred nations

Greeks

as the Epeirots

'-^-"

on the

east side of the Hadriatic.

Of

this

branch of the
;

Latins.

Itahan race, the most famous people were the Latins

and

it

was the greatest Latin

city,

the border city of

the Latins against the Etruscans, the city of

Home on
The

the Tiber, wdiich became, step

by

step, the mistress of

Latium, of

Italy,

and of the Mediterranean world.

other branch, which held a

much

larger part of the

Volscians,

peninsula, taking in the Sabines,

Squirms,

Samnites, Lucanians^ and other people

great part in the
Opicans.

who

play a
classed

Eoman

history,

may perhaps be
to

togcthcr as Opicans or Oscans, in distinction from the

Latins,

and the other

of Italy,

tribes

allied

them.

These

tribes seem to have pressed from the eastern, the

driatic, coast

Ha-

down upon

the nations to the

south-west of them, and to have largely extended their

borders at their expense.

But part of ancient

Italy in the

Italy,

and a

still

larger part of

modern

sense,

was inhabited by nations

other than the Italians.

lapygians.

In the heel of the boot were

the lapygicins, a people of uncertain origin, but

who

seem
the

in

any case

to

have had a great

gift

of receiving

Greek
in

lan<j;uage

and manners.

And

in the northern

part,
Gauls.

the

lands which were not then counted as

part of Italy, were the Gauls, a Celtic people, akin

to the

Gauls beyond the Alps, and whose country

called Cisalpine

was therefore
Po,

Gaul or Gaul on
to

this

side of the Alps.

They were found on both

sides of the

and on the Hadriatic coast they seem

have

stretched in early times almost as far south as Ancona.

In the north-east corner of Italy were yet another

veneti.

peoplc, the Veueti, perhaps of Illyrian origin,

whose

name long

after

was taken by the

city of Venice.

But

GREEKS IN ITALY AND

durino' the

SICILY.
to do, there
. .

47
chap.
HI.
'
<

whole time with which we have

was no
the

city so called,

and the name of Venetia

is

always

-"

name

of a country.

All these nations

inhabitants of Italy
;

we may
that
is,

look on as the original

Greek
itaiy.

colo-

nies in

all

were there before any-

thing like contemporary history begins.^

But besides

these original nations, there were in one part of Italy

many Greek colonies, and also in the island of Sicily. Some cities of Italy claimed to be Greek colonies, without any clear proof that they were
so.

But there seems

no reason to doubt that

coast of Italy, and

Kyme
or

or

Cumce on the western

Hadriatic,

Ankon

Ancona on the
far

were

solitary

Greek colonies

away from any other

far off, is snid to

Greek

settlements.

Cuma3, though so

have been the earhest Greek colony in

Italy.

But
lesser

where the Greeks mainly

peninsulas, the heel

settled

was

in tlie

two
into

and the toe of the boot,

its

which

the great peninsula of Italy divides at

southern end.

Here, as was before

said, there is a

nearer approach to

the kind of coast to which the Greeks were used at

home.

Here then arose a number of Greek

up

cities,

stretching from the extreme south almost

to Curase.

As

in the case of the

Greek

cities in Asia,

the time of

greatness of the Italian Greeks

of the Greeks in Greece
itself.

came

earlier

than that
B.C.

In the sixth century

some of these Greek

colonies in Italy, as Taras or

Tarentum^ Krotun or Croto?ia, Syharis^ and others, were

'

as the

Some may think that the Cisalpine Gauls ought to be excepted, common Roman story represents them as having crossed the

Alps from Transalpine Gaul at a time which almost comes within But this is a point about the range of contemporary history.

which there

is

no

real certainty

and

it

seems quite as likely that the

Gaulish settlements on the Italian side of the Alps were as old as

those on the other side.

48
CHAP,
III.

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

among

tlie

greatest cities of the

Greek name.

But, as
cities lost

the Itahan nations grew stronger, the Greek

their power,
fell

and many of them, Cumse among them,

into the hands of Italian conquerors,

and

lost their

Greek character
remained Greek

more or
till

less

thoroughly.
to

Others

they

became subject

Rome,
sera.

and the Greek speech and manners did not quite die
out of southern Italy
Inhabitants
till

ages after the Christian

Tlic
Sicily,

geography and history of the great island of

lies so

which

near to the toe of the boot, cannot

Italy.

be kept apart from those of

The mainland and

by the same
western part of the

the island were, to a great extent, inhabited

nations.
island
rians

The Sikcmians

in the

may

not unlikely have been akin to the Ligu;

and Basques

but the Sikels,

who gave

their

name
the

to the island,

and who are the people with

whom

Greeks had most to do, were clearly of the Italian

Phrenician
coioukis.

stock,

and wcrc nearly

of Carthage

allied to the Latins.

The Phoein

nicians

planted

some colonies
the

the

western and northern parts of the

of

island, the chief

which was

the

city

which
capital

Greeks

called

Panormos, the modern

of Greek

Palermo.

But the
full

western and southern sides of the triangle were

cities,

which are

said to

have been founded

Several of

from the eighth century

these, especially

B.C. to

the sixth.

Syracuse and Akragas or Agru/entum,

cities
;

were among the chief of Greek

selves over the natives,

and from them

was

the Greek speech and manners gradually spread themtill

in the

end
for

Sicily

rec-

koned

as

wholly a Greek land.

is

But

some centuries
Greek

Sicilian

history

chit^fly

made up

of struggles for
cities.

the mastery between Carthage and the

This was in truth a struggle between the Aryan and

GROWTH OF
the Semitic race, and
after,

ROME.
see that,

49

we

shall

many

ages
^

^^u^'
'

the same battle was again fought on the same

'

ground.

2.

Growth of
^

the

Boman power
^
'
.

in Italy.

The
is

history of ancient Italy, as far as

we know
its

it.

Gradual
conquest of

the history of the gradual conquest of the whole land ^*%its

by one of

own

cities

and the changes

in

political

geography are mainly the changes w^hich followed the

gradual bringing of the whole peninsula under the

Eoman dominion. But the form which the conquests of Eome took hindered those conquests from having so great an effect on the map as they otherwise might
have had.

The cities and

districts of Italy, as

they were
left

one by one conquered by Eome, were commonly

as separate states, in the relation of dependent alliance,

from which most of them were step by step promoted

to the rights of
.

Eoman

citizenship.
r>-r

An

Italian city

might be a dependent

ally of

Eome
or
it

it

might be a

Different positions of the Italian

Eoman
actually

colony with the

full fi^anchise
;

or a colony hold-

ing the inferior Latin franchise

might have been

All these were

made

part of a

Eoman

tribe.
;

very important political differences

but they do not

make much difference in the look of thinfjs on the map. The most important of the changes which can
be called
of
strictly

geographical belong to the early days

Eome, when there were important national movements among the various races of Italy. Eome arose
at the point of
1
-ri

union of the three races, Latin, Oscan,

1

origin of

and Etruscan, and

it

arose irom an union between the

Kome.

Latin and Oscan races.

settlements

Two
E

Latin and one Sabine

to

seem

to

have joined together

form the

50

FOEMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

city of
'

'

CHAP,
III

Eome
city,

but the Sabine element must have been

r^

thoroughly Latinized, and

a Latin
est,

Eome must be

counted as

Latin

city,

the greatest, though very likely the young-

Her early Latin dominion,

among the cities of Latium. Eomc, planted OH a march,

marchlands oiten

rose, in the

way

in

which

do

rise, to

supremacy among

her fellows.

Our
sets

first

authentic record of the early

commonwealth
to

Eome

before us as bearing rule

over the whole of Latium.

This dominion she seems

have

lost

soon after the driving out of the kings,

and some of her territory right of the Tiber seems

to

have become Etruscan.

Presently

Eome

appears,

no longer as mistress of Latium, but as forming one

meml)er of a
triple

league concluded on equal terms

with the Latins as a body, and with the Hernicans.

Wars with
lier

This Icaguc was engaged

neighhours.

neighbours of the
sciajis,

^ Oscan

in

constant wars with

,

its

race, the ud^guians

and Vol-

by

whom many
'~'

of the Latin cities were taken.

More

dis-

jg^t tlic first s^rcat

advance of Eome's actual dominion

tant wars.

was made on the right bank of the Tiber, by the

B.C. 396.

taking of the Etruscan city of Veii.

Fifty years later

;

B.C. 343.

B.C. 29G.

Eome began to engage in more distant wars and we may say generally that the conquest of Italy was going By the end on bit by bit for eighty years more.
of that time,
all Italy, in

the older sense, was brought

in one shape or another under the

Eoman

dominion.

The neighbouring
races,

districts,

both Latin and of other

had been admitted

to citizenship. in

Eoman and

Latin colonies

were planted

various parts of the

country; elsewhere' the old

cities,

Etruscan, Samnite,
allies

Greek, or any other,

Jfthe'"'''

still

remained as dependent
to

<^f

Eome.

Presently

Eome went on

win dominion
remained in

stater

^11^'

^f Italy; but the Itahan states

still

THE PROVINCES.
their

51
the
Italian
allies

old

relation to

Eome,

till

received the
siayi

Eoman

franchise after the Social or

out,

Marin

--

r^

chap.

war.

The Samnites alone held

and they

b... 89.

may be

said to

have been altogether exterminated

the wars of Sulla.

The

rest of Italy

was Eoman.

3.

The Western Provinces.

in

The great change

geography

Eoman
by
it,

policy,

and

in

Em'opean

as affected

took place
Italy.

began

to

win temtory out of

from that of the
of

when Eome The relation of

was
quite

these foreign possessions to the ruling city

different

Italian states.

The

foreign

conquests

Eome were made

into

provinces.

xntureof
rrovinceL

province was a district which was subject to Eome,

and put under the rule of a

Eoman

governor, which

was not done with the dependent

it

allies in Italy.

But

must be borne

in

mind

that,

though we speak of

a province as having a certain geographical extent,

yet there might be cities within
relation
to
its

limits

whose formal
or even

Eome was

that

of dependent,

of equal, alhance.

There might also be

Eoman and
cities

Latin colonies, either colonies really planted or

which had been raised

chise.

to the

Eoman

or Latin franas
re-

AH

these were important

distinctions

garded the internal government of the

still

different states

practically all

alike

formed part of the Eomar

it

dominion.
fore be

In a geographical survey
to

will

there-

enough

mark

the extent of the different

to

provinces,

without

attending

their

political,

or

more
cases

truly

municipal, distinctions, except in a few

special importance.

where they are of

The provinces then are the foreign dominions of Eome, and they fall naturally into two. or rather three,
E 2

52
divisions.

FORMATION OF THE

ROIVIAN EMPIRE.

There are the provinces of the West, in which the Eomans had chiefly to contend with nations much less civihzed than themselves, and in which therefore the
provincials gradually adopted the language

and manners

of their conquerors.

But

in the provinces to the east

of the Hadriatic, the Greek language and Greek

ners had

man-

become the language and manners of civilized life, and their supremacy was not supplanted by those And in the more distant parts, as in Syria of Eome.
and
Eo'ypt, the

Greek

civilization
still

was a mere varnish

the mass of the people

kept to their old manners

and languages
conquests.

as they

were before the Macedonian

In these countries therefore the Latin tongue

civilization

and Eoman

made but
it

httle progress.

The

Eoman
beo-an.

conquests went on on both sides of the Hadri-

atic at the

same

time, but

was

to the west that they

The

first

Eoman

province however forms a

itself,

sort of intermediate class by

standing between

the eastern and the western.

Sicily.

This

first

Eoman

province was formed in the great

its

island of Sicily^ which, by

geographical position,
of Europe, while

belongs to the western part

fact that
First

the
in
it

Greek became the prevaihng language

it

rather connects

with the eastern part.

The Eoman
as the result

po"rssions
is'iand.

dominion

in Sicily

began when the Carthaginian posses-

sions in the island

were given up

to

Eome,

Bc

241.

of the

first

Punic war.

But, as Hieron of Syracuse

had helped Eome against Carthage, his kingdom remained in alliance with Eome, and was not dealt with
Conquest
cusef"^

as a

couqucrcd land.

It

was only when Syracuse

second Punic war that
it

turned against
was, on
its

Eome

in the

conquest, formally

made

a Eoman

possession.

B.C. 132.

Eighty years later the condition of Sicily under the

SICILY.

53
and
it

Eoman government was

which the

finally settled,

may be
^

taken as a type of the endless variety of relations in

different districts

chap.

and

cities

throughout the

Eoman
The

dominions stood to the ruhng commonwealth.

greater part of the island

became simply

subject;

state of

the land was held to be forfeited to the

Eoman

People,

and the former inhabitants held

it

simply as tenants on

payment of a
and kept
pendent

tithe.
;

But some

cities

were

called free,

their land
allies

others remained in

name
Other

indecities
;

of the

Eoman
to

People.

were afterwards raised

others Latin

the

Latin

franchise

in

or
city,

Eoman
that
It

colonies

Avere planted,

and

one

Sicilian

of Messa?ia, received the full

citizenship of

Eome.

must be borne

in

mind

that

these different relations, these exceptionally favoured

cities

and

districts,

are foimd, not only in Sicily, but

Sicily,

throughout

all

the provinces.

by the time of

Greek
siciiy

civi-

the conquest, was looked on as a thoroughly Greek

land.

The Greek
other

lanQ;uaf;fe

and manners had now

spread themselves everywhere

the
inhabitants

among
till,

the Sikels and

of

the

island.

And

Sicily

remained a thoroughly Greek land,

it

ages afterwards,

again became, as

it

had been

in the days of the

Greek

and Phoenician

colonies,

a battle-field of Aryan and

Semitic races in the days of the

Mahometan

conquests.
Sardinia
sica.

The two great

seem almost
itself;

islands

of Sardinia

and Corsica

as natural

appendages to Italy as Sicily

is

but their history

very

different.

They have

played no important part in the history of the world.

The

original stock of their inhabitants

to the

seems to have

been akin

non-Aryan element

in Spain

and

Sicily.

The attempts
feeble,

at

Greek

colonization in

them were but

first

and they passed under the dominion,

of


54
CHAP.
III.

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

Carthai^e and
'

then of Eome, without any important

^-

change
a

in their condition.

These two islands became

Eoman

province, which was always reckoned one of

the most worthless of provinces, in the interval between

B.C. 238.
tj-^e fij-st r^iK^i

second Punic wars.

tlic

Cisalpine

Tlius far

Eouiau

dominions

did
as

not
the

reach
natural

beyond what we should look upon

extent of the dominion of an Italian power.

as long as Italy did not reach to the Alps,

Indeed,

we

should

say that

it

had not reached the natural extent of an

But the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul

Italian dominion.

cannot be separated from the general conquest of

Western Europe.
Spain,

The Eoman conquest of Gaul and

by gradually spreading the Latin language and Eoman civilization over those countries, created two
of the chief nations and languages of

modern Europe.

But the process was simply the continuation of a process wdiich

call

began within the borders of what we now

Italy.

Gaul within the Alps was

as

strictly

foreign conquest as Spain or as Gaul

beyond the Alps.

al-

Only the geographical position of Cisalpine Gaul

lowed
it

to

be easily and speedily incorporated with

the lands beyond the Alps could
in this direction

Italy in a

way which

not be.
rouiKiation
(laiiiia.

The beginnings of conquest

took placc after the end of the Samnite wars.

the

Then

colony of

Sena Gallica, now Sinigaglia, was

soil,

founded on Gaulish

and

it

was presently followed

or Rimini.

by

the

foundation

of

Ariminum

The
after

Eoman arms were

between the
(^oiunust
nfCisiilpine

carried

beyond the Po

in the time
;

first

and the second Punic war

'

the second Punic war, Cisahiine Gaul

was thoroughly ^ ^

r '('"201^'1-

conquered, and was secured by the foundation of

many

Eoman and

Latin colonies.

The Eoman and Latin

CONQUEST OF CISALPINE GAUL.

franchises

55
chap.
r^
b.c. 43.

were gradually extended

to

most parts of

the country, and at last Cisalpine Gaul was formally

incorporated with Italy.

Closely connected with the conquest of Cisalpine

Conquest of
Venetia.

Gaul was the conquest of the other non-Itahan lands

within the boundaries of modern Italy.

These were

Liguria to the south-east of Cisalpine Gaul and Venetia

to the north-west.

Both these lands held out

;

long;er

than Cisalpine Gaul

but by the time of Augustus they

were

all,

together with the peninsula of Istria, counted

as part of Italy.

The dominion

of

Eome

in this region

was secured

at

an early stage of the conquest by the

foundation of the great colony of Anuileia.

.
.

We
.

thus

Foundntion

ofAqui^^ia, b.c.

see that, not only Venice, but Milan, Pavia, Verona,

Eavenna, and Genoa,

cities

which played so great a

part in the after history of Italy, arose in lands which

were not originally

Italian.

But we
it

also see that Italy, in a

with the boundaries given to

by Augustus, took

somewhat larger

territory to the north-east than the

kingdom of
to

Italy does

now.
fairly

The lands within the Alps may be

have been conquered by
help looking

said

Eome

in self-defence,

and

Spaiu.

we cannot

on the three great islands

as natural parts of

an Itahan dominion.
in lands altogether said

The contlieir

quests of the

Eomans

beyond

own

borders

may be

to have begun in West-

ern Europe with the conquest of Spain, which began

before that of Transalpine Gaul.

Spain and Gaul,

connexion
of Spaiu

using the names in the geographical sense, have

much
nonIan-

and Gaui.

which binds them together. o

On

the borders of the

two countries

traces are

still

left

of the
the

old

Aryan
guage.

inhabitants

who

still

speak

Basque

Iberians lu
Spain..

These represent the old Iberian inhabitants of

56
CHAP.
III.

FOKMATION OF THE EOMAN EMPIRE,

Spain aud Gaul, wlio,
as far into

when our history

Garonne.

begins, stretched
Celts,

Gaul

as the

But the
in

the

Celts.

wave of the Aryan migration pressed into both Gaul and Spain in Gaul they had,
first
;

Europe, had

when trustworthy
coasts of
Greek and

history begins, already occupied

by

far the greater part of the country.

The Mediterranean

Gaul and Spain were

also connected together

by the sprinkling of Greek colonies along those shores, And, beside the of which Massalia was the head. primitive non- Aryan element, there was an intrusive
non- Aryan element
also.

In southern Spain several

Phoenici<an
.settle-

Phoenician settlements

had been made, the chief of

straits,

ments.

which was Gades or Cadiz, beyond the

great Phoenician city on the Ocean.
lirst

the one
the

And between

and second Punic wars Carthage obtained a large

Spanish dominion, of which

New

Carthage or Cartha-

gena was the

It
First Roman province in Spain.

capital.
last settlements

was the presence of these

which
Sa-

first

brought Spain under the

Eoman
its

dominion.
taking

guntiun w^as an ally of Eome, and

nibal

by Hanled to

was the beginning of the second Punic war.

of the Scipios during that

The campaigns
B.C.

war

218-

the gradual conquest of the whole country. thaginian possessions

first

The Car-

206.

became a Eoman province,

B.C. 49.

while Gades became a favoured ally of Eome, and at

last

was admitted

to the full

Eoman

franchise.

MeanSpain,

while, the gradual conquest of the rest of the country

I5.C.133.

went
a

on,

till,

after the taking of

Numantia,

all

except the remote tribes in the north-west, had become

Final conquest.
B.C. 19.

Eoman

possession.

These

tribes,

the Cantahrians

and their neighbours, were not

time of Augustus,
Latin language

fully

subdued

till

the

But long before that time the

fast

and Eoman manners had been


SPAIN AND TRANSALPINE GAUL.
spreading through the country, and in Augustus' time

57
chap.
^

southern Spain was

aUogether Eomanized.
close to

It

was

-^

only in a small district

the ancient
since.

the
it

Pyrenees that
has done ever

tionof

language held out, as

The conquest of

Spain, owing to the connexion of

Transalpine

the country with Carthage, thus began while a large

part even of Cisalpine Gaul was
still

Gaui.

unsubdued.

And

the

Eoman
till

arras

were not carried into Gaul beyond the

Alps

the conquest of Spain was pretty well assured.

The foundation of the first Eoman colony at Aquce Sextice^ the modern Aioc, w^as only eleven years later
than the
fall

b.c. 122.

of Numantia.

The Eomans stepped

in as

alhes of the

Greek

city of Massalia, and, as usual,

from

helping their

allies

they took to conquering on their

province, including the colo- xheXransin the
Vince.
165.

own

account.

A Eoman

nies of

Narhonne and Toulouse, was thus formed

in this direction

south-eastern part of Transalpine Gaul.

The advance

of

Eome

seems to have been checked

by the invasion ofthe Cimbri and Teutones, but through

that long delay

Eoman

influences

were able

to establish

themselves more firmly.

This part of Gaul was early

it
still

and thoroughly Eomanized, and part of

in
its

keeps,

name

of Provence, the

memory
till

of

its

having been

the

first

Eoman
left

province beyond the Alps.

The

rest

of Gaul was
Caesar.
It is

untouched

the great campaigns of

from

Csesar, ethnologer as well as conqueror, conquests

it
b.c. 58-51.

that

we

get our chief knowledge of the country as

was

in his day.

Transalpine Gaul, as a geographical

Boundaries
aipine*'

division, has

well-marked boundaries in the Mediterra-

nean, the Alps, the Ehine, the Ocean, and the Pyrenees.

But

this

geographical division has never answered to


58

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

any
divisions of blood
is

and language.

Gaul

in Csesar's

day, that
three

Gaul beyond the Eoman province, formed

Aquitaine to
the

divisions

south-west,

Celtic

Gaul

in the middle,

and Belgic Gaul

to the north-east.

Aquitaine, stretching to the Garonne

under Augustus extended to

name was the Loire was

the
Celtic Gaul,

Iberian,

akin to the people on the other side of the Pyrenees:

a trace of
district
its

old speech remains in the small Basque

north of the Pyrenees.

from the

Loire to the Seine and Marne, was the most truly Celtic
land,

and

it

was in

this part of
its

Gaul that the modern

Li the third division,

French nation took

rise.

Belgic Gaul, the tribes to the east, nearer to the Ehine,

were some of them purely German, and others had been

to a
2i;reat

extent brought under

German

influences or
in fact,

mixed with German elements.

with them.
land,

There was,

no

unity in Gaul beyond that which the

Romanization of

Eomans brought

In seven years Ccesar subdued the whole

Gaul.

and the work of assimilation began. The Eoman

all

language gradually displaced

except
corners
;

the native languages,

where Basque and

Breton survive in two

but in a large part of Belgic Gaul the events

of later times brought the

There

is

changes,
Pemianenceof the
ancient

German tongue back again. no Eoman province in which, among all the ancient geography has had so much effect
In southern Gaul most
little
still

upon

that of all later times.

of the cities

keep their old names with very

geography.

change.

But

in northern

Gaul the

cities

have mostly

taken the names of the tribes of which they were the

heads.

Thus Tolosa

is

still

Toulouse;

but Lutetia

Parisiorum has become Paris.

Roman
Africa.

The lands which we have thus gone through,

alpine

Cis-

Gaul with Liguria and Venetia, Spain,

and


AFRICA.
Gaul, form a marked division in historical Transalpine ^

59

geography.

They

are those parts of Western

Europe

chap.
HI.

"

which

Eome

conquered during the time of her Comthose

parts

monwealth, and they are

mainly kept their
did not

which have
But these

Eoman

speech to this day.

make up

the whole of the lands where

Eome
;

planted her Latin speech, at least for a while.

conquest of Britain belongs to the days of

The the Empire

counted

but Eome, during the Commonwealth, made another

conquest, which, though not in Europe,
as belonging to the

may be

Western or Latin-speaking half of

is

her dominion. Africa which

This

the conquest of that part of

as the result of her

Eome won

wars

with Carthage.

The only African

1
.

possession w^on

by
Province of
Africa.,

Eome
I

dm-ing the days of the Commonwealth was Africa

. . .

^-^

in the strictest sense, the

immediate dominion of Car-

u-^-

hg

thage.

This became a province

when

the Punic wars

were ended by the destruction of Carthage.

thage

The

neighbouring state of Numidia, after passing, like Caritself,

through the intermediate state of a de-

pendency, was
called

made

province

by

Csesar,

being
of

New

Africa^ the former African province beCaasar also restored

tlie

New

coming the Old.

thage as a

city of Car-

.c. 13!

Re.storatioa

Eoman

colony, and

it

became the

chief

andgreatCartilage-

of the Latin-speaking cities of the Empire, second only

to

Eome

herself.

But

in

Africa, just as in Britain,

the laud never

became thoroughly Eomanized hke

Gaul and Spain.

The Eoman tongue and laws

there-

fore died out in both lands at the first touch of an

invader, the English in one case

and the Saracens in

the other.

The

strip of fertile

land betAveen the sea

on one side and the mountains and the Great Desert

on the other received,

first

Phoenician and then

Eoman

60
cHAr.

FORJUATION OF THE
civilization.
'

ROMAN EMPIRE.
could really take root
civilization

But neither of

tliem,

^-^

there in the
in

way

that the

Eoman

took root

Gaul and Spain.

4.
Tlie

Easlern Provinces.
as the

Contrast

The Hadrlatic Sea may be roughly taken

Eastern
{ind.

bouudary between the Eastern and Western parts of

tlic

West-

tern pro-

Eomau

dominiou.

In the West, the

Romans

car-

ried with

them not only

and

their arms, but their tongue,

their laws,

their manners.
civilizers.

They were not only

native

conquerors but
Celts adopted

The

Iberians and
isolated

Roman
cities,

fashions,

and the

Greek

and Phoenician
dually became

like Massalia
also.

and Gades, gra-

Eoman

East of the Hadriatic

the state of things was quite different.

Here the

lan-

guage and

civilization

of Greece

had, through

the

conquests of the Macedonian kings, become everywhere

(Jreek civilization in

predominant.

Greek was everywhere the

polite

and

the East,

literary language,

and a certain varnish of Greek man-

ners

had been everywhere spread. In some parts indeed it was the merest varnish still it was everywhere strong enough to withstand the influence of Latin.
;

Sicily

and Southern Italy are the only lands which have

altogether thrown

away

the Greek tongue, and have

taken to Latin or any of the languages formed out of

Latin.

No

part of the eastern half of the

Eoman

dominion ever became

Eoman

in the

same way as

Gaul and Spain.

The whole of the lands

thus,
Distinc-

east of the Hadriatic

may

as

opposed to the Latin-speaking lands of the

called

west,
_,.

be

Greek- speaking lands.

i

But there

among

the

arc soiiic wldc distiuctious to be

iurst,

drawn among them.

and
the

Eastern
provinces,

there

was

old

Greece

/^

itself

Greek

THE EASTERN PEOVINCES.

colonies,

61
chap.
III.

and lands

like Epeiros,

which had become

in Asia,

thoroughly Greek.
like

Secondly, there were the kingdoms,

Macedonia

in

Europe and Pergamos

which

had adopted the Greek speech and manners, but which did not, like Epeiros, become Greek in any political
sense.

Thirdly, there were a

number

of native states,

Bithynia and others, whose kings also tried to imitate

Greek ways, but naturally could not do so

as the kings of
^

as thoroughly

Macedonia and Pergamos.

Fourthly,
i^-mds

beyond Mount Tauros lay the kinfjdoms of Svria and J tD i) Egypt^ which were ruled by Macedonian kings, which
.

beyond
lauros.

contained great Greek or Macedonian

cities like

Antioch

and Alexandria, but where there were native

and an old native
civilization,

laniiuasfes,

which neither Greek nor

Eoman
as

influences could ever root out.

We

shall

see

we go on
The

that Tauros

makes a great
it

historical

boun-

dary.

lands on this side of

really came,

though

very gradually, under the dominion of the Greek speech

and the Eoman law. and therefore those

Beyond Mount Tauros both the

surface,
lands, like Africa, easily fell

Greek and the Eoman element lay merely on the

away when they were attacked by the Saracens.^ We must now go through such of the lands east of the Hadriatic as were formed into Eoman provinces during the time of the Eoman Commonwealth.
But again, between the Latin and the Greek parts of the Eoman dominion there was a border land,
namely, the lands held by the great Illyrian race.
^

The
Provinces.

In a more minute study of the history

it

will be

found that

Latin Africa held out against the Saracens very

Syria and Egypt.

But

lor

our purpose the

much longer than two may be classed to-

gether in opposition to those lands in Europe and Asia which always

remained

Eoman

or Greek.

62
CHAP.
111.

FORMATION OF THE EOMAN EMPIRE. The southern

Illyria that

parts of Illyria
it

came within the reach

affairs

of Greek influences, and

was through the

of

Eome was
;

first

led to meddle in the affairs

of Greece.

The use of
but
it

the

name

Illyria

is

at

all

times very vague

The king-

has a more definite meaning

capital

as the

name

of a

kingdom whose

was Skodra,

dom

of

kjkodra.

and which,
on that

in the second half of the third century,

was

a danfjerous nei2;hbour to the Greek cities and islands

B.C. 1C8.

coast.

This kingdom was involved in the third

Macedonian

w^ar,
is

and came to an end

at the

same

time.

As

usual,

it

not easy to distinguish

any, of the country actually

vince,

how much, if became a Eoman proa while in the inter-

and how much was

left for

mediate state of dependent alhance.

tical

But, for

all

prac-

purposes, the Illyrian

this

kingdom

of Skodra formed

from
the

time a part of the

Eoman

dominion.

With

fall

of Skodra, the parts of Illyria which lay further

to the north,
first

beyond the bounds of the Greek world,

notice.

came

into

The Greek
to

colonies in DalIllyrian

Dalmatian Wars.

matia had played their part in the

first

war

but the land

itself,

which was

become an outlying
is

fringe of Italy lying east of the Hadriatic,

now

first

heard of as a distinct country formed by a separation

B.C. 156.

from the kingdom of Skodra.

;

The

first

Dalmatian

B.C. 34.

war soon followed but it was not till after several wars that Dalraatia became a province, and even after that
time there were several revolts.

Koman
colonies in Dalniatia.

Before long, Dalmatia

colonies,
as

was

settled

with several
all,

Eoman

Jadei^a

or Zara, and, above

Salona, which became one of

the chief cities of the

Istria in-

Eoman

dominion.

The

neigh-

bouring: lands of Liburnia, Istria,

and the land of the

corporated

with

Italy.

lapodes,
period.

were gradually reduced during the same

Istria, like

the neighbouring land of Venetia,

'

ILLYRIA.

63
Italy,

was actually incorporated with

the

and Pola, under

chap.

name

of Pietas Julia,
^

became a Eoman colony.

"
The

We

which old by have already traced the process X ^

first

outlying
J''"pfk

Greece and the neio;hbourino; o lands of Macedonia and o

Epeiros gradually sank,
mally, into parts of the
practically,

lauds.

and then
It

for-

Eoman

dominion.

would be

hard

to say at
cities

what particular moment many of the

Greek

and islands sank from the relation of obe-

dient allies into that of acknowledged subjects.

We
Their latc
nexa'tion.

have seen that some of them, as Ehodes and Byzantion,

were not formally annexed

till

the reign of Vespasian,

to liave

The Greek

cities

on the Euxine do not seem

at all
till

been formally annexed

a late period of the

cities

Eastern Empire. Other outlying Greek lands and

became
Asiatic

so

mixed up with the history of some of the

in for a

kingdoms that they will come

them.
nest

mention
conquest
b.c. er,'

along with

Crete

kept

its

independence, to
specially con-

become a
quered.
It

of pirates, and to be

then formed one province with the then

recent conquest of Kyrene, the one great Greek settle-

ment

in Africa,

which had become an appanage of the

Eg\'pt.

Macedonian kings of
fate of Cyprus, an

island

wliich

The same had been the had always been

Cyprus too became a
lost

partly Greek, and which had been further Hellenized

under

its

Macedonian kings.
Thus, before

of Cyprus,

province.

Eome

her

own freedom,
of

she
all

had become the formal or

the earlier abodes of freedom.
that

practical mistress

Men

could not yet

foresee

time would

come when Greek and

Roman

should be words having the same meaning,

and when the place and name of

sian formally reduced

Eome
cities

herself should

be transferred to one of the Greek

which Vespa-

from alliance

to bondage.

64
CHAP.
III.

FORMATION OF THE EOMAN EMPIRE.

Ill

Eoman

history

one war

and one conquest

affairs

always led to another, and, as the

The
Asiatic Provinces.

of Illyria

had

led to

Eoman

interference in Greece, so the afHiirs of

B.C.

191-

188.

Greece led to Eoman interference in Asia. The first war wliicli Eome waged with Antiochos of Syria led to no immediate increase of the Eoman territory, but all
the Seleukid possessions on this side Tauros were divi-

ded among the alUes of Eome.

first

This, as usual,

was the
is

step towards the conquest of Asia,

and

it

quite
first

according to the usual course of things that the

Eoman
Province
of Asia.
B.C.

province beyond the ^g^ean, the province of

first

Asia^ was formed of the dominions of Eome's

and

133-

most

useful allies, the kings of

Pergamos.

The mission

129.

of Alexander and his successors, as the representatives

of Western civilization against the East,

into the hands of

now

passed

Eome.

Step

by

step, the other lands

west of Tauros came under the formal or practical doBithynia.

B.C. 74.

minion of Eome.

Bithynia was the

first

to

be annexed,
led to

and
Overthrow
of Mithridates.
B.C. 64.

this acquisition

was one of the causes which

the second war between

dates of Pontos.

Eome

and the famous Mithrior influence.

His

final

overthrow brought a number

of other lands under

Eoman dominion

The Greek

cities

of Sinope and Eerakleia obtained a

nominal fi"eedom, and vassal kings went on reigning in

part of Pontos
itself,

and

in the distant

Greek kingdom

of Bosporos.

Eome was now

mistress of Asia Minor.

The land was divided among her provinces and her vassal kings, save that the wise federal commonwealth
Lykia.

of

Lykia

still

kept the highest amount of independence

witli

which was consistent

the practical supremacy of

Eome.

The Mithridatic war, which made Eome

mistress of

Asia in the narrower sense, at once involved her in

'

THE ASIATIC PROVIXCES,

the affairs of the further East.

65
chap.
III.

Tigranes oi Armenia
;

had been the chief

his

ally of Mithridates

but,

though

power was
come.

utterly

humbled, no Armenian pro-

vince was added to the

Eoman dominion

for a long

time to

But

tlie

remnant of the Seleukid

monarchy became the Eoman province of Syria.

usual, several
to
cities

As

Province

and

principalities

were allowed

B.a64.

remain in various relations of alliance and depen-

dence on the ruling commonwealth.

Among

these
Palestine.

we

find Judcea

and the

rest of Palestine.,

sometimes

under a

Eoman
and

procurator, sometimes united under

a single vassal king, sometimes parted out

ous kings

tetrarchs,

as

suited
all

the

among varimomentary
city

caprice or policy of
tions

Eome.

In

these various rela-

between the native

lively

states

and the ruling

we
comparison
ilh

have a

foreshadowing of the relations between

England and the subject and dependent princes of

India.

The conquests of Eome

against the East,

in these regions

made her

indlL

more

distinctly than ever the sole representative of the

West

and these conquests presently

meet her on equal

r,^,^^ the

brought her into

collision

with the one power in the offh^wek

at all

known world which could

terms.

She had stepped into the place of Alexander

far as that
all

and Seleukos so
ander's

those parts of Alex-

Asiatic conquests

which had

received even
lier

a varnish of Hellenic culture had become parts of

dominion.

The

further East

beyond the Euphrates

was again under the command of a great barbarian

power, that of Parthia, which had stepped into the
place of Persia, as
Her rivalry
thia.

Greece and
in a sense

Eome had stepped into the place of Macedonia. Eome had now again a rival,
rival since

from which she had not had a

the overthrow of Carthage and Macedonia.

no
CHAP.
III.

FORMATION OF THE EOIMAN EMPIRE.

One only
mained
to

of the

Macedonian kingdoms now

in.

re-

be gathered

The annexation of Egypt^

<if

Conquest Ksypt.
31.

an annexation made famous by the names of Kleopatra,

Antonins, the elder and the younger C^sar, completed
the work.

is.c.

Eome was now

sea.

fully mistress

of her

own

civilized world.

Her dominion took

If,

in all the lands

round the great inland

here and there, her

formal dominion was broken by a city or principality

whose nominal
principality.

relation

was that of

alliance, the dis-

tinction concerned only the local affairs of that city or

Within the whole

historic

world of the
begun.

Pax Romana.

three ancient continents, the

Eoman Peace had

Eome had
vinces
;

still

to

wage
off

wars, and even to annex pro-

but those wars and annexations were

to

now done

rather

round

and

to

strengthen the territory

in the strictest

which had been already gained, than

sense to extend
it.

5. Conquests wide?' the

Empire.

At

the

same moment when the Eoman commonthus brought,

wealth was practically changed into a monarchy, the

Eoman dominion was

its

not indeed

to
fur-

greatest extent, but to an extent of

a

which

its

ther extension was only

Conquests under Au^

natural completion.

There

sccms a ccrtaiu inconsistency when we find Augustus laying

gustusand
Tiberius.

down

rule against the enlargement

of

the Empire, while the Empire w^as, during his reign

and that of
tion.

his successor,

extended
this

in

every

direc-

But the conquests of

the
occasional changes

time were mainly

tlie

conquests for the ]nu-pose of strengthening

tier
;

froncity

of

this

and
the

tliat

or

district

from

the

dependent

to

provincial
to

relation,

or sometimes

from

the

provincial

the

CONQUESTS UNDER THE EARLY EMPIRE.

dependent, are

67
Bechap.

now

hardly worth mentioning.

or, at
all

tween Augustus and Nero,

Augustus and Vespasian,
Lykia, and others, were
Asia and Africa, such as

events,

between

all

the dependent states in

incorpora-

Mauritania^ Kappadokia,
incorporated with the

dependent
"^

finally

Empire
ject.

to

which they had long been practically sub-

These annexations can hardly be called con-

quests.

And

it

was merely

finishing a

work which had

been begun two hundred years before, when the small

corner of Spain which
still

kept

its

independence was

brought under the

Eoman

power.

The

real conquests
gtren-th-

of this time consisted in the strengthening of the Euro-

pean
the

frontier.

No
;

frontier nearer than the

as safe.

Ehine and Sle"!'^^

This lesson

Danube could be looked on

easily learned

was

but

it

had

also to

be accompanied

by another lesson which taught

Danube, and no more distant
real frontiers of

that the
points,

Ehine and the

to

were

be the

Eome.
which became our own in
after

This brings us both to the lands which were then our

own and
times.

to the lands

During the reign of Augustus two conquests

which most nearly concern our own history were

planned, and one of them was attempted.

The an-

nexation of the land which was to become England

was talked
lands,

of; the annexation of the land

rest

which then

was England, along with the

of the

German
to
Attempted
of cjI"-'*^

was

seriously

attempted.

But the conquest

of Britain

was put

off

from ihe days of Augustus

The attempt at the conquest of Germany, which was deemed to have been already
the days of Claudius.
carried out, was shivered

when Arminius overthrew

n.t.iiA.D.
f.

the legions of Varus.

Germanicus into

The expeditions of Drusus and Northern Germany must have brought

y 2

'^"'

^^''

08
OHAP.
III.

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

the
-

Eoman

armies into contact with our

own

fore-

fathers, for the first time, and, for several ages, for the
last time.

But from

this

time the relations between

Eome

and soutliern Germany

importance.
frontier.

begin, and constantly increase in

The two

great rivers were fixed as a real

the Alps and the Danube,

The lands between

all

Ra'tia, Vindelicia,
Conquests on the Danube.

Noricum, Pannonia^ with Moesia on

the lower Danube, were

the reign of Augustus.

added

to the

Empire during
remove the

These were

strictly defensive

annexations, annexations

made

in order to

dangerous frontier further from

Italy.

Beyond the Ehine

between the two

and the Danube the Eoman possessions were mere outposts lield for the defence of the land

OTeat streams.

Meanwhile, while the attempt of the conquest of

Germany came
Atteinjit

to

so

little,

an attempt

at

conquest

at the other end of the world, in the Arabian peninsula,

on Arabia.
i',.c.

24.

came

to

even

less.

It

marks the policy of Eome

were made or attempted,
the

and the gradual nature

these
Thrace.

of her advance that, while

more
still

distant conquests

Thrace

retained her dependent princes, the only

land of any extent within

of

European dominions

Eome which did so. But Thrace, surrounded by Eoman provinces, was in no way dangerous it might
;

remain a dependency while

incorporated.
It
till,

more
till

distant lands

were

was not
and

uniformity was

more

sought
of so

after,

under Vespasian, the nominal freedom

principalities

many

cities

came
It

to

an end,
that,

that Thrace
Annexation nf
zantioii.

became a province.
latest

was then

By

among her
take her

formal acquisitions in Europe,

Eome

annexed the
(

city

which was,

in the course of ages, to

Conquest
liritain.

if

own
in

place and name.

Thus,

the days between Augustus and Trajan,

'

BRITAIN.
the conquests which

G9

Eome

actually

of a defensive and strengthening

rule there
tance.
is

made were mainly character. To this

chap.
"
>

one and only one exception of any imporis

This

the annexation to the

Eoman world
Isle

of

the land which was looked on as another world, the

conquest of the greater part of the

of Britain,

But
law

Britain,

though

it

did not

come under the same

and Pan-

as the defensive annexations of Esetia

nonia,

was naturally suggested by the annexation of

visits

Gaul and by the

of the

first

Ctesar to the island.

till

No

actual conquest

however took place

the reign

ciaudius.

of Claudius.
in Britain

Forty years later the

.
.

Eoman

conquests
Agricoia.
B.C. 84.
.

were pushed by Aqricola ^

as far as the isth-

mus between
lasting

the friths of Forth and Clyde, the boun-

dary marked by the later rampart of Antoninus. But the

boundary of the Eoman dominion

in Britain can-

not be looked on as reaching beyond the line of the

southern wall of Hadrian, Sevenis, and Stilicho, between

the Solway and the

mouth of the Tyne.

The northern
For us

part of Britain thus remained unconquered, and the

conquest of Ireland was not even attempted.

the conquest of the land which afterwards became our

own

has an interest above

all

the other conquests of

Eome.
not

But

it is

a purely geographical interest.

Caesar and Agricola

The

British victories of

were won,

over our

own

forefathers, but over those Celtic

Britons

whom
The

our forefathers more thoroughly swept

away.

history of our

own
of

nation

is still

for

some

ages to be looked for

the

by the banks of the Elbe and

those
the

Weser,

not by

Severn and the

Thames.
Britain

was the

last to
-I

be won of the Western pror'

vmces

or

f-r>

Eome, and

the

iirst

to

11 be lost,

TheEastem
conquests of Trajan

!!

otili it

was,

70
CHAP.
III.

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

for

more

tlian three

hundred years, thoroughly incorits

porated with the Empire, and

till

loss did

not happen
its

that general break-up of the

Empire of which

loss

was the and

first
its

stage.

But between the conquest of

Britain

loss there was a short time in which

Eome
Conquests
of Trajan. A.D. 98117.

asain extended her dominion in the old fashion,

botli in

Europe and Asia. This was during the reign of

Trajan,

when
in

the

Roman

borders were again widely ex-

tended

both Europe and Asia. Under him the Danube

ceased to be a boundary stream in one continent and

the Euphrates in the other.
His Asiatic and European conquests.

But a marked
and
his

distinction

must be drawn between

warfare.

his Asiatic

European

Trajan's Asiatic conquests

;

were

strictly

mo;

mentary

they were at once given up by his successor

will

and they

be better dealt with when

strife

we speak

in

another chapter of the long

between

Eome and
The

her Eastern

rival, first

Parthian and then Persian.

only lasting Asiatic conquest of Trajan's reign was not

Conquest
of Arabia Petrtea. A.D. 106.

made by Trajan
Tlie

himself,

namely the small Eoman

province in Northern Arabia.

European conquests of Trajan stand on another

If not strictly defensive, like those of
so.

ground.
Dacia.

Augusto

tus,

they might easily seem to be

The Dacians,

the north of the lower Danube, were really threaten-

A.I).

IOC.

Eoman power in those regions, and they had dealt Eome more than one severe blow in the days of Domitian. Trajan now formed the lands between
ing to the the

Thiess

and the Danube,

the

Dniester and the

Carpathian Mountains,

into the
to

Dacia.
to
A.D. 270-

The
its

last
;

province

Eoman province of be won was the first

it,

be given up

for Aurelian

withdrew from
Dacia was in

and

transferred

name

to the Moesian land

immediately
this

south of the Danube.

But

if

way

'

CONQUESTS OF TRAJAN.
one of the most short hved of
in another

71
it

Eoman
all

conquests,

was
as
'

chap.

has

way one of the most been for so many ages, from

it

lasting.

Cut

off,

it

Eoman

influences,

forming, as

has done, one of the great highways of

Later bisDalia.

barbarian migration, a large part of Dacia, namely

the

modern Rouman
less
is

principality,

still

keeps

its

language no
the land

than Spain and Gaul.

In

Eoman one way

Eoman

to

this

day more Eoman than Spain or

still

Gaul, as

its

people

call

themselves by the

name.

Dacia, in fact, though geographically belong-

ing to the Eastern half of the Empire, stood in the same

position as the

Western provinces.
so far north, nor
civilization,

Greek

influences
in

had not reached

in Syria

was there

Dacia

any old-standing native

such as there was

and Egypt.

There was therefore nothing that

was

at all able to liold

up against Eoman

influences.

The land was

it

speedily and thoroughly Eomanized, and

in

remains

Eoman

speech and

name

sixteen

hundred

years after the withdrawal of the

Eoman

power.

The Eoman Empire was thus gradually formed

by bringing,
city.
first

SumDiary.

Italy

and then the whole of the Medi-

terranean lands, under the dominion of the one

Eoman

In every

part

of that dominion

the process

of conquest was

gradual.

The lands which became

fully incorporated.

Eoman provinces passed

But, in the end,
all

through various stages of alliance

and dependence before they were

the civihzed world of those times

rivers,

became Eoman.

Speaking roughly, three great

the Ehine, Danube,

and Euphrates, formed the EuioIn Africa

consisted only of the strip of

pean and Asiatic boundaries of the Empire.

the

Eoman dominion

fertile

land between the Mediterranean and the moun-

72
CHAP,
tains
-

FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

and
deserts.

Britain and Dacia, the only

two

'
.

great provinces
last

lying

beyond
first

this

range, were the

conquered and the

in Africa

given up.

In Western

Europe and
speech

Eome
and

carried her language and

in those lands the
it

her civilization
still

Avith her,

Eoman
In the

remains, except where

has been swept

away by Teutonic

and Saracen conquests.

lands from the Hadriatic to

Mount Tauros, which had

ground, and in
it

been brought more or

less

under Greek influences, the

Greek speech and

civilization stood its

still

those lands Greek

survives wherever

has not

been swept away by Slavonic and Turkish conquests.

In the further
east, in Syria

and Egypt, where there

was an old native

civilization, neither

Greek nor Eoman

between

influences took real root.

The

differences

these three parts of the

Eoman

Empire, the really

Eoman,

the Greek, and the Oriental, will be clearly

'

73

CHAPTER

IV.

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

1.

The Later Geography of

as

the

Empire.

The Eoman dominion,

cities,

we have
its

seen,

grew up by the
retained,

chap.

successive annexation of endless kingdoms, districts, and

each of wliich, after

annexation,

still

whether

as an allied province or a subject state,

it

much

of

the separate being which

dent.

had while

it

was indepenin a va-

The

alHcft

and subjects of

Rome remained

riety of different relations to the ruling city,

and the old

names and the old geographical boundaries were largely

preserved.

But, as the old ideas of the

commonwealth

wiping out
-livisions

gradually died out, and as the power of the Emperors

gradually grew into an avowed monarchy, the political

Empire.

change naturally led

to a geographical change.

The

Eoman dominion

ceased to be a collection of allied and

;

subject states under a single ruling city

into a single Empire, all
ants,

it

changed

whose parts,
to
its

all

whose inhabit-

were equally subject

Imperial head.

The

old distinctions of Latins, Italians, and provincials died

out

when

all

free inhabitants of the

Empire became
privilege
;

alike

Romans.

Italy

had no longer any

like

it

was simply part of the Empire,

any other
first

part.

The geographical
ministrative

divisions

which had been,

inde-

pendent, then dependent states, sank into purely addivisions,

which might be mapped out


74
CHAP,
IV
-'^

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

afresli

at

any time when

itself,

it

was found convenient

to

'

do

so.

Italy

in the

extended sense which the

to bear,

word
These
Newdivi.sion

Italy

had then come

was mapped out

afresh into regions as early as the time of Augustus.

divisions, eleven in ninnber,

mark an epoch
i

in

of Italy

under Aiigiistus.

by which the detached elements out of i grown were fused tohad ^ which the Eoman Empn-e ^
the process

gether into one whole.

tion of separate

As long

as Italy

was a

collec-

commonwealths, standing

in various

relations to the ruling city, there could

not be any

systematic division of the country for administrative

purposes.

Now

that the

whole of

Italy stood

on one

level of citizenship

or of subjection, the land might

be mapped out
The eleven

in

whatever way was most conve-

nicut.

But

tlic

elcvcn re^ious of Auo;ustus did not

work

any violent change.

largely

Old names and old boundaries

remained.

The famous names of Etntria,

Latium, Samnium, Umbria, Picenum, and Lucania

still

lived

on,

though not always with their ancient

all

boundaries.

And, though

the land as far as the

divisions
this

Alps was
kept
their

now

Italy,

two of the

of Italy
side
the

ancient

names of Gaul on

Po and Gaul beyond the Po. Liguria and Venetia, now Italian lands, make up the remainder of Northern
Italy.

Italy

had thus been mapped out

wholc Em])ire

afresh

what was

done with Italy in the time of Augustus was done

Divisions

with

tlic

in

the time of Constantine.

under Constantine.

What
was
out,

Italy

was

m
.

the earlier time the whole

Empire

in the later;

the old distinctions had been wiped

and the whole of the Eoman world stood ready to

into four parts, forming the realms

be parted out into fresh divisions. Under Diocletian, the

Empire was divided

'

NEW

DIVISIONS OF

THE EMPIRE.

75
chap.
~>-

of the four Imperial colleagues of his system, the two

Augusti and their subordinate

Ggesars,

Diocletian's

system of government involved a practical degradation

Division of

of

Eome from
Csesars

the

headship

of
at

the

Empire,

under Diocletian.

August! and
their presence

now dwelled
to

points

where

a.d. 292.

was more needed

ward
;

off Persian
for-

and German attacks from the and

frontiers

Eome was

saken for Nikomedeia and Milan, for Antioch, York,

Trier.

The

division

Ijetween the four Imperial

colleagues lasted under anotlier form after the

Empire
Reunion
stantine. A.D. 323.

was re-united under Coustantine, and

erroundwork of the more
.

it

formed the

lastino; division

of the Empire ^

into East

and West, between the sons of Theodosius.

Division
bctwe6n.

The

wliole
in

Empire was now mapped

out according to a *"

the sons of Theodosius,

scheme

which ancient geographical names were largely

^^-

'^^^

preserved, but in which they were for the most part used
in

new or, at least, extended meanings. The Empire was

Four

divided into four great divisions called Praetorian Pre- The

J.

features.

rm
this

7-1 T 1 T Inese were divided into Dioceses

rnetorian

name

Prefectures.

used in

nomenclature without regard to the eccle-

siastical sense

which was borrowed from

it

and the diowhile

ceses again into Provinces.

The

four great prefectures

of the East., Illyricum, Italy, and Gaul, answer nearly

to the fourfold division

under Diocletian

we may

say that, in the final division, Illyricum and the East

formed the Eastern Empire, and Italy and Gaul formed

the Western.

But

it is

only roughly that either the pre-

fectures or their smaller divisions answer to any of

the great national or geographical landmarks of earlier

times.

The Prefecture of the East is that one among the four

which
least

Prefecture

answers to anything in earlier geography,

Its

natural or historical.

boundaries do not answer to

76
CHAP,

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

those of any earlier dominion, nor
'

j'-et

to

any great

r^

division of race or language.

It stretched into all the

all

three continents of the old world, and took in

parts of the Empire which were never
fully

those

brought
it

under either Greek or Eoman

took in large tracts which
as part of the Hellenic

influences.

But

also

we have

learned to look on

world

not

only lands which

had

been, to a great extent, Hellenized in later times,

earliest

but even some of the

Greek

colonies.

The four

dioceses into which the Prefecture

far
Dioceses of the East,

was divided formed

more natural
Tlircc of tlicsc
,

divisions than the Prefecture itself.

wcrc Asiatic. The

.

first,

specially called

the East^ took in all the possessions of

Kome beyond

Mount Tauros,
island of

together with Isauria, Kilikia, and the

Its

Cyprus.

eastern boundaries natu!'ally

fluctuated according as

Eome

or Persia prevailed on

the Euphrates and the Tigris, fluctuations of which

shall
Egypt,

we

have again to speak more

specially.

The

diocese

of Egypt, besides

Egypt

in tlie elder sense, took in,

under the

name

of Libya, the old Greek land of the

Kyrenaic Pentapolis.
Asia.

The

diocese of Asia, a reminder

of the elder province of that

name and

of the

kingdom

of Pergamos out of which

it

grew, took in the Asiatic

coasts of the Mgseim, together with

Pamphyha, Lykia,

and the ^ga^an

serving the
in the lands

Islands.

name

of the

The diocese of Pontos, prekingdom of Mithridates, took

fluctuatino'

on the Euxine, with the

Arme-

nian possessions of Eome.

Besides
Dioceseof Thrace.

these

Asiatic lands, the Eastern Prefec-

turc Contained one

.

European
i

diocese, that of Thrace,

which took
the

the lands stretching from the Propontis to

Lower Danube.

The names

of

two of

its

provinces

are remarkable.

Eome now

boasts of a province of


PREFECTURE OF THE EAST.
Scythia.
it

77
chap.
"-

But,

among

the varied uses of that name,

to

has

now shrunk up
a

mean
as a

the land immediately

'^"^'"'

-'

south of the mouths of the Danube.

The other name

province,

hEuropa,
Stan tine

name which,

Roman

means
Con-

province of

the district immediately round the

New Rome.
site

had now fixed

site

his capital

on the

of the old

Byzantion, the

from which the city on the Bos-

poros might seem to bear rule over two worlds.

With
it

whatever motive, the name of Europe was specially

given to that corner of the Western continent where

comes nearest
chosen
to be the

to the Eastern.

Nor was
city

the

name

ill-

for the district

round the

which was so long

bulwark of Europe against invading Asia.

And, besides the

to the great

New Rome,
,

this Prefecture,

as

con-

tainino; ^ those ijarts of the

.

Empire which had belonged "

.

Great cities of the Eastern

Prefecture.

Macedonian kingdoms, contained an unusual

cities

proportion of the great

of the world.
it

Besides a

crowd of

less

famous

places,

took in the two great

Eastern seats of Grecian culture, the most renowned

Alexandria and the most renowned Antioch, themselves only the chief

among many
it

others cities bearing

the same names.

All these,

should be remarked,

were comparatively recent

creations, bearing the

names

of individual men. That cities thus artificially called into

being should have kept the position which

to the great

still

belonged

Macedonian capitals

is

one of the most speak-

ing signs of the effect which the dominion of Alexander

and

his successors

had on the history of the world.

of the second Prefecture marks
Prefecture

The nomenclature

how

utterly Greece, as a country

all

and

nation,

had died

cum.

out of

reckoning.

The Prefecture of
It

the Eastern
its

Illyricum answered roughly to European Greece and

immediate nei^^hbours.

took in the lands stretchinjj

78

THE DISMEMBEEMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

from the Danube to the southern point of Peloponnesos.
Greece, as part of the

"

CHAP,

'

under the name of the

Eoman Empire, was inchided barbarian hmd through which

affairs.

Eome was

first

brought into contact with Greek

She was further included under the name of the

barbarian neighbour

half-

who had become Greek

througli

the process of conquering Greece.

In the system of

Prefectures, Greece formed part of Macedonia, and

Macedonia formed part of Illyricum.

Greece, as a land, fallen at the very

So low

liad
lier

moment when
all
its

tongue was making the greatest of

conquests,

when
Eome.
Dioceses of

a Greek city

was

raised to the rank of another

The

Illyrian Prefecture contained the

two
it

dio-

ccscs oi Macedonia

and Dacia. This

.

last

name,
i-

will

be

Macedonia and Dacia.

remembered, had, since the days of Aurehan, withdrawn

to the south of the

Danube.

The Macedonian diocese

besides the fami-

contained six provinces,

liar

among which,

and venerable names of Macedonia and Epeiros, we

still

find the names,

more venerable and

familiar, of
lives

Thessaly and Crete.

And

one yet greater name

on with
from the

tliem.

Hellas and Grcecia have alike vanished

;

map

but the most abiding name in Grecian

history, the tlieme of

Province of Achaia.

has uot pcrishcd.

.

Homer and the theme of Poly bios. Among all changes, Achaia is there
Italv
,

still.

Prefecture of Italy.

In

tlic
.

ucw svstcm
''

aud Eome herself were

in

no way

privileged over the rest of the Empire.

The

Italian Prefecture took in Italy itself

and the lands

which might be looked on

and maintenance of and
Italy.

as necessary for the defence

It

took in the defensive

conquests of the early Empire on the Upper Danube,

it

took in the granary of Italy, Africa.

Italy, Illyricum^

Its

three dio-

ceses

wore

and Africa.

Here Illyricum


ILLYRICmi, ITALY, AND GAUL.
strangely gave
its

'

79
chap.
~

name both

to a distinct Prefecture
Italy.

and

to

one diocese of the Prefecture of

diocese

Italian

contained

seventeen

provinces.

The The

Dioceses of
Italy,

Gaulish

name has now wholly vanished from the lands The lands between the older and south of the Alps.
newer boundaries of
Italy are

now divided into Liguria and Venetiaihe former name being used in a widely extended sense and the new names of Emilia
the

and Maminia, provinces named But the new

after the great

Eonian

roads, as the roads themselves were magistrates.

named

after

Eoman

Italy has spread

beyond the

Alps, and reaches to the Danube.

vinces form

Two

Esetian pro-

part of

it.

Three other provinces are

islands, Sicily, Sardinia,

formed by the three great

Corsica.

and

The

diocese of the Western Illyricum took in inyncum,

Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum. The third diocese,

that of Africa^ took in the old Africa.

Nwnidia^ and

Africa.

western Mauritania.
Italy

The union of
strange

these lands with

that
Greatness
of Car-

may seem

less

when we remember

the colony of the hrst Ca3sar, the restored Carthage, 1 T was the greatest of Latm-speakmg cities after Eome
f>

thage.

herself.

The
in

fourth Prefecture took in the

Eoman dominions

Prefecture

Western Europe, the great Latin-speaking provinces

beyond the Alps.

Among

the seven provinces of Spain

Diocese of

are reckoned, not only the Balearic islands, a natural

African'

ajjpendage to the Spanish peninsula, but a small part

of the African
continent, the province of Tingitana,

stretching from the

now

Italian Africa to the Ocean.

This was according to the general law by which, in

almost

all

periods of history, either the masters of Spain

in Africa or the masters of Africa

have borne rule

have
its

borne rule in Spain.

The

diocese of Gaid, with

80
CHAP,

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

'^

seventeen provinces,

keeps, at

least

in

name, the
It still

'

boundaries of the old Transalpine land.

bers
its

GauT-^^^

the

two Germanies west of

numthe Ehine among

the

provinces.

The
fall

five

provinces of the diocese of

of Britain.

Britain took

in, at

the

moment when
a
island
in

Empire was
days
of her

beginning

to

asunder,

greater territory than

Eome had
who
sea,

held in the

the

greatest power.

The

exploits of the elder Theodosius,

drove back the Pict by land and the Saxon by

for

moment added

to the

Empire a province
in

beyond the wall of Antoninus, which,

Province of
Valentia. A.D. 367.

honour of the

rciguiug Empcrors Valentiuiau and Valens, received the

name

oi

tt

Valentia.

Change
tlip

2.

The Division of

the

Empire.

in position

ofjiome.

Thc mapping out of the Empire into Prefectures, ,.,..., division between two or more imperial coland
T

its

leagues, led naturally to

its

more

lasting division into

what were

practically

two Empires.
over subject
all

The old
states.

state

of things had

altogether passed
city ruling

away.

Eome was
From
Eome,

no longer the

the Ocean to the Euphrates

at least
maiis.

was

alike, if not

Romania
But
to

all its

inhabitants were equally Eo-

be a

Eoman now

meant, no longer to be

a citizen of a commonweaJth, but to be the subject of an

Emperor.

The unity
its
;

of the Empire was not broken

by the

division of

administration between several

Imperial colleagues

but

Eome

ceased to be the only

Imperial dwelling-place, and, from the latter years of

the third century,
})lace at all.
it

ceased to be an Imperial dwellingas

As long

Eome

held her old place, no

lasting division, nothing

more than an administrative

There

partition

among

colleagues, could be thought of.

THE EASTERN AXD WESTERN EMPIRES.

But, when new system had fully taken root at the end of the fourth century, we come to a division which was comthe
paratively lasting, one which
history,
fills

81
chap.
-

could be no division to

mark on

the map.

^^-^-^

an important place in

and which

is

capable of being marked on the

Division of

map.

On

the death of Theodosius the Great, the

his

Empire was divided between

two

sons,

Arcadius

bet^'^the
Theodo^^-

taking the Eastern pro\inces, answering nearly to the

Prefectures of the East and of Illyricum, while Honorius

d- 395.

took the Western provinces, the Prefectures of Italy and

Gaul.

Through the greater part of the

Emperors, of

fifth

century,

the successors

of Arcadius and of Honorius formed

two

distinct lines of

whom

the Eastern

reigned at Constantinople, the Western most

at

commonly

Eavenna.

But

as the

dominions of each prince were

alike
still

Eoman, the Eastern and Western Emperors were

looked on in theory as Imperial colleagues charo-ed

with the administration of a

Practically

common Eoman

dominion.
practioaiiv
pTres!"^'""

perors

may be

however the dominions of the two Emlooked on as two distinct Empires, the
its

Eastern having

seat at the

New Eome
its

or Constan-

tinople, while the

Western had
at the

seat

more commonly

at

Eavenna than

Old Eome.
is

This division of the Empire

feature of the fifth century
;

the great political

but the fate of the two

Empires was widely

ning of the Empire,

different.

From

the very beointo struggle with

Enemies of

Eome had had

two chief enemies, Europe and

widely

in

the East and in the West, in

in Asia, the nature of

whose warfare was

first

different.

In the East she had,

as

the Parthian

and then the regenerate Persian,

strictly

a rival

Rivairy

power on equal terms.

This rivalry went on from the twa^amr

into the place of the
^^^^"^'

moment when Eome stepped

Q

82
CHAP.
IV.

THE DISMEMBERISIENT OF THE EMPIRE.

Seleukids
till

the time

when Eome was

cut short, and

Persia overthrown, by the Saracenic invasions.

But,

except during the momentary conquests of Trajan and during the equally momentary alternate conquests of

Ptome and Persia

strife

in

the seventh century, the whole

was a mere border warfare which did not threaten the serious dismemberment of either power. This and this and that that fortress was taken and retaken
;

province was ceded and ceded back again

but except

under Trajan and again under Chosroes and Herachus,

the existence and dominion of neither
Rivalry
passes onto

power was ever

naturally

scHOusly threatened.
inherited
this
tlic

The Eastern Empire

part
.

of the calling of the undivided

.

the Eisteru

_-^

Empire.

Empu^c,

loug

striie

With Persia.

At the other end

quite another kind.
Teutonic
incursK.ns

of the Empire, the

enemy was of
There was

The danger
wliicli

there was tlirough the

iiicursioiis
^^^

of the various Teutonic nations.

^^^ Tcutouic powcr

could be a rival to

Eome

Empire.

in the same sense in which Persia

was

in the East;

but a crowd

of

independent Teutonic tribes were

pressing into the

striving to

Empire from

all

quarters,
its

and were

make

settlements within
fell

borders.

The

task of resisting these incursions

of course to the

Western Empire.
often traversed

The Eastern Empire indeed was

;

by wandering Teutonic nations but no permanent settlements were made within its borders, No Teutonicsettleno dismemberment of its provinces capable of being nients in Em^r'r marked on the map was made till a much later time. But the Western Empire was altogether dismembered
and broken
in pieces
it.

nations within

by the settlement of the Teutonic The geographical aspects of the two

fifth

Empires during the

unlike one another
;

century are thus strikingly

but each continues one side of the

'

THE TEUTONS IX EAST AND WEST.

history of the undivided Empire.
It will therefore

83
be

well to trace those two characteristic aspects of the

-^

r^

chap.

two Empires

separately.

We will first speak of tlie

which
in the

Teu-

tonic incursions, through

end

tlie

Western

Empire was

split

up and the

states of

modern Europe
Persia in

w^ere founded.

We

will

then trace the geographical

aspect of the long rivalry between

Eome and

the East.

3.

The Teutonic Settlements within

subject
is

the

Empire.

Our

historical

geography, and neither

ethnology nor pohtical history, except so far as either

national migrations or political changes produce a directly geographical effect.

the Wandering of the

settlement

The great movement called Xations, and its results in tlie

Teutonic nations
within
the

Ti.f-wauthe'xa-''

of

various

bounds of the
far as they

Eoman

Empire, concern us
visible

now

only so

wrought a

change on the map.

The

exact relations of the different tribes to one another,

the exact course of the migrations which led to the
final settlement of each,

of inquiry.

belong rather to another branch But there are certain marked stages in
of the

the
its

relations

Empire

to

the nations beyond

borders, certain

marked

stages in the

growth and

mutual relations of those nations, which must be borne

in

mind

in order to explain their settlements within

It will

the Empire.

be at once seen that the geotlie

chnnfroNin
ciaturTof"'
ni'cnation*.

graphy and nomenclature of

tlie

German

nations in
different

third century
their

is

for the

most part quite

from
it

geography and nomenclature as we find

in

CiEsar

and Tacitus.

New names
;

have come

to the front,

names

all

of which play a part in history,

many

of which remain to this day

G 2

and, with one or

84
CHAP,
IV

THE

DISMEI^IBERINIENT OF

THE EMPIRE.
into
tlie

two exceptions, the older names sink

'

back-

ground.

It is

therefore hardly needful to go through

the ethnology and geography of Tacitus, or to deal

with any of the controverted points which are suggested

thereby.

We

have to look

at

the

German

nations

purely in their relations to

Eome.

We
Warfare on
andthe"*^

have seen that the history of

Eome

in her

western provinces was, from an early stage of the

Empire, a struggle with the Teutonic nations on the

Ehluc aud the Danube.

tempts
at

We

have seen that

all

at-

serious

conquest beyond those boundaries

Roman
possessions

camc
two

to uothiug.
.

The Eoman
,

possessions
/>

beyond the
i i
,
.

beyond
those
rivers.

crrcat
"^

rivcrs

were mere outposts lor the better

.
.

sccurity of the land wathin the rivers.

The

district

beyond them, fenced in by a wall and known as the Agri Decumates^ was hardly more than such an outlying post on a great scale.

The

struggle along the

border was,

almost from the beginning, a defensive

struggle on the part of

Eome.

We

hear of

Eoman
;

conquests from the second century to the

fifth

but

they are
of lost

strictly defensive conquests, the

mere recovery
of

possessions,

or at most the establishment

the

fresh outposts.

From

moment

of the

first

appear-

ance of

Eome on

the two rivers, the Teutonic nations

were

really threatening to

Eome, and the warfare of

;

Eome was
Formation
racies"^"^

really defensive

and from the very beto

giuulng too a proccss sccms

have been at work

amoug

thc

German

nations themselves which greatly

as enemies of

Germans,

strengthened their

power

Eome.
be
far

New
more

nations or confederacies, bearing, for the most part,

names unknown
of the
earlier

to earlier times, begin to

dangerous than the smaller and more scattered tribes

times

had been.

These movements

NATIONS OX THE RO]\L\X FRONTIER.

85

among

the

German

nations themselves, hastened

by
^

pressure of other nations to the east of them, caused

the Teutonic attacks on the

chap.

Empire

to

become more
into Teutonic

and more formidable, and

at last to

grow

settlements within the Empire.

this process, several stages

But, in the course of

noticed.

may be

Thus the
iMardQuadi.

Marcomanni and the Quadi play a part in this history from the very beginning. The Marcomanni appear in C^sar, and, from their name of Markmen, we may be
sure that they were a confederacy of the same kind as the later confederacies of the Franks and Alemanni.

In the

first

and second centuries the Marcomanni are

neiglibours,

daiig)us

threatening
its

the

Empire

and

iten penetrating

beyond

borders, and their

fifth

name

appears in history as late as the

century.

But they
they had

play no part in the Teutonic settlements within the

Empire.

They do not
in

affect

the later

map

no share

bringing about the changes out of which

arose.

modern Europe
the time

Their importance ceases just at

when
tlie

a second stage begins, when, in the

course of

third century,

we begin

to hear of those

nations or confederacies
affect later history

whose movements

really did

and geography.
Bfi-inniii-

In the third and fourth centuries the history of

modern Europe
Saxons,
tribes.
all

begins.

We

now

begin to hear names

European

which have been heard ever smce, Franks, Alemans,

of

them great confederacies of German

The new
^'^"

Defence against German inroads

,
-,

now becomes
The invaders

de".^

the chief business of the rulers of

.

were constantly driven

as constantly

Ill back
;

Eome.

but

new mvaders were

Defensive warfare of

Rome,

found to renew their incursions.

Men

of

Teutonic race pressed into the Empire in every conceivable character.

Besides open enemies,

who came


86
CHAP,

'

THE DISMEISIBEEMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

with the hope either of pkuider or settlement, crowds

'

of

Germans served

in the

Eoman

armies and obtained

within the Empire.

hinds held by military tenure as the reward of their

services.

Their chiefs were promoted to every rank

civil,

and honom% military and

dignity
itself.

short of the Imperial

of
still

These were

changes
;

the

utmost

importance in other points of view

directly affect the
cities

they do not

map
lost

of the Empire.

Lands and
;

were won and

over and over again

;

but such

changes were merely momentary

boundaries
altered
;

the acknowledged

of

the

Eoman dominion were

not yet

it is

not

till

the next stage that geography

begins to be directly concerned.

I?e2;inning

This
fifth

last stage

begins with the early years of the

of natiimal
kinfcdonis.

century, and thus nearly coincides with the divi-

sion of the

Empire

into East

and West.

Gothic and
at pleasure at

other Teutonic kings could

now march
titles

the head of their armies through every corner of the

Empire, sometimes bearing the

sometimes sacking the Old

sometimes dictating the choice of

Eoman officers, Eoman Emperors,

of

Eome

or threatening the

New.
settled

It was when these armies under their kings down and formed national kingdoms within the

limits of the
effect

Empire, that the change comes to have an

In the course of the
fifth

on the map.

century

away from In most cases the loss was cloaked by some Imher. perial commission, some empty title bestowed on the victorious invader but the Empire was none the less
the Western provinces of
rent
;

Eome were

practically dismembered.

Out of these dismemberEurope gradually grew.

It

ments the modern

will

states of

now be our

business to give

some account of

those nations, Teutonic and otherwise,

who had an

THE TEUTONIC SETTLEMENTS.

immediate share in
questions,
to
this
all

87
all

work, passing hghtly by

and indeed

nations, which cannot be said

in
it.

chap.
-^

have had such an immediate share

The nations which

in the fourth

and

fifth

centuries

Teutonic
Settle-

made
fall

of settlements in the Western provinces '

;

Kome
,

mentsin
the
\Ve.st.

under two chief heads

those

who made

their setsea.

tlements

by

land,

and those who made them by

pretty well

This

last

class

is

coextensive with

the

settlement of our

own
.

forefathers in Britain,

which
Settlements within the Empire,

of separately. must be spoken ^

nations
fifth

Anions^ the others, the

.

who

play an important part in the fourth and

centuries are the Goths, the Vandals^ the

Bur-

gundians^ the Suevi, and the Franks.

And

their settle-

ments again

fall

into

two

classes, those wdiich

passed

away within a century

had a
is

or two, and those which have

history.

lasting

effect
first

on European

Thus

it

plain at the

glance that the Franks and the

their
left

Frjni,

Burgundians have

left

names on the modern

:

Bur-unsuevi',

name also but it is now found only in their older German land it has vanished for ages from their western settlement. The name of the Goths has passed away from the kingdoms
map.

The Suevi have

their

Goths,

Avliich

they founded, but their presence has affected the

history of both the Spanish and the Italian peninsulas.

The Vandals
left

alone, as a nation

and kingdom, have

it

Vandais.

no traces whatever, though

left

may be

that they

have

their

name

to a part of

one of the lands

Their king-

of their sojourn.

All these nations founded kingdoms

first

within the Western Empire, kingdoms which at

admitted a nominal superiority in the Empire,

but
various

which were practically independent from the beginning,

But the history of the several kingdoms

ent.

is

very

differ- stances of
t.'ry.

Some

of

them soon passed away

altogether, while

88
CHAP,
"

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

others

became the beginnings of the great nations

Gaul and Spain
fell

'

of

modern Europe.
century,

off

very

gradually from the Empire.

fifth
all

But, in the course of the

the nations of which

we have been
within

speaking formed more or

those provinces.

less lasting settlements

Pre-eminent among them are the great

settlements of the Goths and the Franks.

Out of the

settlement of the Franks arose the

modern kingdoms
the settlement ot

of

Germany and France, and out of

the Goths arose the various kingdoms of Spain.

Those

of the Burgundians, Vandals, and Suevi were either

smaller or less lasting.

All of

them however must be

It is not needful

mentioned
Migrations
of the

in their order.

First

and "^ greatest come the Goths.

West^-

for our purpose to

examine

all

that history or legend

all

has to

tell

us as to the origin of the Goths, or

the theories

which ingenious men have formed on

It is

the subject.
Defeat of the Goths by ClanA.D. 269.

enough

for

our purpose that the

Goths bcgau to show themselves as dangerous enemies

p

01

the
;

Empire

-r^

in the

second half of the third centill

tury

but their continuous history does not begin

the second half of the fourth.

Gothic

We

then find them

forming a great kingdom in the lands north of the

^^'^i^^^^^.

Dan'ube

Presently a large

body of them were driven

Goths driven onwards by the Huns.

to seek shelter within the bounds of the Eastern Empire irom the pressure of the invading Huns. These last were a Turanian people who had been driven from
j?
i
.

their

own

older

settlements

by movements

in

the

further East which do not concern us, but who become an important element in the history of the fifth century.

They

affected the

Empire, partly by actual innations before

it.

vasions, partly

by driving other

them

but they made no lasting settlements within

Nor

'

THE GOTHS.
did the Goths themselves
in the Eastern

89
lasting settlement
~

make any
the

Empire.

While one part of the Gothic

to

cross
_

chap.

nation

became subject

Huns, another
it

part
They
nube.

crossed the
rial licence,

Danube
and
if

but they crossed

it

by Impeto

they took to arms,

was only

punish the treachery of the

Eoman
;

officers.

Presently

we

find Gothic chiefs

marching

at pleasure

through the

dominions of the Eastern Caesar

but they simply march

and ravage

it

is

not

till

they have got within the

boundar}^ of the

West

that they found

any

lasting kingtribes

doms.

In

fact,

the Goths, and the Teutonic

real mission in the East
;

generally,

had no

to

them the
.

East was a mere hisrhway to the West.

.

The movements
.

of Alaric in Greece, Illyricum, and Italy, his sieges and

his capture of

Career of Alaric. a.d. 394-

Eome,

are of the highest historical im-

portance, but they do not touch geography.

first

The Goths
and a place
them-

win

for themselves a local habitation

left Italy

on the map when they

to

establish

selves in the further West.

Under
tions

Alaric's successor, Athaulf, the first founda- Beginning

laid of that

were

great West-Gothic

kingdom

Gothic

which we are apt

which
in truth

to look
.

on

as specially Spanish, but under

had

its

first

beginning in Gaul, and

it

...

Athaulf.
a.d. 412.

which kept some Gauhsh

territory as long as

lasted.
.

But the Goths passed into those

racter of

lands, not in the chaas founders

avowed conquerors, not

state,
its

of an

avowed Gothic
sent to

but as soldiers of the Empire,

lost

win back

provinces.
in pieces

Those provinces

Condition
of

Gaul and

were now occupied or torn

invaders, Suevi,

by a crowd of
These
are

Spain.

Vandals, and Alans.

last are The Aians.

a puzzling race, our accounts of

contradictory, but

whom
rate, a

somewhat
set

who may

perhaps be most safely

down

as a non-Aryan, or, at

any

non-Teutonic

90
CHAP,
r^

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

people,
'

who had been

But early

largely brought under Gothic

in the
fifth

influences.

century they pos-

sessed a

dominion in central Spain which stretched

to sea.

from sea
TheSucvi
in Spain.

Their dominion passed for a few

years into the hands of the Suevi,

who had

already

formed a settlement
still

in north-western Spain,

and who

kept a dominion in that corner long after the

greater part of the peninsula

had become Gothic.

The

Vandals occupied Bsetica

The Vandais in Afrioi. A.D. 425.

but they presently passed into

Africa,

and there founded the one Teutonic kingdom

Carthage to
its capital,

in that continent, with

a king-

dom which
indepenBasques,

took in also the great islands of the western

itself.

Mediterranean, including Sicily

Through

all

these

changes the unconquerable people of the Basque and

Cantabrian mountains seem never to have fully submitted to any conquerors
;

but the rest of Spain and

fifth

south-western Gaul was, before half of the

cen-

tury had passed, formed into the great West-Gothic

kingdom.

That kingdom stretched from the

pillars of
its

Herakles to the Loire and the Ehone, and

capital
at

was placed, not on Spanish but on Gaulish ground,

Gothic
of Toulouse,

the Gaulish Tolosa or Toulouse.

in

The Gothic dominion

;

Gaul was doomed not

in Spain lasted

to

be lasting

the Gothic

dominion

down

to the Saracen conquest,

and

all

the later Christian kingdoms of Spain

it.

may be

looked on as fragments or revivals of

never changed her name for
tliat

Spain however

of her conquerors.

The only
Gothia.

parts of the Gothic

kingdom which ever bore

later

the Gothic

name were

those small parts both of Spain

and Gaul which kept the name of Gothia through

causes.

The Vandals, on
its

the other hand, though they

left their

passed altogether out of Spain, have

Andalusia,

name

to

this

day in

southern part under the form of An-


THE FRANKS.
clahisia, a

'

91
chap.
-

name which, under

the Saracen conquerors,

spread

itself

over the whole peninsula.

.

^^

great Teutonic The other

nations or confederacies of The

Franks.

which we have
effect

to

speak have had a far more lasting

on the nomenclature of Europe.

We

have

now

to trace the steps

by which the Franks gradually beof Gaul.

Uses of the

came the ruhng people both of Germany and

They have stamped

, ,

dominions of the
a

name on both countries. The Franks got the name of Fra?icia,

their
.

word
Francia.

name whose meaning has

tlie

constantly varied accord-

ing to the extent of

times.

Frankish dominion at different

it still

In modern use

cleaves to

two parts of
is still

their dominions, to that part of

Germany which
and
to

called Fraiiken or

Frauconia,

that part of
history

Gaul which
is

is

still

called France.

And their

closely

mixed up with

that of another nation or con-

federacy, that of the Alemanni,

French tongue, given their

who again have, in the name to the whole of Ger-

The Aie-

many.

Franks and Alemanni alike begin to be heard of

in the third century,

and the Alemanni even attempted

;

^^-

'^'<''-

an actual invasion of Italy

but the geographical imtill

portance of both confederacies does not begin

fifth.

the

All through the fourth century

it

is

the chief
to defend

business of the

Emperors who ruled

in

Gaul

the frontier of the Rhine

ajiainst their incursions, ajiainst

its

the Alemanni along the upper part of

against the Franks along
its

course, and

lower part.

To
'

the east of
Thurin^ians.

the Franks and Alemanni lay the Thurinrjians-^ to the

north, along the coasts of the

German Ocean,
also

the

Low-

TheLowtribes.

Dutch
the

tribes,

Saxons and Frisians.

In the course of

fifth

century, their

movements

began

to affect

the geography of the Empire.

During the whole of that century the Franks were


92
CHAP,
'

THE dismemberjnient of the empire.

pressing into Gaul.
'

The Imperial

city of Trier

was

more than once taken, and the seat of the provincial government was removed to Aries. The union of
the two chief divisions of the Frankish confederacy,

and the overthrow of the Alemanni, made the Franks,

Keignof
A.D. 481-

under their

first

Christian king, Chlodwig or Clovis,

the ruling people of northern Gaul and central Ger-

many.
]iad
ancrditiFrankfsh'^^ ing om.

Their territory thus took in both lands which

been part of the Empire, and lands which had

This
is

ncvcr bccu such.

thc

a special characteristic of

Fraukish

settlement,
tlicir later

and

one which influences

^^

whole of

history.

There was, from the

very beginning, long before any such distinction was

consciously

drawn, a Teutonic and a Latin Francia.

to the East
in

There were Frankish lands

which never had

been Eoman.
remained
Romau
Germauy
Teutonized
afresh.

There were lands

northern Gaul which

uiou.

Eoman And between them

practically
tlic

under the Frankish domilay,

on the

left

bank of
'-

the Ehiuc,

Tcutouic lands which had formed part

province of Gaul, but which

of the

Eoman

now became
soil,

Teutonic again.

Moguntiacurn, Augusta Treverorum,

cities

and Colonia Agrippina,

founded on Teutonic

now
litan
Eastern

again became German, ready to be in due time,

3Iainz, Trier, and Koln, the metropo-

by the names of
and

electoral cities of

Germany.

These lands.

"with tlic Original

German

lands,

formed the Eastern

om
cia.

Fran-

OT Teutouic Fraucia, where the Franks, or their Ger-

man

allies

and

subjects,

formed the real population

Western Francia, between

of the country.

In the

the Loire aiad the Channel, though the Franks largely

settled

and influenced the country

in

many

ways, the

mass of the population remained Eoman.

Over the

western peninsula of Annorica the dominion of the

'

'

TEUTONIC CONQUEST OF GAUL.

Franks was always precarious and, at most, external,

93
chap.

Here the ante-Eoman population

language, and
it

still

kept

its

Celtic

-^

was further strengthened by colonies

its

Armorica
tanny"

from Britain, from which the land took

of the Lesser Britain or Britanny. of the
fifth

later

name

Thus, at the end

Extent of
kish domi-

century, the Frankish dominion

was firmly

established over the whole of central

Germany and

a.d.5oo.

Northern Gaul.

Their dominion was fated to be the

most

lasting of the Teutonic

kingdoms formed on the

is

Eoman

mainland.

The reason

obvious

w^hile the

Goths in Spain and the Vandals in Africa w^ere isolated

Teutonic
settlers in a

Eoman

land, the Franks in

Gaul

were strengthened by the unbroken Teutonic mainland

at their back.

The greater part of Gaul was

fifth

thus, at the

end of the

The Bur-

century, divided between the Franks in the north

in the south.

and the West-Goths

fifth

But, early in the

in south-

century, a third Teutonic

power grew up

eastern Gaul.

course of the

The Burgundians, a people who, in the Wandering of the Nations, seem to have
the shores of tlie Baltic, established

Their king-

dom,

made
Alps,

their

way from

themselves in the lands between the Ehone and the

where they formed a kingdom which bore

Their dominion in Gaul
lasting

their

name.

may be
still

said to

have

been more

than that of the Goths,

less lasting
of

than that of the Franks.

Burgundy is

a recognized Meaning
shifted
its

name but no name

;

in

geography has so often

it

Burgundy.

place and meaning, and

itself

has for some centuries settled

on a very small part of the ancient kingdom of

the Burgundians.

At the end

of the
;

fifth

century the

provenr-e

Ehone was

Burgundian

river

Autun^ Besanqon^
cities
;

di^if"
sio!

Lyons, and Vienne were Burgundian

sea coast, the original

but the

Eoman

Province, the land which

94
CHAP.
^-

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF
Jias

TILE EMPIKE.
fell

so steadily kept

that name, though

i)0\ver,

it

for

" nioinent under the Ikirgundian

followed at this

5U)-:.oG.

time, as

became the

first

Eonian land beyond the Alps,

the fortunes of Italy rather than those of Gaul.

Invasion
<>f

the

Huns

and shiftiims conquests Aniono" ^ ^ of do tliese vaiions map tiie tune, the at some minion, all of Avhich aflected
.

(^f It

which have

aflected history
if

and geography ever

only by

since,

may be

well to mention,
lills

way

of contrast,

an inroad which
ilfth

a great place in the history of the

century, but whieli

had no direct

effect

on geogra-

phy.
Battle of
A.I.. 4.31.

This

Avas the invasion of

Italy

and Gaul by

the lliius uudcr Attila, and

their defeat at ChTdons

by the combined
Franks.

forces of
is

Eomans, West-Goths, and

is

This battle

one of the events whic^h

re-

markable, not for working change, but for hindering

it.

Had
it

Attila succeeded,

tlie

greatest of
all

all

changes

would have taken place throughout

Western Euro}K\

As
De.stnuni.m
ot'

was, the

inroad.
ellcct
;

map On the map

of Gaul was not affected of Italy

it

by

his

did have an indirect

its
^

lic

dcstroycd the city of Aquileia, and

i

inhar

Aquili'ifi,

andori-in

bitauts, ileemiT to the Venetian islands.

t-^

laid the lounin the

-\

dation of one of the later ])owers of Europe

form of the commonwealth of Venice.

While Spain and Gaul were thus rent away from the
Empire, Italy and liome
also,
Reunion of
the Empire.

itself

were practically rent away

difl'erent.

though the form which the event took was

vote of the Semite reunited the Western Empire to the ^

;

Eastern the Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole Emperor,

and the government of the chocese of Italy

that is, it will

be remembered, of a large territoiy besides the Italian

Rule of
.(;.

peninsula

was

entrusted by his commission to Odo-

47C-

acer, a o'cneral of barbarian mercenaries, with the

. .

rank
iiide-

433.

of Patrician.

No

doubt Odoacer was practically

' -

TJIi:

EAST-GOTIIS IX ITALY.

05
tlie

pendent of the

I'^iupirc

LuL

tlie

union of

Ein|i)re

was preserved
Italy

in form,

and no separate kingdom of

^^

r^

cn.w.

was set up. Presently Odoucer was overthrown by Theodoric king of the East-Goths, who, though king of his own people, reigned in Italy by an Imperial

ooths ki "''

commission

as Patrician,

Practically,

he founded

i;uif;of

an East-Gothic kinf^dom,
lUyricum.

takinj' in Italy

and the other

a.i^

i^j-.i-

lands which formed the dioceses of Italy and Western

Ilis

dominion
call

also

took in the coast of

liis

Extent of
hi-t

donii-

what we may now

Provence, and

influence

"'''"

was extended

in various

ways over most of the kingseat of the Gothic dominion,

at

doms of

the West.

The
and

like that of the later

Western Empire, was

his successors

Pavenna.

Practically Theodoric

were indepenpeople, they

f<jrmed part Thw.rvof

dent kings, and, as chiefs of their

own

bore the kingly

title.
it

Hence, as
is

Pome

of their dominions,

true to say that luider

them
Still

^ -"'i'"'*'-

Eome
in this

ceased to be part of the

Roman

Empire.

theory the Imperial supremacy went on, and in

way

it

became much
Empire
at a

easier for Italy to

later time.

be

won

back

to the

somewhat

4. Settlement of the English in Britain.

Meanwhile,

in

another part of Europe, a Teutonic

settlement of quite another character from those on The

the

mairJand was going on.

.

Spain and Gaul

;

fell

withdrawn
from
Britain.

away from the Empire by slow degrees

but

the
defi-

Poman dominion

in Britain

came

to

an end by a

nite act at a definite

moment.

The Eoman armies

its

were withdrawn from the province, and

inhabitants

were

left

to themselves.

Presently, a

new
left

settlement

took place in the island which was thus

It is specially

undefended.

important to mark the difference between

96
CHAP,
',

THE

DISMEIMBETII^IENT

OF THE EMPIRE.

the Teutonic settlements in Britain and the Teutonic

-

conquests on the mainland.

The Teutonic conquests

in

Difference
conquest*^'*"

Gaul and Spain were made by Teutonic neighbours who had already learned to know and respect the Eoman
civihzatiou,

and other
conquests.

who were

either Christians already or be-

cauic Christians soon after they entered the Empire.

They pressed

in gradually

by land

they left the

Eoman

inhabitants to live after the

selves gradually

Eoman

law, and they them-

adopted the speech and much of the

manners of Eome.
the continent
is

The only exception

to this rule

on

to be found in the lands immediately

on the Ehine and the Danube, where the Teutonic settlement was complete, and where the Eoman tongue

and

civilization

were pretty well wiped

out.

This same

process happened yet more completely in the Teutonic The great island possession of conquest of Britain.
Character

Eomc had been

'

virtually

abandoned by
it

Eome

before

Engibh
iong^'"^
witif the

the Teutonic settlements in

began.

The invaders

had

therefore to struggle

rather with native Britons

than with Eomans.

Moreover, they were invaders

who
or

came by
therefore

sea,

and who came from lands where

little

nothing was

known of the Eoman law or religion. They made a settlement of quite another kind from
They met with
a degree of strictly national

the settlement of the Goths or even from that of the

Franks.

resistance such as

no other Teutonic conquerors met

in

with

therefore

the

end

they swept away

all

traces of the earlier state of things in a

The En^^'

way which took

is

placc nowhcrc
slblc,

else.

As

far as such a process

pos-

nmin
eu onic.

they slew or drove out the older inhabitants

^j^^^

^ept their heathen religion and Teutonic language,

to

and were thus able

nation in
their

grow up

as

new Teutonic

liew

home without any important

'

THE ENGLISH IN BRITAIN.

intermixture with the
British.

97

earUer inhabitants,

Eoman

or

chap.
.

Tlie conquerors

who wrought

this

change were our

the The LowDutch
settlements
iu Britain.
*'

own

forefathers,

the

Low-Dutch

inhabitants of

away border lands of Germany and Denmark, quite ^

from the

Eoman

frontier;

and among them three

saxons.

tribes, the Angles^ the

Saxons^ and the Jutes^ had the

chief share in the conquest of Britain.

The Saxons

had, as has ah'cady been said, attempted a settlement

in the fourth century.

They were
to the

therefore the tribe

Celtic inha-

who were

first

known
;

Eoman and

bitants of the island

the Celts of Britain and Ireland

all

have therefore called

to this day.
in the

the Teutonic settlers Saxons

origin of

But, as the Angles or English occupied

it

end much the greater part of the land,

was

Engit^L

they who,

when

the Teutonic tribes in Britain began to

form one nation, gave their name to that nation and

its

land.

That nation was the English^ and

their land

was England.
the

While Britain therefore remains the

proper geographical
is

name
part

of the whole island,

England

name
fifth

of that

of Britain which was step

by

step conquered

by the English.

Before the end

of the

century several Teutonic kingdoms had

begun

in Britain.

The Jutes began the conquest by

and presently the Saxons began

jutesin
a.u" 419.

their settlement in Kent,

to settle

on the South coast and on a small part of the

East coast, in Sussex, Wessex, and Essex.

And

along
settle- saxon
settTe-

a great part of the eastern coast various Anglian

.ind

mentswere made, which gradually grew

into the king-

doms of East-Anglia, Deira, and Bernicia, which two last formed by their union the great kingdom of Northhnmberland.
But, at the end of the sixth century, the

English had not got very far from the southern and

98
CHAP,

THE DISMEMBERIMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

eastern coasts.
TJie Britons,

whom
The

the English called

IV. r-^Scots.

Welsh or strangers, held

Picts

out in the

West, and the

and

and Scots

in the North.
;

Scots

were properly
Britain, and,

the

people of Ireland

but a colony of them had

settled
in

on the western coast of northern

the end, they gave the

island.

name

of Scotland to the

whole North of the

5.
Contrast

The Eastern Empire.

Wc
this

havc already seen the differences between the

of the

ELternand posltiou
Empires,

Eastcm and Western Empires during

in

period.

While

the

West the provinces were

the Teutonic
settlements,

gradually lopped

away by

the provinces of the East, though often traversed

by
can

Teutonic armies, or rather

the seats of lasting

nations, did not

become

Teutonic settlements.

We

hardly count as an
TheTetraxite Goths.

exception the settlement of the

the

Tetvaxite

Goths

in

Tauric

Chersonesos,

a land
tha^n

which was rather

actually part of

in

alliance with the

Empire

it.

The

distinctive

history

of the
said,

Eastern Empire consists, as has been already

in

the long struggle between East and West, in which

Rivalry
\\i til

Eouic had succccdcd to the mission of Alexander

Persia.

and the Seleukids

civilization.

as

the

representative of Western

To

this mission

was afterwards added the

first

championship of Christianity,

against the

Fire-

worshipper and then against the Moslem.

history no event
is

In Eastern

more important and more remarkBut, as far as eitlier the

able than the uprising of the regenerate Persian nation

against
Revival of
the Persian

its

Parthian masters.

kingdom.
A.D. 226.

historv or the ffeo^raphv & O i J of

-^
_

Eome

is

concerned, the
?

Persian simply steps into the place of the Parthian as

the representative of the East against the West.

From

'

PERSLA.

AND THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

99

our point of view, the long wars on the Eastern frontier

Eome, and the frequent shiftings of that frontier, form one unbroken story, whether the enemy that was striven
of
against
is

r^

chap.

the successor of Arsakes or the successor of

Artaxerxes.

And besides the natural rivalry of two great

position, the

powers in such a

border kingdom of
its

Position of

Armenia.

Armenia, a name which has changed

frontiers almost as often as

meaning and

its

Burgundy or

Austria, sup-

plied constant ground for dispute between

Eome and

her eastern
In the

rival,

whether Parthian or Persian.

of this long struggle

geographical aspect

three special periods need to be pointed out.

The first Under is that of the momentary conquests of Trajan. him Armenia, hitherto a vassal kingdom of Eome, was

conqm-sts
A.n/i'il^' 1 17

incorporated as a

Eoman

province.

Albania and Iberia

took

its

place as the frontier vassal states.

Beyond the The

Euphrates, even beyond the Tigris, the Eoraan dominion

took in Mesopotamia^ Atropatene^ and Babylonia.

Parthian capital of Ktesiphon and the outlying Greek

free city of Seleukeia

were included within the bounfor a

daries of an

Empire which

moment touched
as the

the

Caspian and the Persian Gulf.

Eome,

champion

of the West, seemed to have triumphed for ever over

her

kingdom was thus shorn of the border lands of the two worlds, and when its king was forced to become a Eoman vassal for
Eastern
rival,

when

the Parthian

the dominions that were extension of the

left

to him.

But

this

vast

moment.

Eoman power was strictly only for a What Trajan had conquered Hadrian at
;

conquests
surrenderfd

once gave back

the Euphrates, and

Empire was again bounded by Armenia was again left to form matter of dispute between its Eastern and its Western
the
claimant.

a^d.iV?.

The second stage begins when, under Marcus,

H
2

100
CHAP.
IV.

THE DISI^IEIMBERMENT OF THE EMPHIE.

the

Eoman

frontier again

began to advance.

Between

the Euphrates and

Conquests of Marcus. A.u. 162160.

the Tigris Osrhoene

became a Eoman
it

dependency

under the house of Severus

;

became a
famous

Eoman

province

and the

fortress of Nisibis, so

Of Severus.
A.D. 197202.

in later wars,

was planted

as the Eastern outpost of

Eorae against the Parthian.

;

Ten years

later the Parthian

power was no more but, as seen witli Western eyes, the revived monarchy of Persia had simply stepped into its
place.

The wars
left

of Alexander Severus, the captivity of

Valerian, the wasting march of Sapor through the

provinces,
Conquests under Diocletian A.D. 297.
.

Eoman

no trace on the map.

But under the

mighty rule of Diocletian the glories of Trajan were

renewed.

Mesopotamia again became Eoman

five
;

provinces beyond the Tigris were added to the Empire

Armenia, again the vassal of

the expense of Persia,

Eome, was enlarged at and Iberia was once more a

Eoman
frontier

dependency.

In the third stage the

Eoman

again went back.

little

The wars of the second

Sapor did
Surrender
ofprovinci'S

but deprive

Eome
the

of two Mesopoof Julian the

tamian

fortresses.

But

after

fall

by Jovian.
A.D. 363.

lands beyond the Tigris were given back to Persia

even Nisibis was yielded, and the Persian frontier again

Division
of Armenia.
6S7.

reached the Euphrates.

Armenia was now

till

tossed to

and
Hun-

fro,

conquered and reconquered,

the

kingdom

'J'lie

dred Years' Peace.

421.

was divided between the vassals of the two Empires, a division which was again confirmed by the hundred This was the years' peace between Eome and Persia.
state of the Eastern frontier of

Eome

at tlie

time

when

the West-Goths were laying the foundation of their

dominion

in

Spain and Aquitaine,

when Goth and

first

Eoman
were on

joined together to overthrow the mingled host

of Attila at Chalons, and

their

when

the

English keels

way

to the shores of Britain.

SmBIARY.
This then
the end of the
is

101
chap.
IV.

the picture of the civilized world at

century.

fifth

The whole of
Italy

the West-

ern dominions of
herself,

Eome, including
if

and

Kome

have practically,

not everywhere formally,

fallen

away from
is

the

Eoman

Empire.
Teutonic

The whole
kinsrs.

West

under the rule of

The

Frank has become supreme

losing his ancient hold

in northern Gaul, without

on western and central Gerreigns iu Spain

many.

The West-Goth
Italy

and Aquitaine

the Burgundian reigns in the lands between the

Ehone

and the Alps.

and the lands

to the north of the

in substance

Alps and the Hadriatic have become,

though not in name, an East-Gothic kingdom.

from
off

But

the countries of the European mainland, though cut oif

Eoman political dominion, are far from being cut from Eoman influences. The Teutonic settlers, if
Their rulers are every;

conquerors, are also disciples.

where Christian
Orthodox.

in

Northern Gaul they are even

is

Africa,

under the Arian Vandal,

from the traditions of

far

more

utterly cut off

Eome
lie

than

the lands ruled either

by the Catholic Frank or by the

north
of the Franks
still

Arian Goth.

To

the

the

independent tribes of Germany,

untouched by any
the

Eoman
selves

influence.

They
in

are beginning to find them-

new homes
of a
to

Britain,

and,

as

natural

consequence
conquest,

purely

barbarian

and
all

heathen
that
itself

sever

from the Empire

they

conquered yet more thoroughly than Africa

severed.

was

Such

is

the state of the West.

lives

In the East with a

the

Eoman power

on

in the

New Eome,

dominion constantly threatened and insulted by various

enemies, but with a frontier which has varied but
since the time of Aurelian.
little

No

lasting Teutonic settle-

102
CHAP,

THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.

ment has been made within
-

its

borders.

In

its

endless

IV.
'

wars with Persia,

sometimes

its

frontier

sometimes advances and

retreats.

In our next chapter

we

shall see

how much of life still clung to the majesty of the Eoman name, and how large a part of the ancient dominion of Eome could still be won back again.

'

103

CHAPTER
THE

V.

FIXAIi DIVISION

OF THE EMPIRE.
the

The Reunion of

Empire.

The main
history,

point to be always borne in

in the historical
is

mind

in

the

chap.
<

and therefore

geography, of

the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries,

existence of the

the continued o^Rom^an^ the

Eoman

Empire.
its

It

was

still

Eoman

Empire, although the seat of

dominion was no longer

tlie

at the Old Eome, although for a while

Old

Rome was
Gaul,

actually separated from the

Roman
process.

dominion.

Spain, Africa, Italy

itself,

had been lopped away. Britain But the Roman

in tlie Eastern part of the

had
rule

fallen

away by another

went on undisturbed

Empire, and even in the West the

memory

of

tliat

rule
Position of
nic kings

had by no means wholly died

ruled in
all

out.
;

Teutonic kings

West but nowhere on the continent had they become national sovereigns.
the countries of the

They were

still

simply the chiefs of their

own

people

reigning in the midst of a

Roman

population.

The

Romans meanwhile everywhere looked

the

to the Cgesar of

New Rome
in Italy the

as their lawful sovereign,

from whose
in Spain

rule they

had been unwillingly torn away. Both

and

Gothic kings had settled in the country

as Imperial lieutenants with an Imperial commission.

The formal aspect of the event of 476 had been the

union of the Western Empire with the Eastern.
It

re-

was

104
CITAr.
V.

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

perfectly natural therefore that the sole Eomaii

Emperor

reigning in the
Recoveiy
of territory by the

New Eome
to

should

strive,

whenever he

had a chance,

win back

territories

which he had

Empire.

never formally surrendered, and that the

habitants of those territories should
deliverer from barbarian masters.
limits within which, at the

Eoman

in-

welcome him as a The geographical

beginning of the sixth cenpractically confined, the

limits,

tury, the

Eoman power was

pheenomena of race and language within those

might have suggested another course.
tions of that kind are

But considera;

seldom

felt

at the time

they

are the reflexions of thoughtful

Extent of
the

men

long

after.

The

Eoman
Empire
of
its

dominion, at the accession of Justinian, was

Roman

dominion
at the accession of Justinian, 627.

shut up witliin the Greek and Oriental provinces of the

;

its

enemies were already beginning to speak

Its truest policy

subjects as Greeks.

would have
defending

been to have anticipated several centuries of history, to

have taken up the position of a Greek

its

state,

borders against the Persian, withstanding or inviting

settlement
of the
Slave,

the

but leaving the

itself

now
But

Teutonic West to
in such cases the

develope

undisturbed.

than the
of the
to
Conquests
of Justi-

known past is always more powerful unknown future, and it seemed the first duty
to restore the

Eoman Emperor

Eoman Empire
this

its

ancient extent.

It

was during the reign of Justinian that

carried

work was

out

through a large part of the

Western Empire.
tAvo continents.

Lost provinces were

won back
it

in

The growth

of independent Teutonic

powers was
r.o

for ever stopped in Africa,

and

received

small check in Europe.

The Emperor was enabled,

througli the Aveakness

and internal dissensions of the

Vandal and Gothic kingdoms, to win back Africa and

'

CONQUESTS OF JUSTINIAN.
Italy to

105
the
"^

the Empire.

The work was done by

ISTarses

swords of Behsarius and

Persian being

the

Slave and the

chap.

now

used to win back the Old

Rome

to re- Vandai
war. 533-535.

the dominion of the

stored Africa in the

New.

The

short

Vandal war

Eoman

sense,

and a large part of

Mauritania, to the Empire.

The long Gothic war won

Italy

Gothic war.
537-56-4.

back Illyiicum,
Africa were
still

Italy,

and the Old Eome.

and

ruled from Eavenna and from Car-

thage

but they were

now

ruled not by Teutonic kings,

but by Byzantine exarchs.

Meanwhile, while the war

conquest of
spain.

with the East-Goths was going on in Italy, a large part

of southern Spain

was won back from

the West-

Goths.
a third

Two

Teutonic kingdoms were thus wiped out

acquisition of so great

was weakened, and the

a line of sea-coast, together with the great islands,

Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica,

and the Balearic

Islands,
sea.

gave

the Empire an undisputed supremacy

by

In one

corner only did the Imperial frontier even nominally

go

back,

or

any Teutonic
lost to the

power advance

at

its Provence
Franks,

expense.

The sea-board of Provence, which had long

Empire, was
this

been practically

now

formally

ceded to the Franks.

In

one corner

tlie

Eoman
Geo<riaphi-

Terminus withdrew.
In a geographical aspect the
.

map
.

of Europe has
-p
.

seldom been so completely changed within a single

generation as
it

under'
Justinian.

was durmg the reign

was
far

,,

ot Justinian.

his accession his

dominion was bounded to the

At west by

the Hadriatic, and he

from possessing the whole

his reign the

of the Hadriatic coast.

Under

power of the

Eoman arms and

to the Ocean.

the

Eoman
tlie

law were again extended

The Eoman dominion was indeed no

whole shore of the Mediterra-

longer spread round

nean

the Imperial territories were no longer contin-

106

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

nous as of old
'

CHAP,

but,

if

the

Empire was not

still,

as

it

had

once been, the only power in the Mediterranean lands,

it

had again become beyond

.

all

comparison the greatest

.

Effects of Justiniau'a <>onquests.

power.

Moreover, by the recovery of so large an extent

of Latin-speakuig territory, the tendency oi the Jimpire

to

chanse into a Greek or Oriental

centuries.

state

was checked

for several

We

are here concerned only

with the geographical, not with the political or moral

aspect of the conquests of Justinian.

Some

of those

conquests, like those of Trajan, were hardly

more than
for the

momentary. But the changes which they made

time were some of the most remarkable on record, and

the effect of those changes remained, both in history

and geography, long

again undone.

after their

immediate

results

were

2.

Settlement of the

Lombards

in Italy.

The conquests
in

of Justinian hindered the growth of

a national Teutonic

kingdom

in Italy,

such as grew up

Gaul and Spain, and they practically made the cradle

of the Empire,

Eome

herself,

an outlying dependency

of her great colony

of
all

by the Bosporos.
Empire
just over

But the reunion

Italy with the

lasted only for a

moment.
set of

The conquest was only

PanTinnian
kiiiftdom of

when

new

Teutonic conquerors appeared in Italy.

tlic
.

These were

Lombavds^ who,
.

in the great wandering,

.

had made
.

the

Lom-

their

way

into the ancient 1 annonia about the time

bards.

that the East Goths passed into Italy.

They were thus

Western

settled within the ancient boundaries of the

Empire.

But the Eoman power had now quite passed

regions,

away from those

Pannonia
rial

and the Lombard kingdom in

Avas practically altogether

;

beyond the Impe-

borders

it

had not even that Eoman im^Q which

'

THE LOjMBAEDS
affected the Frankish east of the

IN ITALY.

107

and Gothic kinojdoms.

To

the
'^

Lombards,

in the ancient Dacia, another

;

chap.

Teutonic kingdom had arisen

that of the Gepidce^ a

GepidiB.

people seemingly closely akin to the Goths.

cess of

The

proAvars.

wandering had brouofht the Turanian Avars into

all later

those parts, and their presence seriously affected

history and geography.

With the Gepidce

in Dacia

and the Lombards

two Teutonic
and West.
states

in Pannonia, there

was a chance of
Teutonic powers on the

growing up on the borders of East -^ f These might possibly have played the same
.

part in the East which the Franks and Goths played in the West, and they might thus have altogether changed

Danube.

the later course of history.

But the Lombards alhed

In partnership with their
TheGepidne overthrown by the

themselves with the Avars.

barbarian
allies,
^

of the they overthrew the kingdom ^ Thus Gepid[B, and they themselves passed into Italy.

Lombards
;}|.>tj

Avars.

the growth of Teutonic powers in those regions was

stopped.

J^^^j^^"^^'

new and

far

more dangerous enemy was

Slavonic races to play
in the East

"^i*

^'''^-^

brought into the neighbourhood of the Empire, and

the
in

way was opened

for the

some degree the same part

which the
lost

Teutons played in the West.

this

But while the East

it

chance of renovation, for such

would

liave been,

Lombard settlement in Italy was the beginning of a new Teutonic power in that country. But it was not a which could possibly power into a national grow up ^ 1 i ^ o Teutonic kingdom of all Italy, as the dominion of the East-Goths might well have done. The Lombard conthe
.

Character
ot

the

Lombard
kingdom.

quest of Italy was at no time a complete conquest

of the land was

part

incomplete
it^iy.

won by
;

the

Lombards

part was kept

by the Emperors

and

tlie

Imperial and

Lombard

pos-

sessions intersected

one another in a way which hindered

the growth of any kind of national unity under either

108
CHAP.
V.

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

power.

The new
in the

settlers

founded the great Lombard

Italy,

kingdom
Lombard
duchies.

North of

which has kept the

Lombard name
Italy
still

to this day,

and the smaller Lombard

states of Spoleto

and Beneventum.
to

But a large part of

Eavenua, the
Naples, and

remained

the

Empire.

dwelling-place of the Exarchs,

Imperial
possessions in Italy.

Eome
all

itself,

the island city of Venice were

centres of districts
rule.

which

still

acknowledged the Imperial

The Em-

perors also kept the extreme southern points of both

the peninsulas of Southern Italy, and, for the present,

the three great islands.

stantly threatening
fell

The Lombard Kings were conEavenna.

Eome and

Eome
it

never

into their hands, but in the

middle of the eighth

the district

Ravenna
taken by
the Lombards. f. 753.

century Eavenna was taken, and with

specially

known

as the

Exarchate was annexed to the

extent of the
for
it

Lombard dominion. But this greatest Lombard power caused its overthrow
:

led to a

chain of events which, as

we

shall presently see, ended

in transferring not only the

Lombard kingdom, but

the

Imperial crown of the West to the hands of the Franks.

3.

Bise of the Saracens.

of the revolutions
existing

we give any account which took place among the already

But, before

powers of

Western Europe,

it

will

be well to describe the geogra-

phical changes which were caused

absolutely

by the appearance of
Empire.

new

actors on

two

sides of the

One

point however

may

be noticed here, as standing apart

from the general course of events, namely, that the

Roman
province in Spain recovered by the (ioths.
534-57-->.

Eoman

province in Spain was

won
cities,

gradually back
as Cordova,

by

the West-Goths.

The

inland

were

hardly kept forty years, and

possessions
in

tlie

whole of the Imperial

during the reign of

61C-C24.

Spain were

lost

EWALRY OF EAST AND

Heraclius.
.

WEST.

109

Thus the great dominion which Justinian

in the

had won back

torical results,

West, important as were

of very short duration
it
;

its his-

.V.
chap.
^

was

itself

a large

part of Italy was lost almost as soon as

was won, and

the recovered dominion in Spain did not abide

more

than ninety years.

But meanwhile,
tury,

in the course of the seventh cen-

nations which had hitherto been

unknown

or

unimportant began to play a great part in history and

greatly to change the face of the map.

These new

powers

fall

under two heads

the northern and those

frontier of the

those who appeared on who appeared on the eastern Empire. The nations who appeared
;

on the North were,

like the early Teutonic invaders

if

of the Empire, ready to act,

partly
also

partly as conquerors,

as

disciples

those

who appeared on
else.

the East were the champions of an utterly different

system in religion and everything

old rivalry of the East and

In short, the

West now

takes a distinctly

aggressive form on the part of the East.

As long
still

as
be-

the Sassanid dynasty lasted,

Eome and

Persia

con- wars

tinued their old rivalry on nearly equal terms.

The

Komeand

long wars between the two Empires ence in their boundaries. In the

made

little differof

last stage of their wars

warfare Chosroes took Jerusalem and Antioch,

and

and He603-628.

encamped
victories

at

Chalkedon.

Heraclius pressed his eastern

beyond the boundaries of the Empire under But even these great campaigns made no
in

Trajan.

lasting difference

the

map, except so

far

as,

by

weakening

Home and

Persia alike, they paved the

all.

way
Extension
\il^^^^

for the greatest

geography was a
earlier

More important to change which took place at somewhat

change of

time when, during the reign of Justinian, the

ThrEuxhie.

no
CHAP.
V.

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

Eoman power was extended

Euxine
in Colchis or

on the Eastern side of the

Lazica.

The southern borders of

each Empire were to some extent protected by the

The Arabian vassals
of

dominion of dependent Arabian kings, the Ghassanides

Kome

and Persia.

Eome, and the Lachmites to the east of them being vassals of Persia. But a change came
beino; vassals of

presently

which

altogether

overthrew

the

Persian
its

kingdom, which deprived the Eoman Empire of

Eastern, Egyptian, and African provinces, and which

gave both the Empire and the Teutonic kingdoms of

the

West an enemy

of a kind altogether different from

strive.

any against

whom

they hitherto had to

The cause which wrought such abiding changes was

Eise of the Saracens.

the rise of the Saracens under

followers.

Mahomet and
of the

his first

new

nation,

that

Arabs,

now

became dominant
lands far beyond
Arabia
united under

in a large part of the lands

which

had been part of the Eoman Empire,

its

as well as in

boundaries.

The

scattered tribes

of Arabia were

first

gathered together into a single

Mahomet,
622-632.

power by Mahomet
they undertook
to

himself,

and under
the

his successors

wherever their

Mahometan religion swords could carry it. And, with the

spread

Mahometan

religion,

they

carried
call

also

the

Arabic

language, and what

we may

Eastern civilization as
in short,

opposed to Western.

strife,

now

begins
Persia,

between Aryan and Semitic man.

with
Conquests
of the Saracens.

Eome and
is

all

their differences,

were both of them Aryan

the extraordinary

powers.

The most amazing thing

expense of both

speed with which the Saracens pressed their conquests

at the

Eome and

Persia, forming a

marked

contrast to the slow advance both of

Eoman con-

quest and of Teutonic settlement.

In the course of less

than eighty years, the Mahometan conquerors formed

'

RISE OF THE SARACENS.

a dominion greater than that of

Ill
for a short

Eome, and,

time, the will of the Caliph of the Prophet

was obeyed
In a few
,
.

chap.

from the Ocean

1

to lands
-p^
.

beyond the Indus.

,,
.

campaigns the ILmpire

Loss of the Eastern

provinces of Rome. 632-639.

lost all its possessions

beyond

Mount Tauros

that

is, it

lost

one of the three great

divisions of the

Empire, that namely in which neither

civilization

Greek nor Eoman

taken root.

had ever thoroughly

While the Eoman Empire was thus dismembered,

the rival

power of Persia was not merely dismembered,

but utterly overwhelmed.

The Persian
,

nationality '

was

snracen conquest of
Persia.

again, as in the days of the Parthians, held

-^

down under
But the

'
,

'

632-651.

a foreign power, to revive yet again ages

later.

Saracen power was very far from merely taking the

place of
its

Parthian and Persian predecessors.

The

mission of the followers of

Mahomet was

a mission of

universal conquest, and that mission they so far carried

out as altogether to overthrow the exclusive dominion

of
if

Eome

in her

own

Mediterranean.

Under

Justinian,

the Imperial possession of the Mediterranean coast

in

was not absolutely continuous, the smaU exceptions

Africa, Spain,

and Gaul

in

no way interfered with the

maritime supremacy of the Empire, and Gaul and

Spain, even
Christian.

where they were not Eoman, were

at least

But now a gradual advance of sixty-four

in Africa to
Saracen
Africa.

years
the
into

annexed the Eoman dominions

Spain, and found

Mahometan dominion. Thence

prey than the
after

the Saracens passed

617-711.

the West-Gothic
provinces.

kingdom an
Within three

of Spain.

easier

Eoman

years

the

final

conquest of Africa, the whole

still

peninsula was conquered, save where the Christian

held out in the inaccessible mountain fastnesses.

The

Saracen power was even carried beyond the Pyrenees

112

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

into the province of Septimania, the

remnant of the
Narbonne,

GauUsh dominion
Aries, Nimes, all

of the West-Gothic kings.

became

for a while Saracen cities.

In

this

way, of the three continents round the

Mediterranean,
Effects of

Eome

lost all

her possessions in Africa,

while both in Europe and Asia she had

now

a neigh-

Saracen
conquest.

bour and an enemy of quite another kind from any

which she had had before. The Teutonic conquerors, they became if conquerors, liad been also disciples
;

part of the
rivalry

Latin world.
religious
as

The
well

Persian,

though his

was

as

political,

was

still

merely a

rival, fighting

along

a single line of frontier.

But

every province that

utterly lopped

was conquered by the Saracens

;

was

men

altogether

away it became the possession of alien and hostile in race, language,

manners, and religion.

large part of the

Eoman

Different fates of the

world passed from Aryan and Christian to Semitic and Mahometan dominion. But the essential differences

Eastern,
Latin, and

among
either

the three main parts of the Empire now^

showed

Greek
provinces.

themselves very clearly.

The Eastern provinces, where

life

Eoman

or Greek

was always an
years.

exotic, fell

away
647-709.

at the first touch.

Africa, as being so greatly

Eomanized, held out for sixty

of Asia Minor,

The provinces

now
easily

thoroughly

Greek, were often

ravaged, but never conquered.

Spain and Septimania

were

far

more

conquered than Africa

sign
as

perhaps that the West-Gothic rule was

foreign

still

felt

by the With the conquest

Eoman

inhabitants.

of Spain the undivided Saracenic

its

Empire, the dominion of the single Caliph, reached

Greatest

greatest extent in the three continents.

Detached conbut on the

extent of Saracen
provinces.

quests in

Europe were made long

after,

whole the Saracen power went back.

Forty years

EXTENT OF SARACEN CONQUEST.

later they lost Sind, their furthest possession to the East.

113
chap.
y.
750.

Five years later Spain became the seat of a rival dynasty,

which
back

after a while

grew

into a rival Caliphate.

In the

separat ion
'

same year the Saracen dominion

in

for the first time

went

755.

Europe.

The

battle of
;

Tours answers to the

Battle of

repulse of Attila at Chalons

it

did not

make

changes,

7^2^'"

but hindered them

but before long the one province

Prankish

which the Saracens held beyond the Pyrenees, that of

Septimania or Gothia, was
Franks.

SepUma765.

won from them by

the

4.

Settlements of the Slavonic Nations.

sixth century

The movements of the

into notice a

began

to bring

branch of the Aryan family of nations

an important part in the
affairs

which was

to play

both
Movements
slaves.

of the East and of the West.

Slaves.
It is

These nations were the

needless for our purpose to attempt to

;

trace their earher history

but the movements of the

Avars
same

in the sixth century

seem

to

have had much the

effect

Huns

in

upon the Slaves which the movements of the the fourth century had upon the Teutons. The

inroads of the Avars had, as

we have

seen, checked the

growth of Teutonic powers on the Lower Danube, and

had led

to the

Lombard

settlement in Italy.

But the

Avars only formed the vanguard of a number of Turanian nations, some at least of them Turkish, which were

now pressing westward. The Avars formed a great kingdom in the lands north of the Danube to the east of
;

Kingdom of

these, along the northern coasts of the

Euxine, borderof the

ing on the outlying possessions and

allies

EmMagyars,

pire in those regions, lay Magyars., Patzinaks,

and the

greater dominion of the Chazars.

in

All these play a part

in the seventh

Byzantine history

and the Avars were

I

114

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

century the most dangerous invaders and ravagers of
the

r^

CHAP,

Koman

territory.

But south of the Danube they

;

appeared mainly as ravagers

geography knows them

only in their settled kingdom to the north of that river.

Even

that

kingdom
all

lasted

no very great time

the real

importance of

these migrations consists in the effect

Northui^souths'laveT

which they had on the great Aryan race which now The Slaves seem to begins to take its part in history.
have been driven by the Turanian incursions
directions
;

in

two

to

the North-west

and

to the South-west.

The North-western
European
state,

division gave rise to

their relations

and

more than one with Germany form

an important part of the history of the Western Empire.

These North-western Slaves do not become of importance

till

little later.

But the South-western division

plays a great part in the history of the sixth and seventh

centuries.

Their position with regard to the Eastern

a kind of shadow of the position held by the

Empire
Analogy
between Teutons

is

Tcutouic uatious With regard to the Western Empire.

Thc Skvcs plav

and
less

in

the East, though less thoroughly the same

part, half conquerors,

and Slaves.

brilliantly,

half disciples,

which the Teutons played

in the

West.

During the sixth century they appear only

in the seventh they appear as
Slavonic

as ravagers

settlers.

There seems no

doubt that Heraclius encouraged Slavonic settlements

soutli of the

under
Heraclius.
'

Dauubc, doubtless with a view

the West, the Slaves

to defence

-''-o-

asainst the

more dans^erous Avars. Much

like the

Teu-

tonic settlers in
colonists

came

in at first as

under Imperial authority, and presently became

practically independent.

A number

of Slavonic states

thus arose in the lands north and east of the Hadriatic,

as Servia, Chrohatia or Croatia, Carinthia, of
first

which the

two are

historically

connected with the Eastern,

SETTLEMENTS OF THE SLAVES.

and the third with the Western Empire.
the maritime
Istria

115
and
chap.
^

Dalmatia now became Slavonic, with the exception of

cities,

'.

which,

clave to the Empire.

And

even

among many vicissitudes, among them considerThus Salona was

its

able revolutions took place.

stroyed,

de-

Destruction of

and out of

Diocletian's palace in
city of Spoilato.

neigh-

saiona, 639.

bourhood arose the new

Epidauros was
place.

also destroyed,

The Dalmatian and Ragusa took its

origin of

kndRa-

In

many

of these inroads Slaves and Avars were

;

mixed up together
all

but the lasting settlements were

Slavonic.

And
;

the state of things which thus began

has been lasting

atic
is still

the north-eastern coast of the Hadri-

a Slavonic land with an Italian fringe..

Dispiace-

In these migrations the Slaves displaced whatever

remnants were

left

of the old Illyrian race in the lands

to

niyrians

near the Danube.

They have themselves

But
at the time the

some extent

taken the Illyrian name, a change which has sometimes

led to confusion.

movement went
into

much further south than this.

The Slaves pressed on

a large part of Macedonia and Greece, and, during the

seventh and eighth centuries, the whole of those countries,

Extent of
settlement.

except the

fortified cities

and a fringe along the

Empire. The name
to Peloponnesos,

coast, were practically cut off from the

of Slavinia reached from the

Danube

leaving to the Empire only islands and detached points

of coast from

Venice round to Thessalonica.

Their

settlements in these regions gave a

new

meanino; to an
to

ancient name, and the

word Macedonian now began

it

mean

Slavonic.

And

must have been

at

this

time
Albanians.

that the Illyrians, the Skipetar or Albanians^ pressed

southward and formed those colonies

in Greece,

some of

which

still

keep the Albanian language, while the Sla-

vonic language has vanished from those lands for ages.

I


113
CHAP.

THE FINAL DIYISIOX OF THE EMPIRE.

-r^

The Slavonic occupation of Greece

'

is

a fact

which must
but

neither be forgotten nor exaggerated.

It certainly did
;

Nature of
Slavonic
f^ettiement

uot amouut to au extirpation of the Greek nation

.
.

it

certainlv did

amount

to

an occupation
i

oi a large part
i

jn Greece.

of the country, which was Hellenized afresh from those cities and districts which remained Greek or Eoman.

While these changes were going on

and ^gean
lands, -another

in the Hadriatic

immigration later in the

seventh century took place in the lands south of the

lower Danube, and drove back the Imperial frontier

Settlement
garians.

to

Haimos.

This was the incursion of the Bulgarians,

auothcr Turauiau people, but one wdiose history has

been

different fi^om that of

most of the Turanian immi-

grants.

By mixture

with Slavonic subjects and neighstill

bours they became practically Slavonic, -and they

The East-

em
cut

rcmaiii a people speaking a Slavonic language.

*^
.

Thus

Empire
.short
ill

the Empire, though

Italy witli
tlic

-n
still

it

kept

its

possessions in
its

peninMiia.

great Mediterranean islands, though

hold on Western Africa lasted

century, though
it

on into

the eighth

still

kept outlying possessions

on

the northern and eastern coasts of the Euxine,

cut short in that great peninsula which seems
to
Moral
in-

was

be

tlie

immediate possession of the

made New Eome.

But, cxRctly as happened in the West, the loss of

poUtical domiuiou carried with
it

consTanti-

the growth of moral

"

'*

*'

dominion.

The

nations which pressed into these proits

vinces gradually accepted Christianity in

Eastern

form, and they have always looked up to the

New Eome
to the

with a feeling the same in kind, but

gree, as that with
Extent of
knipir?^'"

less strong in de-

which the West has looked up

Old Eomc.

But, at the beginning of the eighth century,

though the Imperial

power

still

held posts here and

there from the pillars of Herakles to the

Kimmerian

POSITION OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Bosporos, Saracens on the one side and Slaves on the
other had cut short the continuous

1 1

Eoman dommion

to

>

chap.
-'

a comparatively narrow space.

sions of Caesar

The imbroken

posses-

were now

confined to Thrace and that

sohd peninsula of Asia Minor which the Saracens constantly ravaged, but never conquered.

Mountains had

taken place of rivers as the great boundaries of the

pire
:

Em-

instead of the

Danube and

the Euphrates, the

Eoman Terminus had fallen back to Haimos and

5.

Tam^os.

The Transfer of
the

tlie

Western Empire

to

Franks.
Growth

Meanwhile we must go back to the West, and trace the growth of the great power which was there growing
.
.

the Fr;ink.-.

up, a
cut

power which, while the

was

elder

Empire was thus

to supplant
it

short in the East,

in the

end

in the

West by

the creation of a rival Empire.

For

a while the Franks and the Empire had only occasional dealings with each other.

Next

to Britain,

which
world,

had altogether ceased

to

be part of the

Eoman

the part of the Western Empire which was least affected

by

the re- awakening of the

Eoman power
both

in the

East

was the former province of Transalpine Gaul.

The
old
Prankish conquest of the Aie-

power of the Franks was

fast spreading,

in their

home

new home in Gaul. The victoiy of Chlodwii^ over the Alenianni made the Franks the leading people of Germany. The two German
in

Germany and
^_

in their

powers which had so long been the chief enemies of

the

Eoman power

along the Ehine were

now

united.

Throughout the sixth century the German dominion of

the Franks was growing.

The Frankish supremacy was

and
later in the century over
ringians/"'
ofB-u-arMi.

extended over

Thiirinr/ia,

Bavaria.

The Bavaria of

this age, it

must be remem-

118

THE FINAL CmSION OF THE EMPIRE.

bered, has a

much wider

extent than the

name has

in

modern geography, reaching

Italy.

to the northern borders of

to

The Bavarians seem

settlers in the

have been themselves

but recent

land between the Alps and the

Danube

but their immigration and their reduction

under Frankish supremacy made the lands immediately

Danube thoroughly Teutonic, as the earlier Frankish conquests had done by the lands immediately west of the Ehine. Long before this time, the Franks
south of the

had greatly extended

Conquest
taine'[r!o7-

their

dominions in Gaul

also.

In the later years of Chlodwig the greater part of

Aquitame was won from the West-Goths.

couqucsts at
'their

Further

Bnrgiindy.
i4.

expense were afterwards made, and

about the same time Burgundy came under Frankish supremacy.

The Franks now

were

held, either in possession or de;

pendence, the whole oceanic coast of Gaul

still

but they

shut out from the Mediterranean.

The West-

Goths

still

kept the land from the Pyrenees to the

Eh one,
name The

the land of Septimania or Gothia, to whicli the

clave as being

last

now

the only Gothic part of Gaul.

first

land which was specially Provincia, the

session in Transalpine Gaul, the coast

Eoman pos-

from the Ehone to

the Alps, formed part of the East-Gothic dominions of

Theodoric.

An

invasion of Italy during

th<?

long wars
establish

between the Goths and Eomans

Frankish dominion on the

failed to

It.alian

side

of the Alps.

But

as the Franks,

by

their conquest of Burgundy,

were

now

neighbours of

Italy, it led to a further

enlargement
acquisition
that Massa-

of their Gaulish dominions, and to their of a Mediterranean sea-board.

Cessioii of

first

It

was now

lia,

Arelate, and the rest of the Province were,

by an

Provence.
.ooG.

imperial grant, one of the

r>

last

exercises of Imperial

CONQUESTS OF THE FRANKS.

110
of the

power
Italy ^

ill

those regions, added to the

kingdom

chap.
'

Franks.

By

the time that the

Eomau
.

reconquest of
Extent of
the Frank
i-* ^^mjnions.

was completed, the Frankish dominion, united for ^

.

moment under

sin(]^le

head, took in the whole of

Gaul, except the small remaining West-Gothic territory,

Germany and a supremacy over the Southern German lands. To the north lay the still independent tribes of the Low-Dutch stock, Frisian and
together with central

Saxon.

As

the Frankish dominion plays so great a part in

in truth

European history and geography, a part

only to that played by the

second
it

Eoman

dominion,

will
Position of

be needful to
Franks.

consider the historical position of the

German people who had made themselves dominant alike in Germany

Their dominion was that of a

and

in Gaul.

But

it

was only

in

a small part of

the Frankish territory that the Frankish people

actually settled.
central
It

had
Thecessimi of Gaulish
possessions.

was only

in northern

Gaul and

Germany,

in the countries to

which they have

In their
;

permanently given their name, that the Franks can be

looked on
as

really occupying

the

land.

German

territory they of course

remained German

in

northern Gaul their position answered to that of the

other Teutonic nations which had formed settlements

within the Empire.

race in a

They were a dominant Teutonic

land.

Eoman

Gradually they adopted the

the

speech

of the

conquered, while

conquered in

the end adopted the

the fusion of

name

of

tlie

conquerors.

But
in the siow fusion
of Franks

German and Eoman was slower

Frankish part of Gaul than elsewhere, doubtless be- andRo^

mans.

cause elsewhere the Teutonic settlements were cut off

from their older Teutonic homes, while the Franks

in

Gaid had

their older Teutonic

home

as a

back-

120
CHAP,
;

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

ground.
-

Beyond the bounds of these more

strictly

Frankish lands,
_

German and

Gaulish, the dominion of

,.
.

(Jerman nndGauiish
ilependen-

the ranks was at most a political supremacy, and

m
.

.iesofthe
Franks.

no scnsc a national settlement.

. .

In
;

Germany Bavaria
''

was ruled by
Loire
the

its

vassal princes

in

Gaul south of the

external
ruler.

Frank was

at

most an

Aquitaine had to be practically conquered over and

over again, and

Ethnoioffy
of Southern
<;aui.

new

dynasties of native princes were

constautly rising up.

lands,

The Teutonic element

in these

an element

much
The

slighter
is

than the

m Teutonic

element in Northern Gaul,

not Frankish, but Gothic

and Burgundian.
those
lands
is

native

wholly different

Eomance speech of from the Eomance

speech of Northern Gaul.

In short, there was really

the two great parts of

nothing in

common between
first

Gaul, the lands south and the lands north of the Loire,

except their union,

under
in

Eoman and

then under
Celtic

Frankish dominion.

And

Armorica the old

population, strengthened b}^ the settlers from Britain,

formed another and a yet more

Divisions of the Frankish

distinct element.

Thus there were within the Frankish dominions

wide national
divisions.
It

domi-

diversities,

nions.

containing the germs of future to"

needed a strong hand even to keep the

the dependent lands,

Teutonic and the Latin Francia together,

keep together
Gaulish.

all

much less to German and

During the ages while the Empire was being

cut short

by Lombards, Goths,

Slaves,

and Saracens,
whole history

the Frankish dominion was never in the like sort cut

short

by foreign settlements

but

its

under the Merowingian dynasty is a history of divisions

and reunions.

The tendencies

to division

which were

inherent in the condition of the country were strength-

ened by endless partitions among

tlie

members of the

THE FRANKS
reigning house.
that

IN

GERMANY AND GAUL.

it

121
said

Speaking roughly,
strictly

may be

chap.
^

the

more

Frankish territory sliowed a

tendency to divide

itself into

two

parts, the

Eastern or
Austria
'jveustria.

Teutonic land, Austria or Aiistrasia, and Neustria, the

Western or

Eomance
for the

land.

These were severally the

germs which grew

France.

into the

kingdoms of Germany and

like other useofthe

As

mere name of Francia,

it

names of the kind,

was derived.
After

shifted

its

geographical

use

Franda.

according to the wanderings of the people from

it
it

whom

gradually settled

many such changes of meaning, down as the name for those parts of
it still

Germany and Gaul where

the

abides.

There are the

still

Teutonic or Austrian Francia^ part of which

keeps

name

of

Franken or Franconia, and the Eomance

or Xeustrian Francia, w]iich by various annexations

has grown into modern France.

At

last, after

endless divisions, reconquests, and re- The

"^
. .

Kari-

miions of the different parts of the Frankish territory, the

Dukes,
(J87-7o2;
Kinoes,

whole Frankish dommion

Avas

a^am, ^
'

the second half

752-987.

of the eighth century, joined together under the Austrasian, the

purely German, house of the Karlings.

that house

The

Dukes and Kings of

consolidated and ex-

tended the Frankish dominion in every du-ection. Under

Pippin and Charles the Great, the power of the ruling
race was
states,
,T

more
.

firmly established over the dependent

such as Bavaria and Aquitaine.

L^

Under Pippin
^

tne conquest oi

the fearacen province oi beptnnama

;

c\

pippin conquers Septima752.

extended the Frankish power over the whole of Gaul

and under Charles the Great, the Frankish dominion

Conquests
of Charles

was extended by a
rection.

-,

series

01

conquests ^

m
.

..

every
''

di- the Great.

768-814.

Of

these, his Itahan conquests

were rather
But the

the winning of a

new crown

for

the Frankish king

than the extension of the Frankish kinoxlom.

122

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

conquest of Saxony at the one end and of the Spanish

"

CHAP,

'

March
sense

at the

other, as well as the overthrow of the

in the strictest

Pannonian kingdom of the Avars, were

extensions of the

Frankish dominions.

The

German
character of the Frankisli power.

Frankisli

powcr plays which now i ^ J

"J

in the so 2;reat a part o i

world was a iDOwer essentially German. ^

The Franks
speech,

and
to

their kings, the kings

who

reigned from the Elbe

in

the
;

Ebro,

were Gernian

blood,

and

feeling

but they bore rule over other lands, German,

Latin,

and

Celtic,

in

many

various

degrees of

in-

corporation and subjection.

The three great powers of the ill

Thus thc

cffcct of the

Saraccu conquests was to leave

Europe one purely European power, namely the

'

tury;

Romans,
Franks,
Saracens.

and kingdom of the Franks, one power both European ^ ^

Asiatic, '

namely the Roman Empire with

>'
J-

its

seat at

Constantinople, and one

power

at

once Asiatic, African,

and European, namely the Saracen Caliphate.

Through

the eighth century these three are the great powers of

the world, to which the other nations of Europe and

Asia form, as far as

character of the
Caliphate.
,

we

are concerned, a

mere back-

o-round. But the Caliphate, " as a Semitic and Mahometan ^ pQwcr, could bc Europcau only in a geographical sense.

Even
The Saracen
dominion
in Spain,

after the establishment of the

*

independent Saracen
still

domiuiou iu Spain, the new power ^

exotic.

remained an

great country of Western Europe was no

;

longer ruled from Damasctis or Bagdad

ate,

but the emirking-

afterwards Caliphate, of Cordova, and the

into

doms
Asia

which

it

afterwards broke up,

still

remained

only geographically European.

They were

portions of

in

after times rather of Africa

thrusting themdominion of Car-

selves into Europe, like the Spanish

thage in earlier times.

Tlie

two great Christian powers,

the two great really European powers, are the Roman and

FRANKISH
the Frankish.

CONOTTF.ST OF LO]\LBAEDY.

123
for

We now

come

to the process

which

chap.
^-

a while caused the

Eoman and

Frankish names to have

the same meaning within a large part of Europe, and

by which

the two seats of

Eoman dominion were

again

parted asunder, never to be reunited.

The way by which the Eoman and Frankish powers came to affect one another was throusfh the affairs of Italy. The steps by which the Imperial power was, during the eighth century, weakened step by step in the territories which still remained to the Empire in
''

"^

'-

'-'

Relations of the Franks and the Lnipire.

central Italy are, either from an ecclesiastical or from The

impe-

rial posses-

a strictly historical point of view, of surpassing interest, But, as long as the authority of the

sions in

Emperor was not

openly thrown

off,

no change was made on the map.

The events of those times which did make a change on the map Avere, first the conquest of the Exarchate by
the Lombards, and secondly, the overthrow
''

Lombard
conquest
of the

of

the

Exarchate.

the Frank kin^ Lombard kinsidom itself by & J ^ the Great. The Frankish power was thus
established on the Italian side of the Alps, but

Charles
at
it

Overthrow
of the

last
J,'!'^^Jj*}gg

must

'^'^'^

be remarked that the new conquest was not incorporated with the Frankish dominion.
. .

Charles
1

his Italian

dominion as a separate dominion, and called

held Lombardy separate n 1 kingdom.

**

himself King of the Franks and Lombards.

He
;

also

bore the

title

of

Patrician

of
that

the
title

Eomans

but,

though the assumption

political significance,
title
it

of

was of great

did not affect geography.

The

Title of Patrician.

of Patrician of itself implied a commission from

the Emperor,

and, though

it

was bestowed by the

without
title

Bishop and people of

consent,

Eome

the

Imperial

the

very choice

of the

showed that
off.

the Imperial authority was not formally thrown

Charles, as Patrician,

was

virtually sovereign of

Eome,

'

124
CHAP,

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

and
'

liis

acquisition of the patriciate practically extended

his

dominion from the

But,

Ocean

to

the

frontiers

of

Nominal
authoritv ' of the

Bcneventum.
in the last

down

to his Imperial coronation

-^

week
_

Empire.

century, the of the eighth ^

Emperor ^
.

who
with

reigned in the

New Eome

was

still

the

nomi-

nal sovereign of the old.

all
its

The event of

the year 800,

weighty significance, did not practically

either
his
Effect of the Impsrial

extend the territories of Charles or increase

powers.
Still

the Imperial coronation of Charles

'-

is

one of

coronation of

800^^*^^'

^he great landmarks both of history and of historical o geography. The whole political system of Europe was
./

changed when the Old

Eome

cast off

its

formal

alle-

giance to the JSFew, and chose the King of the Franks

and Lombards

to

be Emperor of the Eomans.

Though
his

the powers of Charles

were not increased nor

domi-

nions extended, he held everything

Final division of the

by a new title.
i

The
i

Eoiuan Empire was divided, never

,

to

be joined together
in,

Empire.

again.

But

its

Western halt now took

tip

not only

the greatest of

its lost

provinces, but vast regions

in the

which

had never formed part of the Empire

Trajan himself.
older
lity.

days of

Again, the distinctive character of the

the absence of nationa-

Eoman Empire had been

The whole
this

civilized

world had become Eome,

Growing
of the two

aiid all its free inhabitants

had become Eomans.

But

from

time each of the two divisions of the Empire

German' and Greek.

bcgius to assuiiic Something like a national character.

East and
political

West

alike

traditions.
;

centre of one

the

Eoman in name and in The Old Eome was the nominal New Eome was both the nominal
remained

and the
sense in

real

centre of the other.

alike ceased

But there was a

this

which both

from

time to be

Eoman.

The Western Empire has passed

to a

German

'

FINAL DIVISIOX OF THE EMPIRE.

kino-,

125
chap.

and

later chaiiQ;es

tended to make his Empire

more and more German.

The Eastern Empire mean-

'

while, by the successive loss of the Eastern provinces, of

Latin Africa, and of Latin Italy, became nearly con-

terminous with those parts of Europe and Asia where

the

Greek speech and Greek

civilization

prevailed.

From one

point of view, both Empires are

still

Eoman

from another point of view,

one

is

fast

becoming

German, the other

two powers
split

is

fast

becoming Greek.

And
is

the

Rivain- of
the two

into

which the old Eoman Empire

divisions of an

thus
are

Empires,

are in the strictest sense two Empires.

They

no longer mere

Empire which has been

found to be too great for the rule of one man.

The

Emperors of the East and West are no longer Imperial colleagues dividing the administration of a single Empire
between them.

They

are

now

rival potentates,

each

claiming to be exclusively the one true

the one true representative of the of both in the days
divided.
It is further to

Eoman Emperor, common predecessors

still

when

the

Empire was

un-

be noted that the same kind of

.
.

The two
CalipJiates.

change which now happened to the Christian Empire,

had happened
metan Empire.
at

earlier

in

the

century to

the

Maho-

The establishment

of a rival dynasty

Cordova, even though the assumption of the actual

of Caliph did not follow at once, was exactly
to

title

analogous
in the

the

establishment

of

a rival

Empire

Old Eome.

The Mediterranean world has now

four great powers, the two rival Christian Empires,

and the two

these,
it

rival

Mahometan

Caliphates.
is

Among
to its

naturally follows that each

hostile

neighbour of the opposite religion, and friendly to

its

neighbour's

rival.

The Western Emperor

is

the

126

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

enemy of the Western Caliph, the friend of The Eastern Emperor is the enemy of
the Eastern.

the Eastern

ofthe'EmCaliphates,

Cahph, the friend of the Western.

great

Tlius

the four

powers stood

at

the

beginning of the ninth

century.

And

it

was out of the dismemberments of

the

two great Christian and the great Mahometan

later states, Christian

powers that the

and Mahometan,
of historical

of the Mediterranean world took their rise.

Extent of
the Carolingian
.

It is

a poiut of geographical as
i

w^ell as

importancc that Charles the Great, after he was crowned

z-ni

/-n

Empire.

Emperor, caused

all

those
as

who had been

hitherto
to

bound
swear

by

allegiance to

him

King of the Franks

allegiance to

him

afresh as

Eomaii Emperor. This m?rks

that all his dominions, Frankish,

Lombard, and

strictly

Eoman,
all

are to be looked on as forming part of the

in

Western Empire. Thus the Western Empire now took

those

German

lands which the old

Eoman Emperors
part of the

never could conquer.

Germany became

Eoman Empire, not by Eome conquering Germany, but by Eome choosing the German king as her Emperor.
Contrast of itsboundarieswith those of the
elder
pire.

The bouudarics
i
i

of the
i

Empire thus became

i
r>

different

from what they had ever been before.

^

Of the old

r\

Em-

proviuccs of

tlic

Wcstcm

Emi^ire, Britain, Africa, and

all

Spain save one corner, remained foreign to the

of the Franks.

new

Eoman Empire
the

But, on the other hand,

Empire no^v took

in all the lands in

beyond Germany over which the

Germany and Fi^nkish power now

reached, but which had never formed part of the elder

Empire. The long wars of Charles with the Saxons led to

Conquest of
772-804.

their final conquest, to the incorporation o{

Saxony with

the Frankish kingdom, and, after the Imperial coronation of the Frankish king, to
its

incorporation with the

Western Empire.

'

THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE.

The conquests of Charles had thus, among their other results, welded Germany into a single whole. For
though the Franks had long been the greatest power
in

127
chap.

Germany, yet Germany could not be

single

said to

form a

whole as long as the Saxons, the greatest people

of Northern Germany, remained independent.

The

conquest of Saxony ])rought the Frankish power for

the
first

time in contact with the Danes and the other

Tlie dominions of Charles took

people of Scandinavia.

in what was then called Saxony beyond the Elbe, that

is

the

modern Holstein,and the Eider was

fixed as the Boundary

Eider.

northern boundary of the Empire.

More than one

to

Danish king did homage to Charles and

the Emperors after

some of

him

but

porated with the Empire or even

dependent.

Denmark was never incormade permanently

Slavonic
neighbours.

To

the east, the immediate dominions of the Elbe

;

way beyond here the Western Empire came in contact,

Charles stretched but a httle

but

as the Eastern

had done

at

an earlier time and by a different process,

with the widely spread nations of the Slavonic race.

The same movements which had driven one branch of that race to the south-west had driven another branch
to the north-west,

and the

w\ars of Charles in those

regions gave his Empire a fringe of Slavonic allies and

dependents along both sides of the Elbe, forming a

barrier between the immediate dominions of the
pire and the independent Slaves

Emthe
;

to the east.

To

Overthrow
of the Avar kingfiom.
(

of the Avars he south Charles overthrew the kincrdom ^ thus extended his dominions on the side of south-eastern

96.

Germany, and here he came

in contact with the southern

branch of the Slaves, a portion of

whom,

in Carinthia his

and the neighbouring lands, became subjects of

Empire.

In Spain he acquired the north-eastern corner

128

TPIE

FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

forming the Spanisli Marcli,
after-

as for as the Ebro,

wards the county of Barcelona.

Thus the new Western Empire took

that

in all Gaul, all

Italy,

was then Germany, the greater part of

It

and

a small part of Spain. ^

thus took in both Teutonic

in
it

and Romance

lands,

and contained

the germs of
It

the chief nations of

modern Europe.

was a

step

towards their formation when Charles, following the

example both of

earlier

Roman Emperors and

Owing

of earlier

Frankish kings, planned several divisions of his dominions

among

his sons.

to the deaths of all his

effect.

sons but one, none of these divisions took

it

And

should be noticed that as yet none of these schemes of

division

agreed with

any great natural or national

as yet

boundary.
sion

They did not

foreshadow the

divi-

which afterwards took place, and out of which

of Western Europe grew.
like

the chief states

cases

In two

only
of.

was anything
Charles's son

national

kingdom
in

thou2:ht
KiiiEfdomof Aquitaine.

Lewis reigned under him

all

as

king in Aquitaine^ a kingdom which took

Southern Gaul

and the

Spanish March,

answering

pretty nearly to the lands of the Provencal tongue or

Death of Charles.
814.

tongue of Oc.

And when

Charles died, and was suc-

ceeded in the Empire by Lewis, Charles's grandson

Bernard
Kiiiijdom
of Italv.

still

went on reigning under

Italy

his uncle as

King

of Italy.

The Kingdom of

must be understood

as taking in the Italian mainland, except the lands in

the south which were held by the dependent princes of

Beneventum and by the

Use
of the

rival

Emperors of the

East.

During
'

this

period Francia

commonly means

the strictly

name
FruHcia.

The geographical extent of

is
c.

af tei- the conquest of Charles

tlie Frankisli dominion before and most fully marked by Einhard, Vita

Karoli,

15.

'

THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS

IN BRITAIN.

129

Frankish kingxloms, Gaulish and German.

The words

Gallia and Gennania are used m a strictly geographical

sense.

'-

chap.

6.

Northern Europe.
'-'

Meanwhile other nations were beo-inning *the Empire.

to

show

themselves in those parts of Europe which lay beyond

Scandinavians and English.

In north-western Europe two branches

;

of the Teutonic race were fast growing into importance

the one in lands which had never formed part of the

Empire, the other

in a

land which had been part of

it

it,

but which had been so utterly severed from

all

as to

be

one as

if it

had never belonged

to

it.

These were

the Scandinavian nations in the two great peninsulas of

Northern Europe, and the English

in the Isle of Britain.

The
it

history of these

two races

is

closely connected,

and

has an important bearing on the history of Europe in

general.

In Britain

itself

had been ^ gradual. Britons were made with great speed

Tin-

the progress of the English arms

from the Sometimes conquests ^

.

siapes of English conquest of

*^'"^

Britain.

sometimes the

English advance was checked by successes on the British side,

different

by mere

inaction, or

by wars between the

victory,

Enghsh kingdoms.
as

The fluctuations of
as the warfare

and consequently of boundaries, between the English

kingdoms were quite
the

marked

between
The
kingdoms.

Enghsh and the

in

Britons.

Among the many Teutonic

and three

settlements

Britain, small and great, seven king-

doms stand out

as of special importance,

of these, Wessea;, Mercia, and Northumberland, again

stand out as candidates for a general supremacy over

the whole English name.

At
K

the end of the eighth

.

century a large part of Britam remained, as

-i

.I,

it

still

the end of the eighth century.

130
CHAP.
V.

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

remains, in the hands of the elder Celtic inhabitants

but the parts which they

Celtic
states.

still

kept were

now

cut off

from each other. Cornwall or West- Wales, North- Wales (answering nearly to the modern principahty), and Strathclyde or

Cumberland

(a

much
were

larger district than the

all

modern county
though

so called)

the seats of separate,

fluctuating, British states.

Beyond the Forth

Scots,

lay the independent

kingdoms of the Picts and

which, in the course of the ninth century, became one.

WestSaxon supremacy under
Ecgberht. 802-8^7

It

was the West-Saxon kingdom to which the

all

su-

premacy over
and
Celtic,

the

kingdoms of

Britain, Teutonic
its

came

in the end.

Ecgberht,

king,

had

been a friend and guest of Charles the Great, and he

had most
his

likely

been

stirred

up by

his

example to do

in

own

island

what Charles had done on the mainland.

In the course of his reign, West- Wales was completely

conquered

the other English kingdoms, together with

less

North- Wales, were brought into a greater or

of dependence.

degree

But both

in

North- Wales and also in

local

Mercia, Northumberland,

and East-Anglia, the

kings went on reigning under the supremacy of the King

of the West-Saxons,

who now began sometimes

to call

himself King of the English.

In the north both Scot-

land and Strathclyde remained quite independent.

The Scandinavian
nations.

That part

also

of the Teutonic race which lay

alto-

gether beyond the bounds of the Empire

to

now

begins

The Danes.

be of importance.

The Danes
;

are heard of as

early as the days of Justinian

but neither they nor

the other Scandinavian nations play

any great part

in history before the time of Charles the Great.

great

number of

small states gradually settled

down

into three great kingdoms,

their

which remain
changed.

still,

though

boundaries have greatly

The boun-


THE SCANDINAVL\N KINGDOMS.
dary between Denmark and the Empire was, as have seen, fixed
at the Eider.

chap.
V.
'

131

we
it,

Besides the peninsula

still

of Jutland and the islands which

belong to

Denmark took

in

Scania and other lands in the south

Extent of

of the great peninsula that now forms Sweden and Norway. Norway, on the other hand, ran much further
inland,

andxor-

and came down much further south than

it

does

now.

These points are of importance, because they

later

show the causes of the

Scandinavian
states.

history

of the

three

Both Denmark and Norway had a

great front to the Ocean, while Swithiod and Gauthiod,

the districts which formed the beginning of the

kingdom
Sweden.

of Sweden, had no opening that way, but were altogether

turned towards the Baltic.

It

thus

came about that

for

some

centuries both

Denmark and Norway played

a
Danish and
settlements.

much
of the

greater part in the general affairs of Europe than

Sweden

Denmark was an immediate neighbour Empire, and from both Denmark and Norway
did.

men went
more

out to conquer and settle in various parts

of Britain, Ireland and Gaul, besides colonizing the

distant

and uninhabited lands

of

Iceland and
Pressure of

Greenland.

Meanwhile, the Swedes pressed eastward

Baltic.

Swedes to

on the Finnish and Slavonic people beyond the

In
this last

^^^ East.

way they had a

;

great effect on the history

of the Eastern Empire

but in Western history Sweden

a

counts for very

little till

much

later time.

During the period which has been dealt with

this chapter, taking in the sixth, seventh,

in Summary.

and eighth

centuries,

we

thus see,

first

of

all

the reunion of the

Justinian

greater part of the

Eoman Empire under

then the lopping

provinces

away of the Eastern and African

by

the conquests of the Saracens

then the

K 2


132

THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.

gradual separation of
"

CHAP,
r

all Italy

except the south, ending

in the re-establishment of a separate

Western Empire

under Charles the Great.

tian powers, the Eastern

We

thus get two great Chris-

and Western Empires, balanced

by two great Mahometan powers, the Eastern and Western Caliphates. All the older Teutonic kingdoms
have either vanished or have grown into something
wholly
different.

The Vandal kingdom

of Africa

and

the East-Gothic

kingdom have wholly vanished.

The
in the
still

West-Gothic kingdom, cut short by Franks on one

side

and Saracens on the other, survives only

form of the small Christian principahties which

held their ground in Northern Spain.

The Frankish

kingdom, by swallowing up the Gothic and Burgundian dominions in Gaul, the hidependent nations of

Germany, the Lombard kingdom, and the more part

of the possessions of the Empire in Italy, has
into a new Western Empire.
still

grown The two Empires, both

politically

Eoman,

are fast becoming, one Ger-

man and
tance.

the other Greek.

Meanwhile, nations beyond

into impor-

the bounds of the

Empire are growing

The

process has

begun by which the many

small Teutonic settlements in Britain grew in the end

into the one

kingdom of England.
to

The

three Scan-

dinavian nations,

Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians or

Northmen, now begin

a
religious

grow
if

into importance.
Syria,

In

point

of view,

Egypt, Africa,
Christen-

and the more part of Spain were

lost to

dom, the loss was in some degree

in Britain, of the Old-Saxons in

made up by

the

conversion to Christianity of the Angles and Saxons

Germany, and of the

the beginning of the

other

German

tribes

which

at

sixth century

had

still

been heathen.

At no time

in

smoiARY.
the world's history did the

133
chap.
""-

map undergo greater cliaiiges.

transition

This period
older
state

is

the time of real

from the

-^

of things
to the

represented

by the undivided
in

Roman Empire
Europe
states.
is

newer

state of things

which

made up of a great number The modern kingdoms outside

of independent

the Empire, in

Britain

and Scandinavia, were already forming.

to form.

The

great continental nations of Western Europe had as

yet hardly begun

They were

to

grow out

of the break-up of the CaroUngian Empire, the

Eoman

Empire of the Franks.^

'

While

was revising

this chapter,

became acquainted with

C.

J.

Jirecek's Gesc/dchte

chapter of which is ments of the Slaves in the Eastern peninsida. He makes it probable that they were there earlier than is generally thought. They seem, exactly like the Teutons, to have first entered the Empire as captives and colonists, a process which may have begun as early as the second
centuries. He shows also that the march of Theodoric had the effect of laying a large region open to their settleBut he leaves my general propositions untouched. It is ments. not till the sixth century that those Slavonic movements began which

der BuLgai^en (Prag, 1876), the third devoted to an examination of the early settle-

and third

into Italy

are of real importance to historical geography.

134

CHAPTEE

VI.

THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

1.

The Division of

the

Frankish Empii^e.

CHAP.
VI.

The great dominion of the Franks, the German kingdom which had so strangely grown into a new Western

Dissolution of the

Eoman
process

Empire, did not

it it

last

long.
fell

In the course of
to pieces.

Frankish dominion.

the ninth century

altogether
fell

But the

by which
it

to pieces
its

must be carefully
that

The

chief

traced, because

was out of

dismemberment

states of

modern Europe
spring out of it.

the chief states of Western Europe arose.

Speaking

roughly, the Carolingiau Empire took in Germany, so

far as

Germany had
it

yet spread to the East,

all

Gaul,

a great part of Italy, and a small part of Spain.

National

Of
of a

these,

was only

Italy,

and sometimes Aquitaine,

to the character

kingdoms
not j-et formed.

which showed any approach

separate or
central

national kingdom.

Northern Gaul
;

and

Extent

ot

the

Germany were still alike Francia Eomance speech prevailed in one, and
in

and, though
the Teutonic

Francia,

speech

the

other,

no national

distinction

was

drawn between them during the time of Charles the

Great.

Among

the proposed divisions of his Empire,

none proposed
Se])arate being of

to separate Neustria

and Austria, the

Western and the Eastern Francia.

But

Italy did

form

Italy and Aquitaip.e.

a separate kingdom under the superiority of the

Em-

peror

and so

for a while there

was an under-kingdom


DIVISIONS

UNDER LEWIS THE

PIOUS.

135
chap.
-

of Aquitaine, answering roughly to Gaul south of the

Loire.

This

is

the land of the Provencal tongue, the

it

r-

tongue of Oc, a tongue which,

must be remembered,

reached to the Ebro.

It

is

in the various divisions,

Division

contemplated and actual, among the sons of Lewis the

Pious, the successor of Charles the Great, that

we

see

Lewis the
First

the

first

approaches to a national division between GerGaul, and the

first

glimpses

many and
The

glimmerings of a

state

of

Modem

answering in any way to France in the modern sense.

earhest
is

among

those endless divisions that

we
Division of
SI 7

need mention

the division of 817,

by which two new

subordinate kingdoms were founded within the

pire.

Em-

Lewis and

his

immediate colleague Lothar kept

in their

own hands

Francia,

German and

Gaulish, and

the

more part of Burgundy.

South-western Gaul,

Aquitaine in the wide sense, with some small parts of

Septimania and Burgundy, formed the portion of one

under-king
the

South-eastern
it,

Germany,

Bavaria

and

march-lands beyond
Italy
still

formed the portion of

third.

another.

remained the portion of a

in

Here we have nothing

the

least
is

answering

to

modern France.
Germany,
its

The tendency

rather to

leave

the immediate Prankish kingdom, both in Gaul and

as

an undivided whole, and to

part

off
union
of

dependent lands, German, Gaulish, and

Italian,

But, in a

much

later division,

Lewis granted Neustria

the

and Aqui
firsrstep to

to his son

Charles,

and

in

next year,

on

the

death of Pippin of Aquitaine, he added his kingdom

to

of /Vance.

that of Charles.

state

was thus formed which

answers roughly to the later kingdom of France, as

it

stood before the long series of French encroach-

character u-estem

ments on the German and Burgundian lands.

The
it

kingdom thus formed had no

definite

name, and

136

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

answered to no national
.

^
VI.
^

CHAP,

division.

It

was indeed mainly

"^
, .

"

kingdom of the Eomance

It

speech,

but

it

did not

answer to any one of the great divisions of that

speech.

was a kingdom formed by

there

accident, because
his

Lewis wished to increase the portion of

son.
Still

youngest

can

be no doubt that

we have
stages

here the
thousfh
Division of
43.

first
it

beginning of the kingdom of France,

not
till

was
of

after

several

other

that the
final

kinwlom thus formed took

Verdun went a

that name.

The

division

step further in the

direction of the
session of a

modern map.
still

It left Charles in pos-

kingdom which
It

more nearly answered

its

to France, as

France stood before

also

Burgundian and
a

German
its

annexations.

founded

kingdom
before

which roughly answered

to the later

Germany

great extension to the East at the expense of the

Slavonic nations.

And,

as the

Western kingdom was

to the

formed by the addition of Aquitaine

Western
Lewis of

Francia, so the Eastern kingdom was formed by the

addition of the Eastern Francia to Bavaria.

Bavaria became king of a kingdom which

we

are
it

tempted to

call the

kingdom of Germany.
Germany, except

Still

would
all,

as yet

be premature to speak of France

at

or even to speak of

in the geo-

King-doms

graphical sense.

em

and'

klugdoms of thc

The two kingdoms are severally the Eastem and of the Western Franks.
statcs the policy of the ninth

We8tevn
Franks.

But bctwceu thcsc two

century instinctively

put

barrier.

The Emperor

Lothar, besides Italy, kept a long narrow strip of territory

between the

dominions of his Eastern and

After him, Italy remained to his

Western brothers.

son the Emperor Lewis, while the border lands of Ger-

many and Gaul

passed to the younger Lothar.

This


DIVISION OF VEEDUN.
land, having thus

'

137
chap.
~~
'

been the dominion of two Lothars,

took the name of Lotharingia^ Lothringen, or Lorraine^

a

name

Avhich part of

it

has kept to this day.

This land,
to

J'^^J^^
f^^^^_

sometimes attached

to the Eastern

kingdom, sometimes

the Western, sometimes divided between the two, some- LoSe.

times separated from both, always kept

its

character of
lyl^^^^^
J^nejf""^

The kingdom to the west of it, in like manner took the name of Karolingia^ which, according
a border-land.
to the

same analogy, should be Charlaine.

It is

only

""""^'"

by

a caprice of language that the

name

of Lotharingia

has survived, while that of Karolingia has died out.

Meanwhile, in South-eastern Gaul,

'

'

between the

Bursuudy,
or the
Jij|JJ^jjj

Ehone and the Alps, another kingdom arose, namely Under Charles the Third, the kingdom of Burgundy. commonly knowm as the Fat, all the Frankish dominions, except Burgundy, were again united for a moment.

^^^^^^ *^^
p^r^*^^^ 884.

On

his deposition they split

asunder again.

We

now have

four distinct kingdoms, those of the Eastern

Division on
his deposition.

and Western Franks, the forerunners of Germany and

France, the kingdom of Italy, and Burgundy, sometimes

887.

forming one kingdom and sometimes two.

Lotharingia

remained a border-land between the Eastern and Western kingdoms, attached sometimes to one, sometimes to
another.

Out of these elements arose the great kingnations of Western Europe.

doms and

hardly be better

The four can described than they are by the Old:

English Chronicler
to the East of

'

Arnulf then dwelled in the land

Ehine

and Eudolf took

to the

middle

kingdom
and

and Oda

to the

West

deal

and Berengar

Guy

to the

Lombards' land, and

to the lands

on
all

that side of the mountain.'

But the geography of

the four king-doms which

at

now

arose must be describad

somewhat greater

length.

138
CHAP,
VI.
'

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES,

It

must be borne

in

mind

that all these divisions

-"

of the great Frankish dominion were, in theory, like

the ancient divisions of the Empire, a

mere parcelling
and their
in formal

out of a
No
formal

common
The
had no

possession

among

several royal coltitles, '

leaorues.

titles or

&

Kino;s C^

had no

special i

tii"Frankdon!s!^

^^oiT^i^ions

special

names recognized

use.

Every king who ruled over any part of the

Franks, just as

ancient Francia was a King of the

much

as

all

among

the

many

rulers of the

Eoman
and

Empire
equally
their

in the days of Diocletian

and Constantine were

Eoman

Augusti or CEesars,

As

the kings

kingdoms had no formal

titles specially set

apart

for them, the writers of the time

Various

had

to describe

them

as they might.^
,

The Eastern part of

the Frankish domihis successors.

names

of

the Eastern

nious,
ig t-hus

tlic lot

Kingdom
or Ger-

of Lcwis the

German and

many.

called the Eastern

Its

Kingdom^ the Teutonic King-

King of the East-Franks., sometimes simply the King of the Eastern men., sometimes
dom.
king
is

the

the

King of Germany. This last name, convenient in use,

as a formal
title,

was inaccurate
in Gaul.^

for the in

Regnum

Teuto-

nicum lay geographically partly

Germany, partly

To

the

men

of the Western

kingdom the
often found in
it

Eastern king sometimes appeared as the King beyond the

Rhine.
.

The

title

of King of

Germany

is

the ninth century as a description, but

'

was not a

The

best account of

the

various names

Frankish kings and their people are described Deutsche Verfassungsgeschidite, v, 121 et seqq,
2
'

by which the Eastis given by Waitz,

:

So Wippo (2) describes the gathering of the

Cis et circa

Rhenum

castra locabant.

men of the kingdom Qui dum Galliam a Ger-

manis

dividat,

ex parte Germanice Siixones

cum

sibi

adjacentibus

Sclavis, Franci orientales, Norici,

Alamanni, convenere.

De

Gallia

vero Franci qui super

itnati sunt.'

Rhenum
of

habitant, Ribuarii, Liutharingi, coad-

The two sets

'

Franks are again distinguished from the

Latin or French Franci.'

THE EASTERN KINGDOM.

formal
title.

139
chap.
"
>

The Eastern
calls

kino;, like

other kino's, for the

till

most part simply

himself Rex,

the time

came

-'

when

his

rank as King of Germany or of the East-

Franks became simply a step towards the higher title of

Emperor
pire ^

of the Romans.

But

it

must be remembered,

that the special connexion

between the
.

Roman Emat

and the German kingdom did not bemn

division

once
first

Connexion between the Eastern

Kingdom
and the
Empire.
imperial coronation
of Amuif. 896.

on the

of

887.

Arnulf indeed, the

German King

after the division,

;

made
it

his

way

to

Eome
.

and was crowned Emperor

tion of the Eastern

and

marks the

posi-

kingdom

as the chief

among

the

kingdoms of the Franks, that the West-Frankish King

Odo
The

did

coronation,
rule

homage to Arnulf when he was

that

before his lord's Imperial Homage

still

of

simple

German
.

kinoj.

Amnif.
888.

whoever was chosen King

and
to the

of

GerFinal union ofGerniauy

^vith the

many had
kingdom of
^
_

a right, without further

Italy

election,
,

to the

Roman

Empire,

began

Empire

only with the coronation of Otto the Great.

that time, the

... German king simply one

is it
is

Up
^_

to under
^^'^^

otta

the Great.

of the kings

of the Franks, though

highest place

plain that he held the

among them.

This Eastern or

German kingdom,
Germany

as

it

came out
Extent of

of the division of 887, had, from north to south, nearly

the same extent as the

of later times.
Its

It man king-

stretched from the Alps to the Eider.

southern

boundaries were somewhat fluctuating.

Aquileia are sometimes counted as a

Verona and

German march,

and the boundary between Germany and Burgundy,

crossing the

the

modern Switzerland, often changed. To North-east the kingdom hardly stretched beyond

the Elbe, except in the small Saxon land between the

Elbe and the Eider.

The

great

extension of

the

140
CHAP.

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPE.^N STATES.

^
The

-^

'

German power over

the

the Slavonic lands

beyond the

Elbe had hardly yet begun.

To
;

the South-east lay the Eastern

two border-lands or marks

later

Mark^
of

aiTd Ca^rin-

which grew into the

duchy of
But

Oesterreich or the

marks.

modem
kingdom

Austria^ and to the south

or
Carinthia.

of

it

the

mark

The great

Kamtken

the main

part of the

consisted of the great

duchies of Saxony,

Eastern Francia, Alemanma, and Bavaria.

Of

these

the two names of Saxony and Bavaria must be carefully

Saxony.

marked
tliosc

as

having

widely

different

meanings

from

wliicli

they bear on the

modern map.
never acthe south
centre

Ancient Saxoiiy

lies,

speaking roughly, between the

it

Eider, the Elbe, and the Ehine, though

tually touches

the last-named river.

To

of Saxony
Easterner
Francia.

lies

the Eastern Francia, the

and

kernel of the

German kingdom.
Francia
lie

The Main and the

its

Ncckar
the

botli join the

Ehine within

borders.

To
Italy,
is

south
last,
it

of

Alemamiia and Bavaria.

town.

This
Aiemannia and Bavaria,

must be remembered, borders on

its

witli

Botzcu for

frontier

Alemannia

the land in which both the Ehine

and the Danube

both sides of
the Eastian
to

take

their

source

it

stretches

on

the Bodensee or

Lake of Constanz, with

no
distinction,

Alps as

its

southern boundary.
is

For several ages

national or

come, there
vincial,

even pro-

between the lands north and south of the

Bodensee.

Lothar-

Thcsc lauds make up the undoubted Eastern or

"^'^'

German
For the

territory.

To

the west of this

lies

the border
its

land of Lotharingia, which has a history of

first

own.

century after the division of 887, the pos-

session of Lotharingia fluctuated several times

between

LOTHARDsGL^.
tlie

141
After
.

Eastern

and the Western kino-Jom. "in the

the
.

chap.
VI.
987

change of dynasty

Western kingdom, Lotharingia

in
alle-

became
being,

definitely
it

and undoubtedly German

giance, though

always kept up sometliing of a distinct

and

its

language was partly German and partly

Eomauce.

Lotharingia took in the two duchies of the

the Mosel.

Ripuarian Lotharingia and Lotharingia on

The former

contains a large part of the

modern Belgium

and the neighbouring lands on the Ehine, including

the royal city of Aachen.

Lothaiingia on the Mosel

answers roughly to the later duchy of that name,

though

its

extent to the East

is

considerably larger.

The

part of the Frankish dominions to which the The

dom.

west-

ern King-

Frankish name has stuck most lastingly has been the

Western kingdom or Karolingia, which gradually got

the special

name

of France.

This came about through

the

events of the

ninth
as
it

and tenth

centuries.

The
887,
its extent,

Western kingdom,
Bald and as
it

was formed under Charles the

after the division of

remained

nominally took in a great part of modern France,

namely

all

west of the Ehone and Saone.

It

took in

nothing to the east of those rivers, and Lotharingia, as

we have down as

seen,

was a border land which

of

at last settled

part

the Eastern kingdom.

Thus the
very

extent of the old Karolingia to the east was

much

smaller than the extent of

modern France. But,

in

on the other hand, the Western kingdom took

lands at three points which are not part of

modern

France.

These are the march or county of Flanders

in the north, the greater part of

which forms part of

part of Spain

the

modern kingdom

of Belgium
is

the Spanish March., or

;

county of Barcelona., which

now

and

142
CHAP,
VI.
.

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN

STiVTES.

the
. -

Norman

Islands which are

now

held by the sove-

reign of England.

And

it is

hardly needfid to say that,

even within these boundaries, the whole land was not in

the hands of the

King of the West-Franks.

vassal

He had only
the

a supremacy, which was apt to become nearly nominal,

The great

over

the

princes

who

held

great

divisions

of the kingdom.

South of the Loire the

chief of these vassal states

were the duchy of Aquitaine,

a name which now means the land between the Loire and the Garonne the duchy of Gascony between the

Garonne and the Pyrenees

the east of
lona.
it

the

county of Toulouse to

the
still

marches of Septimania and Barceunder a very

North of the Loire were Britanny, where native

princes

Celtic

reigned

doubtful

supremacy

on

the part of the Frankish kings

march of Flanders in the north and the duchy of Burgundy^ the duchy which had Dijon for its capital,
and which must be carefully distinguished from other
duchies
The Duchy greatest

the

and kingdoms of
of
all,

the

same name.

And,
that
is

there was the

duchy of France,
and
in

Western or
Latina.
called

Latin

France^ Francia

Occidentalis
its

or

Its capital

was

Paris,

princes were

Duces Francorum, a
is

title

which the word

its

Francus

just

beginning to change from

to
its

older

meaning of

Frank

later

meaning of French.
fiefs,

From
Normandy
Fiance."^" 912

this great

duchy of France several great

as

Aiyou and Champagne, were gradually cut off, and the part of Fraucc between the Seine and the Epte was
granted to the Scandinavian chief Eolf, which, under

him and his Normandy.

France and

successors,
Its

grew

into the great

duchy of
settle-

capital

was Eouen, and

the
effect of
sea.

this

ment of the Normans had

its

cutting off

capital Paris

from the

"

THE WESTERN KINGDOM.

The modern French kingdom
being
crraduallv

143

came

into

chap.
^-

during

the

century

after

the

deposition

of

Charles the Fat.

During

this

time the crown of the

fro

Western kingdom passed

between the

to

and

more than once

at Paris

Dukes of the French

and the

Fiuctua-

princes of the house of Charles the Great,

whose only

tweL

the

immediate dominion was the

city

and

district of

Laon

the French

near the Lotharins-ian border. ^

years,
^
'

Thus, for a hundred

.

and the
Karlings at Laon. 888-987.

the royal city

of the Western
,

kingdom was

sometimes Laon and sometimes Paris, and the King

of the West-Franks was sometimes the same person
as the
union of

Duke

of the French and sometimes not.

But

Duchywith
Frtnkilh
^'^'

after the

election of

Hugh

Capet, the

kingdom and

the duchy were never again separated.

The Kings
the

gs"?

of

Karolingia

or

the Western

kingdom, and

Dukes of the Western Francia, were now the same

persons. ^
cia. '

as

FranJcen

properly

Western or Latin Fran- New ^^ nieanfrom the German Francia or isofthe distinguished o word
France then

the

meant only the King's immediate

France.

Though Normandy, Aquitaine, and the Duchy of Burgundy, all owed homage to the French
dominions.
king, no one

would have spoken of them

But,
as

as parts

of France.

the

French

kings,

step

by

step, got possession of the

dominions of their vassals

and other neighbours, the name of France gradually A dvance

spread,
till
it

took

in,

as

it

now

does,

by

far

the

of the

greater part of Gaul.

On

the other hand, Flanders,

islands,

French '" '

Barcelona, and

the

Norman
have

though once
fallen

under the homage of the French kings, have

altogether

away,

and

therefore

never
the

been
of the

reckoned as parts of France.

Thus

name
as
it

France supplanted

the

name

of Karolingia

name

of the Western kingdom.

And,

as

so hap-

144
CHAP,
VI.

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

pened that the Western kings kept on the
title

of
the

Rex Francorum
Title of ijei*

after

it

had been dropped

in

Eastern kingdom, that

title

gradually came to mean,

not King of the Franks^ but King of the French^ King

Origin of
nation.

new Eomance-speaking nation which grew up under them. Thus it was that the modern kingdom and uatiou of France arose through the crown of the Western kingdom passing to the Dukes of the Western
of the

Paris the

Fvancia.
it

Paris

is

not only the capital of the kingdom

the

France?

is

tlic t

kcmel rouud which

kingdom and nation

grew.

The Middle Kingdom

or Bur-

Of
,

all
.

geographical names, that which has changed

greatest
.

its

meaning the

number
.

ot times to

r>

is

the

name
its

gundyVarious
of the

of

Burguudy
^

It is

specially needful
this stage,

explain

name different

meanings at
.

when

there are always

i

Burgundy.

two, and sometimes more, distinct states bearing the

Burgundian name.
The French

Of the older Burgundian kingbest

dom, the north-western part, forming the land

kuowu

as tlic DucJiy of Burgundtj, was, in the divi-

sions of the ninth century, a fief of Karolingia or the

Western kingdom.
Dijon for
its

This

is

the

Burgundy which has

capital,

and which was held by more than

This Burgundy, which,

one dynasty of dukes as vassals of the Western kings,

first at

Laon and then

at Paris.

as the

name of France came

to bear its

modern sense, may

be distinguished as the French Dicchy, must be carefully

distinguished from the
The King-

Royal Burgundy, the Middle

This
is

Kingdom

of our

own

chronicler.

a state which

Burgundy
or Aries.

arosc out of the divisions of the ninth century,

and

which, sometimes as a single kingdom, sometimes as

two, took in
all

the rest of the old Burgundian kingthe French duchy.

dom which

did not form part of

THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY.

It

145
chap.
^

may

be roughly defined as the land between the

its

Ehone and Saone and the Alps, though

somewhat

r^

fluctuating boundaries sometimes stretched west of the

Ehone, and its eastern frontier towards Germany changed

more than once.

Provence, with

It

thus took in the original

province in Gaul, which

its

Eoman may be now spoken of as

foremost

great

cities,

among them

Arelate or Aries, which was the capital of the kingdom,

and from which the land was sometimes called the King-

dom

of Aries,

It also

took in Lyons, the primatial city

citiesofthe

of Gaul, Geneva, Besan9on, and other important

Eoman
a

diau'king-

towns.
greater

In short,

from

its

position,

it

contained

number

of the former seats of

Eoman power
itself.

than any of the

new kingdoms

except Italy

When

Biu-gundy formed two kingdoms, the Northern

or Irans-jiirane

Burgundy took

in,

speaking roughly,

the lands north of Lyons, and

Cis-jurane

Burgundy
are

cis-jurane.

those between Lyons and the sea.

These

last

now

wholly French.
in

The ancient Transjurane Burgundy is modern geography divided between France and

Switzerland.

The

history
n

of this Burgundian
^

m
It

one respect irom that

or

any other

kingdom 1^1

differs Burgundy
opparated the

or tJie states from

which arose out of the break-up of the Frankish Empire,

parted off wholly from the Carolingian dominion
It

Frankish kingdoms.

before the division of 887.

formed no part of the

It

reunited Empire of Charles the Fat.

may

therefore

be looked on as having parted

immediately Frankish
rule,

off altogether
it

from the

though

often appears as

more or
Francia.

less

dependent on the kings of the Eastern

short.

But its time of separate being was

its

After

union of
the
IvlTl"'-

about a century and a half from

foundation, the dom

wi'th

Germany.

Burgundian kin^rdom was

united under

the

same

146
CHAP,
-^

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

'^

kings as
-

Germany, and

its

later history

consists

of

t'o'l'^^of

Sosfivan-'
France!"

way in which the greater part of the old Middle Kingdom has been swallowed up bit by bit by the modern kingdom of France. The only part which now forms the western is that wlilcli ^^^s cscapcd
the

cantons of Switzerland.
Partiy

In truth the Swiss Confedeas having, in

ratiou

may be looked on
middle
state.

some

slight

by Switzer-

dcgrcc, inherited the position of the

Burgundian king-

dom

as a

Otherwise, while the Eastern

and Western kingdoms of the Franks have grown into

two of the greatest powers and nations

wiped

in

modern
very
for

Europe, the Burgundian kingdom has been altogether

out.

Not only

its
it.

independence, but

its

name, has passed from

a long time past been

The name Burgundy has

commonly used

to express the

French duchy only.

The KingItaly.

Italy, uulikc

Burgundy, formed part of the reunited

;

dominion of Charles the Fat

but

it

altogether passed
It

away from Frankish

must be remembered

rule at the division of 887.

that,

though Lombardy was conit

quered by Charles the Great, yet

in tlie Frankish dominions, but

was not merged

as a separate

was held

kingdom by
Caroiin-

the

King of the Franks and Lombards.

ruled by

Till

the rcuuion under Charles the Fat, Italy, as a

_.

pan Kings
of Italy.

separate

kmgdom, was

iiiikmgs

of the Carolin-

r-i

gian house, some of wliom were crowned at

Eome

as

Emperors.
Italian

After the final division,

it

had separate

kings of

its

own, being not uncommonly disputed bekmgs.

tween two
Extentof
kingdom,

rival

taiucd Imperial rank.

bome or these kmgs even obThe Italian kingdom, it must

for

be remembered,
Italian peninsula.

was
Its

from taking

in the

whole

southern boundary was

much

'

THE KINGDOM OF ITALY.

the same as the old boundaries of Latium and Picenum,

147
chap.
VI.
~

reaching somewhat further to the south on the Hadriatic

coast.

To

the south were the separate principahties of

still

separate
ties of

Benevento and Salerno^ and the lands Avhich

to the Eastern

clave

Benevento

Emperors. '

thus took The kiuffdom

_

in and

Sa-

lerno.

Lombardy, Liguria, Friuli

in Trent

in the "wddest sense, taking

latter lands are

and

Istria,

though these

some-

times counted as a
islands
still

German march, while

the Venetian

kept up their connexion with the Eastern

Empire.

It

took in also Tuscany,

Romagna

or the
itself.

former Exarchate of Eaveuna, Spoleto, and Borne

The King-

dom

of

The

Italian

kingdom thus represented the old Lombard

,
. ,

itaiyrepresents the

kingdom, together with the provinces which were

formally transferred from the Eastern to the Western

Lombard

Empire by the
^
_

election of Charles the Great.

*'
_

But
_

!it
its

may be looked on
Lombard kingdom.
passed
to

as essentially a continuation of the Milan

capital.

The rank
the old

of capital of the Italian

kingdom, as distinguished from the

Eoman Empire,
capital of

away from

Lombard

Pavia

the ecclesiastical metropolis of Milan, and Milan

Italy.

became the crowning-place of the Kings of

For nearly eighty years
the

after the division of 887, Abeyance

oftlieEra-

Eoman Empire
fallen

of the

West may be looked on

as

piic.

having

into a kind of abeyance.

One German
;

and

several Italian kings

were crowned Emperors

but they never obtained any general acknowledgement

throughout the West.

There could not be said to be

definite geographical

any Western Empire with

daries.

bounEestoration of the

change

in

this

respect took place in the

''

second half of the tenth century under the

_

king Otto the Great.

king, Berengar

While he was
Italy

still
liis

King of

became

German only German man, as Odo

Westem
Empire by
otto
052.

X 2

148
CHAP.
VI.
9C2, 96S.

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

of Paris had become the

man

of Arnulf.

Afterwards

Otto himself obtained the Itahan kingdom, and was

crowned Emperor

at

established that the

at

Eome. The rule was now fully German king who was crowned

Aachen had a right to be crowned King of Italy at Milan and Emperor at Eome. A geographical Western
Empire was thus again founded,
kingdoms of Germany and
The three
Imperial

consisting of the

two

Italy, to

which Burgundy was

afterwards added.

These three kingdoms

now formed

kingdoms.

the Empire, which thus consisted of the whole dominions

of Charles the Great

frontier

allowing

for a different eastern

except the part which formed the Western

This union of

kingdom, Karolingia^ afterwards France.

three of the four kingdoms gave a
gonistic character to the fourth
rate.

more

distinct

and anta-

which remained sepagreat

Karolingia looked like a part of the

Frankish dominion lopped off from the main body.

On
Eelatious

the

other hand,

now

that the

German

kings, the

Kings of the East-Franks, were also Kings of Italy and

between the

Empire and France.

Burgundy and Emperors of the Eomans, they gradually dropped

style

their

Frankish

style.

But,
still

as

that
as

was kept by the Western

of their

kings,

and

more

the

name

duchy of France gradually spread

over so large a part of Gaul, the kingdom of France

had

a superficial look of representing the old Frankish

kingdom.
distinctly

The newly-constituted Empire had thus a rival power on its western side. And we
our story will consist of
the Imperial frontier

shall find that a great part of

the

way

in which,

on

this

side,

went back, and the French

frontier advanced.

On

the

other side, the Eastern frontier

of the Empire was

at the

capable of any amount of advance

Slavonic neighbours.

cost of

its

THE EASTEEN

EJilPIEE.

149
CHAP.

2.

The Eastern Empire.

v_IJi_^

The
,
.

and

of the various changes of the seventh xheEastem Empire. o eighth centuries, the rise or the baracens, the
effect
,

settlement of the Slaves, the transfer of the Western

Empire
effect

to the

Franks, seem really to have had the

of strengthening the Eastern Empire which they

It

so terribly cut short.

began for the

first

time to

put on something of a national character.

As

the

it

takes a

Greek

Western Empire was

Eastern Empire was
religious distinction

fast
fast

becoming German, so the

character.

becoming Greek.

And

Rivalry of

was soon added

_

to the distinction aud western or Greek

of languaaie. As the schism between the Churches ^ came on, the Greek- speaking lands attached themselves
to the Eastern,
Christianity.
its

and Latin
Cliurehes.

and not and

to

the

Western, form

of
all

The Eastern Empire, keeping

titles

on

Eoman

traditions,

had thus

become

nearly identical with what

may be

called the artificial

Greek

nation.

It continues the w^ork of hellenization

which was begun by the old Greek colonies and which

went on under the Macedonian

gives

kings.

No power
through the

Fiuctuatious in the

more w^ork

for

the

geographer;

Y^f"*^^.

alternate periods of decay

and revival which make up

nearly the whole of Byzantine history, provinces were

always being

lost

and always being won back again.

And

it

supplies also a geographical study of another

new divisions into which the Empire was now mapped out, divisions which, for the most part,
kind, in the

have very
times.

little

reference to the divisions of earlier

The Themes or provinces of

lege of being elaborately described

the Eastern Empire,

TherAe/c
scribed

as they stood in the tenth century,

...by

have had the

.

privi-

by

Constantine Por-

an imperial geo-


150
CHAP,
\
I.

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

graplier in the person of Constantine Porphyrogennetos.^

He

speaks of the division as comparatively recent, and

li'!;u^o^^'

^^ some themes as having been formed ahnost in his

own

time.

The themes wonld

certainly

seem

to

have

been mapped out after the Empire had been cut short
both to the north and to the
ture of the
Asiatic
Tlieniesi.

east.

The nomenclatitles

new

divisions

is

singular and diversified.

Some

ancient national

names are kept, while the Thus

in Asia

of others seem fantastic enough.

Paphla-

gonia and Kappadokia remain names of themes with

some approach

to their ancient boundaries

is

but the

Armenian theme
earlier uses of the
it.

thrust far to the west of

any of the

name, so that the Halys flows through

still

Between

it

and the

independent Armenia lay the

seat of

theme of

Clialdia^ Avith Trapezous, the future

its

Emperors, for

capital.

Along the Saracen

frontier lie
surit

the themes of Koloneia^ Mesopotamia

vival indeed of the

a shadowy

Mesopotamia of Trajan, of which

Sebasteia,

was not even a part

and
Seleiikeia, called

Lykandos, Kappadokia,
city of

from the Isaurian or Kihkian

coast the city

that name.

Along the south

in

of Kibyra
its

has

given

mockery, says Constantine

name
to

to the

theme of the Kibyrraiotians, which reaches as

far as Miletos.

The

isle

of

Samos

gives

its

name

a theme reaching from Miletos to Adramyttion, while

the theme of the
islands,
Aiolis.

^gwa7i
on
to

Sea, besides

most of the
bordered by

stretches

the mainland of the ancient

The

rest of the

Propontis

is

themes bearing the strange names of Opsihion and

Optimaton, names of Latin origin, in the former of
^

See special treatise on the

edition.

Themes
which

in the third
follows,
'

volume of the

Bonn

The

Treatise

de Administrando

Imperio,'

is also full

of geographical matter.

THE

THEJ^IES.

151
chap.

which the word obsequium is to be traced. To the east of them the no less strangely named Thema
Boukellarion takes in the Euxine Herakleia.

-^

Inland

and away from the

frontier are the

themes Thrakesion
is

and Anatolikon, while another Asiatic theme

formed

by the

island of Cyprus.
The EnroThemes,

The nomenclature of the European themes is more intelligible. Most of them bear ancient names, and
the districts which bear the lands which bore

them are
old. loss

at least survivals of

them of

After a good deal

of shifting, owing to
districts,

tlie

and recovery of so many

Thrace had

the Empfre under Constantine Porphyrogen-

netos

numbered twelve European themes.

shrunk up into the land just round Constantinople and

Hadrianople, the latter
Bulgarian.
leaving
the

now

a frontier city against the

to the east,

Macedonia had been pushed

more

strictly
still

Macedonian

coast-districts

which the Empire

kept to form the

themes of

Strymon and Thessalonike.

Going

fiu'ther south, the

use
of the

name

of Hellas has revived, and that with a singular

accuracy of application,

Hellas

is

now

the eastern side

HeUas.

of continental Greece, taking in the land of Achilleus.

The abiding name of Achaia has vanished for a while, and the peninsula which had been won back from the
Slave again bears
its

name

of Peloponnesos.
list

But Lakechief cities

daimonia now appears on the

instead of Sparta.

of

its

This and other instances in which

one Greek name has been supplanted by another are

witnesses of the Slavonic occupation of Hellas and
its

recovery by a Greek-speaking power.

coast the realm of Odysseus

Off the west

seems to revive in the

in also the

theme of Kephallenia., which takes

isle

mythic

of Alkinoos.

Such parts of Epefros and Western

152
CHAP.
VI.

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

Greece as clave to the Empire form the
Nikopolis.

theme of

To

the north, on the Hadriatic shore, was

Ihe Hadriaiic lauds.

the theme of Dyrrhachion^ and

beyond

that again, the

Dahnatian and Venetian

Possessions of the Empire in
Italv.

cities still

counted as outlying

portions of the Empu'e,

Italy forms the

Beyond

the Hadriatic, southern

theme of Lomhardy, interrupted by the

and Amalfi
Sicily

principality of Salerno^ while Naples, Gaeta,

were outlying posts

still
Cherson.

like

Venice and Eagusa.

;

was
lost

reckoned as a theme

but

it

was now wholly

to the Saracen,

And

far

away

in the Tauric peninsula,

the last of the Hellenic commonwealths, the furthest

outpost of Hellenic civilization, had sunk in the ninth

century into the Byzantine theme of Cherson.

Seeming
Asiatic character of the Empire.

The

first
is

impression conveyed by this geographical

that the Eastern

description

Empire had now become

It
is
is

a power rather Asiatic than European.

only in
Else-

Asia that any soHd mass of territory

Nature of its European possessions.

kept.

where there are only

islands

and

fringes of coast.

But

they were almost continuous fringes of coast, fringes

which contained some of the greatest

Maritime supremacy
of the

cities

of Christen-

dom, and which gave

supremacy by
Byzantine
sea.
it

their

masters an undisputed

If the Mediterranean

was not a
of

Empire.

lake,

was

only the

presence

the

Saracen, the occasional

visits

of the Northman, which

hindered

it

from being
if

so.

Then

again, the
is

whole

his-

tory of the Empire,

a history of losses,

also a history

of recoveries, and before long the

Eoman arms

again

became

terrible

by

land.

The

picture of Constantine

Porphyrogennetos shows us the Empire at a moment

when
Loss and recovery of
Crete.

neither process

was actually going on

but the
of loss

times before and after his reign were times,

first

and then of recovery.

Early in the ninth century Crete

823-960.

was suddenly seized

by Saracen adventurers from

'

POSITION OF THE EASTERN EMPIEE.

Spain
;

15B and slow

about the same time began the

lono;

Saracen conquest of Sicily.

But, almost at the

moment
in

"^

-
VI.

chap.

when

Sicily

was

lost,

the Imperial province in Italy

\^^lif
*-'"*^'^-

was largely increased, and the Imperial influence

Dalmatia was largely restored.
Peloponnesos was

About

the

same time
In the
;

ft-dv^Dai-'^

won back from

the Slaves.

Seee.'^"^

latter half of the tenth

century Crete was

Syria, with the

won back
famous

so

were Kilikia and part of

cities

of
Recovery
ofprovinces "i the East. 964-976.

Tarsos, Edessa, and Antioch on the Oroutes.

Presently

kincrdom Basil the Second overthrew the Bidqarian in ^ ^

Europe and the Armenian kingdom

at the foot

in Asia

the lands
Conquest of
Bulgaria. 98i-iui8.

of Caucasus admitted the Imperial sunre^ ^

macy, and the Byzantine rule was carried round the

greater part of the Euxine. ^
. .

Cherson indeed was

lost

Loss of Cherson.
^^8"

the old
Piussiau.

Megarian

city passed

into the hands of the

At

the other end of the Empire, the recoif th(;

very of Sicily was actually begun, and,

Saracen
in tlie
The Eastern Empire
""^'^J'

was not driven

interest

out, his

power was weakened

of invaders.

of the next set

Early in the

eleventh

again the ^ dominion which head of a was undoubtedly the great,

,

century the Eastern

,

Eome was

Basil the
S''<^^<^ii'i-

est
it

among

Christian powers, a dominion gi'cater than

at

had been

any time since the Saracenic and

Sla-

vonic iiu'oads began.

3.

Origin of

the

Spanish Kingdoms.

The

historical

geography of two of the three great

is

Southern peninsulas

thus bound up with

tliat

of the

Empires of which they were severally the centres.

The

case

is

quite different with the third great penin-

Position of
^'^'"'

sula, that of Spain.

There the

Eoman

dominion, even

the province which had been recovered, by Justinian,

had

quite passed away,

and

it

was only a small part of

154

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUEOPEAN STATES.

the land which was ever reincorporated, even in the

'

CHAP,

most shadowy way, with either Empire.

Spain was

The Saracen conquest,

now conqucred by
^
*'

the Saracens, as

it

had before been

it

conquered bv the Eomans,

witli this difference, that

1
1

710-713.

had been among the longest and hardest of the Eoman

conquests, while no part of the Saracen dominion

-r

was

won

in a shorter time.
it

But,

if

the

Eoman
The
;

conquest was

slow,

was

in the

end complete.

swifter Saracen
left

conquest was never quite complete

it

a remnant

by which the land was

was, as could hardly
as that Avhich

in the

end

to

be

won

back.

But the part of the land which withstood the Saracen

fail

to be the case, the

same part

held out for the longest time against

the
Asturia
732,

Eoman,
had

The mountainous regions of the North

Cantahria
2in(l

wcrc ucvcr wholly conquered.

wliich

Asturia

united with Cantabria,

751-

iicvcr fully submitted

to the Goths,

now

became

the

seat

of

resistance

under princes who

claimed to represent the Gothic kings, and part of

whose dominions bore the name of

GotJiia.

Twenty

years after the conquest, Asturia was again a Christian

principality,
Kingdomof
hv'vci.

which was presently united with Canta-

Tliis
fiefs

grcw

iuto

the

kingdom
its

of Leon.

The
last

great
County
(.f

of this kino;dom on
,.

eastern and western

borders, the counties of Gallicia

.

and

Castik,904.

Kingdom,

Originally a

kne

or castles against the

to baracen enemy
of

Castile

the

both
Kingdom of crrew
Navarre,
905.

showed from an early time strong tendencies

Meanwhile the kingdom

to separation.

Navarre

UD to the cast, stretching, o it must be rem emi a bered, on both sides of the Pyrenees, though by
far the
side.

larger

portion

of

it

lay

on

their

southern
of

To

the east of Navarre the small

counties

Countj' of

Aragonc.
760-

were the besjinning of the Araaon and Riparanensia ^ ? kingdom of Aragon. To the east again of this was
'
.

'

THE SPANISH KINGDOaiS.

the land which, after the final expulsion of the Sara-

155

cens from Gaul, became part of the Carolingian Empire

...
shiftiu^s
.

chap.
"-

VI.

by
^

the

name

of the Spanish March.

-^
.

The
to

of The
ish

SpanMarch.

territory, the unions

and separations of these various

belong
the
special
in the eleventh century

^^s.

kingdoms and

principalities,

history of Spain.

But early

the whole north-western part of

siderable fringe of territory

Spain,

and a con-

in the north-east,

had
had
,

been formed into Christian

states,

Amon^j
*-'

these

Beginnings
of Castile

been

laid the foundations of

two kino;doms, those of

to play a great part in

a^^
Aragon.

Castile

and Aragon, which were

the affairs of Europe.

It will

be at once seen that those among the Spanish

in

powers w^hich w^ere destined to play the greatest part

later history were not among the first to take the form At this stage even Castile has of separate kingdoms.
.
.

siow growth of
tiie

hardlv taken the form of a distmct

^

only beginning

Portugal has not

.

Arao"on is even begun. Of

state.

greater

kingdoms.

these three, Castile was fated to play the

w^as

same part

that
.

History of
Castile

and

played by Wessex in England and by France in

Aragon.

Gaul, to become the leading power of the peninsula.

Aragon, when her growth had brought her to the

Mediterranean, was to
fill

for a long

time a greater

place in general European

politics

than any other Spanish

to

power.

The union of

Castile

and Aragon was

form
terror
Portugal.

that great Spanish

monarchy which became the

of Europe.

Meanw^hile Portugal, lying on the Ocean,

all to

had

first

of

extend her borders at the cost of the

to

common enemy, and afterwards

Castile

become
in

a beginner

of European enterprise in distant lands, a path in which

and other powers did but follow

advance of

her

steps.

Meanwhile

the

the

Christians

was

Break-up of

156

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

helped by the division of the Saracenic power.
'

^^

CHAP,

The

Cahphates of the East and of the

"^

West

fell

to pieces,

the Spanish Caliphate.

exactlv as the Christian Empires did.

\

The undivided
.

Mahometan dominion
power
in the

in Spain

was

at the height ot its

tenth

century.

Yet even then, amid

many
1028.

fluctuations,

the Christian frontier

was on the
in

whole advancing in the north-west.

Christian

In the north-east
But,
early

progress

was slower.

the

eleventh century, the Caliphate of Cordova broke in

pieces,

and out of

its

fragments arose a crowd of small

at

Mahometan kingdoms

Cordova,

Seville,

Lisbon,
It

Zaragoza, Toledo, Valencia, and

elsewhere.

was

now

only by renewed invasions from Africa that the

in Spain

Mahometan power
Christian states are

was kept up.

But, as the

now

fully formed,

such mention of

these African dynasties as concerns

geography

will

come more

Slavonic

fittingly at a later stage.

4.

Origin of the Slavo?iic States.

We
who,

left

the borders of both the Eastern and the

race,

and Turanian invasions.

Western Empire beset by neighbours of Slavonic

in the case of the

Eastern Empire, were largely

mingled with other neighbours of Turanian race.

these
last,
;

Of

A.vare,

Patzinaks,
left

Khazars, have passed

away
case

they have

no trace on the modern map of

Europe.
Bulgarians.

With two of the Turanian settlements the

different.

is

the foundation of

The settlement of the Bulgarians, a kingdom of Slavonized Turanians

has

south of the Danube,

been already mentioned.

in

They
age
.

still

keep their place and nation, though

bond-

Another Turanian settlement

has been
history.

to the north of the

Bulgarians
Settlement

of

yet

greater

importance in
of the

Europeau

In

the

last

years

ninth

'

TURANIAN SETTLEMENTS.
century
the Finuish

157
chap.

Magyars

or

Hungarians^ the
as a

Turks of the Byzantine writers, began to count

power

in

Europe.

From

their

seats

between the

arsor^'^^'

mouths of the Dnieper and the Danube, they pressed eastward into the lands which had been Dacia and
Pannonia.

JJ^mf g'gs.

The Bulgarian power was thus confined

in the western part of

to
Great

the lands south of the Danube, and Great Moravia^ a

name which then took

Hungary,
fell

modern

wholly under Magyar dominion.

is

This settlement
itself.

one which stands altogether by

only Turanian

The Magyars and the Ottoman Turks are the settlers in Europe who have grown into ^
.

Peculiar character of

on European ground permanent Turaman powers ^ ^

. .

The
.

theMaj^yar
settlement.

have Bulsrarians 'C^

adopted.

been

lost in the

mass of

their Slavonic

neighbours and subjects, whose language

they have

Magyars and Ottomans

soil.

still

remain speaking
it is

a Turanian tongue on Aryan

But of these

only the Magyars that have grown into a really Euro-

pean
in

state.

After appearing as
Italy,

momentary ravagers
settled The k ingdom of
iiunj^ary.

Germany,

and even Gaul, the Magyars

down into a Christian kingdom, which, among many

fluctuations

of supremacy

and dependence, has

to this day.

reEffect of its

mained a
anity of

distinct

kingdom

The

Christi-

Hungary however came from

the Western
this fact

connexion

Church and not from the Eastern.

But

And

has

had a good deal of bearing upon the history of those

regions.
for this almost incidental

connexion with

the Old
people,

Eome, Hungary, though

settled

by a Turanian
its

would most naturally have taken

the Slavonic states

place

among
of the

which fringed the dominion

has turned out, difference of

New Rome.

As

it

religion has stepped in to heighten difference of blood,

and

Hungary has formed

kingdom

quite

apart.

158
CHAP.
VI.

BEGINNING OF THE MODEEN EUROPEAN STATES.

closely connected in
garia,
its

history with Servia

and Bul-

but running a course which has been in

many

things unlike theirs.

The Magyars separate the

The geographical
were
Southern Slaves.
rectly.

results of the

Magyar settlement

Northern and Southern Slaves.

to place a barrier

between the Northern and the

it

This

did both directly and indi-

The Patzinaks pressed into what had been the former Magyar territory they appear in the pages of
;

the Imperial geographer as a nation with

whom

the

Empire always strove

The Rus
sians.

to maintain peace, as they

formed
This
ninth

a barrier against both Hungarians and Russians.

last

name begins

to

be of importance

in

the

century.
race, they

part of the Eastern branch of the Slavonic

off

were cut

from the other members of that

branch south of the Danube by these new Turanian

settlements.

The Magyars again parted

from
still

the

Souththe

eastern

Slaves

the

North-western,

while

Eussians were
Effects of the geographical position of the Slaves.

neighbours of the North-western

position of these three divi-

Slaves.

The geographical
history.

sions of the Slavonic race has

had an important
Soutli- eastern

effect

on European

The

Slaves in
lands,

History of the Southeastern

Slaves.

Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia,

and the neighbouring

formed a debateable ground between the two Empires,

the

Magyar kingdom, and

the Venetian republic, as

soon as Venice grew into a distinct and conquering

state.

These lands have, down to our

own

time,

played an important, but commonly a secondary, part

in history.

And

in later times their history has chietly

consisted in successive changes of masters.

The

states

which they formed

The Northwestern
Slaves.

will

have to be spoken of in con-

nexion with the greater and more lasting powers to

which they have commonly been adjuncts. The Northwestern Slaves appear for the most part in different

'

THE SLAVONIC STATES.

degrees of vassalage or incorporation witli the Western

.159
chap.
"-

Empire.
there

But,

besides

several

considerable

duchies,

>

grew up among them the kingdoms of Bohemia

latter

Bohemia,

and Poland^ of which the

estabhshed

its

complete

independence of the Empire, and became for a while

one of the chief powers of Europe.
Eussia meanwhile,
Russia,

forming a third division, appears, in the ninth and

tenth centuries,
first

as a formidable

enemy, then

as a

spiritual conquest, of the

Empire and Church of Conthen

already assumed
in
at

stantinople.

Eussia had
it

the

character which

has again put on

later

times,

that of the one great

in

European power
in faith.

once Slavonic
is

race

and Eastern

Eussia

now
a

fully

established as an
its

European power.

The

variations of
distinct

territorial

extent

must be traced

in

chapter.

5.

Northern Europe.

of the Scandinavian na^ i'/i p ^ their settlements tune chiefly arises irom tions at this

The European importance

,..

various parts of Europe, and specially

Ireland.

...

The Scandinavian
settie-

m
-

ments.

Britain and

The

three great Scandinavian

kingdoms were

already formed.
the east
;

Sweden was doing

its

work towards
as North-

the Norwegians, specially

known

men, colonized the extreme north of Britain, the Scandinavian earldoms

of

Caithness and Sutherland, tothe north

gether
Britain,

with the

islands to

and west

of

Orkney, Shetland, Faroe, the so-called He-

brides,

and Man.

They

also

colonized the eastern

as Ostmen.

coast of Ireland,

where they were known

And

it

was from Norway

also that the settlers

came by

which the coast of France

in the strictest sense, the

French duchy, was cut off from the dominion of Paris

160

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

to
for

-r^
Engiaud
nirk.^"

CHAP,

form the Duchy of Normandy.

the

But the chief

field

'

energy of Denmark

properly so called lay

within the limits of that part of Britain which

we may
period
that the

now

begin to call England.

It

was during

this

that the united

EngHsh kingdom grew up,

many

English settlements in Britain coalesced into one

English nation.

And

this

work was

in a singular

way
in-

promoted by the very cause, namely, the Danish

vasions,

which seemed best suited

to hinder

it.

Up
as
it

to this time the great island

called,
little

had been

in truth,

was often and but

another world, influencing but

little,

influenced by, any of the lands

Formation
of the

wliicli
'Yho,

of either of the continental Empires. formcd part ^

. .

Kingdom
England.

of

history of these times, a history Enixlish O

./ -^
^

which

is

specially

connected with geography, consists of two

great facts.

The

first is

the union of all the English states

in Britain into

one English kingdom under the Westis

Saxon
WestSaxon supremacy under
Ec_sbe[ht.

kings.

The other

the establishment of a vague

supremacy on the part of those kings over the whole

island.

The dominion established by Ecgberht was in It consisted simply of Eni^iand. ^0 seusc a kingdom o l j o
\^
2i

supremacy on the part of the West-Saxon king

all

over

the princes of Britain, Teutonic and Celtic,

save only the Picts, Scots, and Welsh of Strathclyde or

Cumberland.

The smaller kingdoms

of Kent, Sussex,

and Essex formed appanages for West-Saxon wthelings

;

but the superiority over East-Anglia,

Mercia,

Northumberland, and the Welsh princes was purely

The Danish
789.
'

The change of this power into an united English kingdom holding a supremacy over the whole island was largely helped by the Danish incursions
external.

and

settlements.

These incursions began in the

;

last

years of the eighth century

they became more fre-

'

WEST-SAXON supre:\l\cy.
quent and more dangerous in the middle of the ninth
;

161
chap.
VI.
-^

and

in the latter part of that

century they grew from

This was the
first

mere incursions
^thelred and
Saxon king

into actual settlements.

result of the great

his

struggle in the days of the

more famous brother Alfred.

By
Division

Alfred's treaty with the Danish Guthrum, the Westkeijt his

own West-Saxon
rest of Mercia,

kincfdom and

all ^Eitred and

878.

the other lands south of the Thames, together with

western Mercia.

The

with East-Anglia

and Deira or southern Xorthumberland, passed under

im from the Tees

Danish

rule.

Bernicia, or northern Northumberland ^ T~\ ^ ni to the Forth, still kept its Anglian princes,

Btmicia
nut Danisii.

seemingly under Danish supremacy.

Over the lands

In Scotthe
I

which thus became Danish the West- Saxon king kept

a mere nominal and precarious supremacy.
land

and

Strathclyde

princes

was not

,.,-,,. cnsturbed but m

;

the

succession

of

Celtic

scandinavian settle-

part at least oi mentsin

a large
land.

Strathclyde, in the

more modern Cumberlard,

Scandinavian population, though probably Norwegian

rather than Danish, must have settled.

By

these changes the

power of the West-Saxon

increase of
diate king-

king as an over-lord was greatly cut short, while his

dom

of

immediate kingdom was enlarged.

The
its

dynastj^

which

Wessex.

had come so near

seemed
to

to the

supremacy of the whole island

uj)

be again shut

in

own kingdom and

it.

the lands immediately bordering on

But, by over-

throwing the other Enoflish kino-doms, the Danes had

^

prepared the ^

way
"^

for the second

^

West-Saxon advance
kiiif?
'-'

Second WestS"x*^n a^vance. 910-9^4.

iu

the tenth century.

The West-Saxon
further

was now

the only English king, and he

became the

English and Christian champion against intruders

largely remained heathen.

who
half

The work

of the

first

of the tenth century was to enlarge the

Kingdom

of

162

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

Wessex

into the

Kingdom

of England.

Eadward

the

Elder, King, not merely of the West-Saxons but of the

English, extended his immediate frontier, the frontier

of the one English kingdom, to the

Humber.

Wales,

Northumberland, English and Danish, and now, for the

first

time, Scotland

and

Stratliclyde, all

acknowledged

the English supremacy.

926.

Under ^thelstan Northumtime incorporated with the

berland was for the

first

kingdom, and
it
(.'umber-

after

several revolts

and reconquests,

finally

became an

integral part of England, form-

ing sometimes one, sometimes two, English earldoms.

land granted as
a fief to

Meanwhile Cumberland was subdued by Eadmund, and was given

as

Scotland. 946.

a
it it

fief to

the Kings of Scots,

to

who
sons.

commonly granted
Lothian
frrantfd to

as

an appanage

their

Meanwhile, partly,

would seem, by conquest, partly

Scotland.

by

cession, the Scottish kings

became possessed of the

northern part of Northumberland, under the

the earldom of Lothian.

name

of

Thus, in the second half of

the tenth century, a single

kingdom of England had

principalities, as well

been formed, of which the Welsh

as Scotland, Stratliclyde,
The Eng
iish
1

and Lothian, were

vassal states.
it

Thus the English kingdom was formed, and with

the English Empire.

Eni-

ire.

For the English kings in the

tenth and eleventh centuries, acknowledging no superiority

in

the

Csesar either of East or

West and

holding witliin their

Useof
titles.
il:e

own

island a position analogous to

that of the
to

Emperors on the mainland, did not scruple

title,

Imperial

assume the Liiperial

and

to

speak of them-

Emperors of the other world of Britain. The kingdom and Empire thus formed were transferred
selves as
Xortliern

Empire
Cnut.

of

by the wars of Swegen and Cnut from a West-Saxon to a Danish king. Under Cnut England was for a

lOlG-103%

moment

the chief seat, and Winchester the Imperial

THE EMPIRE OF CNUT.

city, of a

263
ftiirly

Northern Empire which might

of the Old and

claim
-^

chap.
r-^

a place alongside

the

New Eome.

England, Denmark, Norway, had a single king, whose

supremacy extended further over the

over Sweden and a large

rest of Britain,

part of the Baltic coast.

his death.
;

That Empire spHt in pieces on

The ScandiEngland
itself

navian kingdoms were again separated

was divided
united,
then,
last
first

for a

moment.

The kingdom, again

to the

reth.. xorq^est.

passed back to the West-Saxon house, and

by a second conquest,
1

revolution a division of
of.

11the kingdom

Norman. After

this

1066-70.

was never
finish- En-iand
""ifed by William.

more heard
for ever one.

William the Conqueror put the

.
.

ing stroke to the

work of Ecgberht, and made England And, by uniting England under the same
into the
affairs,

ruler as

Normandy, and by thus leading her

position such as she

general current of continental

he gave her an

European

had never held under

her native kings.

By

the end of the eleventh century then the chief Summary.

nations of

Europe had been formed.

The Western
a definite
xi,,.

Empire,
shape.

after

many

sliiftings,

had taken

The Imperial dignity and the two royal crowns of Italy and Burgundy were now attached to the

vvest-

and^thi''''

German kingdom.
keeping
its

The Empire,
titles

in

short,

though

Kingdons.

Eoman

and

associations,

and with
practithis

them
cally

its

influence over the minds of men,

had

become a German power.

lost their

Its history

from

time mainly consists in the steps by which the

German

Emperors of Eome

hold on their Italian and

Burgundian kingdoms, and of the steps by which the

German dominion was extended over the Slaves to the East. To the West the Western Kingdom has altogether
TC

France

164
CHAP,
VI.

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.

detached
itself

from the Empire

the

union of

its

crown with the Duchy of France has created the

French kingdom and nation, with
its

centre at Paris,

and with a supremacy,

as yet Httle

more than nominal,

over a large part of Gaul.

The EasternEmpire.
i
.

As
i i

the Western Empire

has bccomc German, the Eastern Empire has become

Greek
The

m the early years oi the eleventh century

i i i

it

agam

forms a powerful and compact

sia-

state, ruling

from Naples
it,

to Autioch.

Of the states to the north of

the
their

Bulgaria
;

states.

has

been reincorporated with

Empire
definite

Servia,

Hungary, Eussia, have taken

position

among

the Christian powers of Europe.

So have Poland

and Bohemia on the borders of the Western Empire.

Prussia, Lithuania,
Spain.

and the Finnish lands

to the

imme-

diate north

of them remain heathen.

In Spain, the

Christians have
Castile

won back

a large part of the peninsida.

;

and Navarre are already kingdoms

Aragon,
In

though not yet a kingdom, has begun her

The Scankinsdom.--.

history.

Nortlicm Europc, the three Scandinavian nations are

clearly distinguished
isle

and firmly

established.

Within the

of Britain the

kingdoms of England and Scotland

England

liavc

bceu formcd, and the union of England and Nor-

mandy,

mandy under a single prince has opened the way to altogether new relations between the continent and the
great island.

In short, the only European powers which

play a part in strictly medieeval history which are not

yet formed are Portugal and the Sicilian kingdoms.

From

this point then,

when most
being,

of the

European

powers have come

into

and when the two

Eoman Empires
to

are fast

becoming a German and a

it

Greek power alongside of other powers,

will

be well
far

change the form of our present inquiry.

treated the historical geography of

Thus

we have

Europe

as a

'

SUMMARY.
whole, gathering round two centres at the Old and the

165

New Eome.
separately,

It will

henceforth be more convenient

chap.

to take the history of the gi'eat divisions of

Europe

and

to trace

out in distinct chapters the

changes which the boundaries of each

have gone

through from the eleventh century to our

own

time.

But before we enter on these several national

it

divisions,
Ecclesiastical geo-

will

be well to take a view of the

ecclesiastical

di visions of

Western Christendom, which are of great

in the

g^aphy.

importance and which are constantly referred to

times with which

we

are

now

concerned.

166

CHAPTER

VII.

THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

CHAP.
VII.

The
by

ecclesiastical

geography of Western Europe was

this

time formed.

The

great ecclesiastical divisions

out,

Character
of ecclebiastical

were now almost everywhere mapped

hence they are more permanent than the
sions.

and from

geography.

political divi-

Permanence of
the ecclesiastical divisions.

The

ecclesiastical

geography in truth constantly

preserves an earlier political geography.

siastical divisions

The

eccle-

represent older civil divisions.

They

were always mapped out according

to the political divisions of the time

when they were

revolutions.

established,

and they often remained unaltered while

the political divisions went through

many

Thus
Illustrations from

in

France the dioceses represented the jurisdic-

tions

of the

Eomaii

cities

in

England they repre-

England
and France.

sented the ancient English kingdoms and principalities.

In both cases they outlived by

many

ages the

political divisions

which they represented.

While the

political

map was altered over and over again, the ecclesiastical map remained down to quite modern
hardly any change beyond the
occasio-

times, with

nal division of a large diocese or the occasional

union

of two smaller dioceses. of the ecclesiastical

Thus the greater permanence

often

map

makes

it

useful as

standard for reference in describing political changes.

Lyons and Kheims,

To

take

an instance, the city of Lyons has been at

different times

under Burgundian and under Frankish

PERMANENCE OF ECCLESIASTICAL
kings
;

DIVISIONS.
city
all

167
chap,

it

has been a free city of

tlie

Empire and a
But,

of the

modern kingdom
all

of France.

among

-'

these changes, the Archbishop of

Lyons has always

remained Primate of

the Gauls, \Yhile the Arch-

bishop of Eheims has held a wholly different position

alongside of

him

as first prelate

and

first

peer of the

modern kingdom of France.

political capital of the

Paris

meanwhile, the
till,

modern kingdom, remained

the seventeenth century the seat of a simple bishoprick.

In

this

way

the ecclesiastical division will be found

almost everywhere to keep up the remembrance of an

earlier political state of things.

As
these

the

Empire became
Patriarchates, Prolinces, D.oceses.

Christian, '
as

it

out was mapped ^^

into Patriarchates as well

into Prefectures.

Under

were the metro-

politan

and episcopal

districts,

which in after-times

borrowed, though in a reverse order of dignity, the

civil titles

of provinces and dioceses.

-'
./

As the Church
^

conquests carried her spiritual X ^

the Empire,

beyond the bounds of

were of course

Divisions within and without the Empire.

new

ecclesiastical districts

formed in the newly converted countries.

every kingdom had at least one

As

a rule,
;

archbishopric

the

smaller principalities, provinces, or other divisions be-

came the

dioceses of bishops.

But the

different social

conditions of southern and northern Europe caused a

marked
a city

difference in the ecclesiastical arrangements of

the two regions.

;

In the South the bishop was bishop of

tribe or a district.

in the

North he was bishop of a

city

Within the Empire each

Italy

had

its

bishop.

Thus

in

and Southern Gaul, where the

were

cities

were

tliickest

on the ground, the bishops were most numerous and

their dioceses

smallest.

In Northern Gaul the

cities
Bishops of
cities

while outside the are fewer and the dioceses larger, ^

,

and

Empire, the dioceses which represented a tribe or prin-

of tribes.

168
CHAP.
VII.

ECCLESL^STICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

cipality

were larger again. from the

Also again, within the

Empire the bishop,

his title

as bishop of a city, always took

;

city

outside the Empire, especially

in

the British islands both Celtic and Teutonic,

the

bishop of a tribe or principality bore a tribal or

torial title.

terri-

^ 1.
The
Patriarchates

The Great Patriarchates.

The

highest ecclesiastical divisions, the Patriarchates,

to the Prefectures,

suggested

though they did not exactly answer

by the

Pre-

fectures.

were clearly suggested by them.

boundaries of the Patriarchates

And whenever
departed

the

from the

boundaries of the Prefectures, they came nearer to the

great divisions of race and language.
it is

For our purpose,

enough

to take the Patriarchates, as they

grew

up,

after the establishment of Christianity, in the course of

the fourth and

fifth

centmies.

The

four older ones

were seated

at the

Old and the

New

Rome., and at the

two great Eastern

cities

of Antioch and Alexandria.

Out

of the patriarchate of Antioch the small patriarchate of

Jerusalem was afterwards taken. This

of sentimental geography
;

last

seems a piece

the

other divisions

were

eminently practical.
Rome.

Whether we look on the

Old

original

jurisdiction of the Bishop of the

Rome

as taking in

the whole prefecture of Italy or only the diocese of

Extended beyond the
Empire.

Italy,

it is

certain that

it

was gradually extended over

That
it

the two prefectures of Italy and Gaul.

in the Latin part of the

is, it

took

Empire, and

spread thence

over the Teutonic converts in the West, as well as

over Hungary and the Western Slaves.

Constantinople.

The

Patri-

archate of Constantinople or

New Eome

took in the
in

Prefecture
Prefecture

of Illyricum,

and three dioceses

the

of the East, those of Thrace, Asia,

and

'

THE PATPJAECHATES.
Pontus.

169
answers to the
chap.
'

This

territory

pretty well

extent of the Greek language and influence.

Illyrian dioceses, possibly

The two
aris-

'-

through some confusion

ing out of the two meanings of the

word
;

Illyricum,
but,

were claimed by the Popes of Old Piome

when

the Empires and Churches parted asunder, Macedonia

and Greece were not

division.

likely to cleave to the

Western
its relation

In course of time the Byzantine patriarchate

became nearly coextensive with the Byzantine Empire, em Empire and it became the centre of conversion to the Slaves Slaves.
of the East, just as the patriarchate of Old

Pome was

to
Antioch.

the Teutons of the West.

before
its

The

patriarchate of Antioch^

dismemberment

in favour of the tioy patriJerusalem.

archate of Jerusalem, took in the whole diocese of the

East, and the churches

beyond the

limits of the

Empire
Aiexandriji.

in

that

direction.

The

patriarchate of Alexandria

answered to the diocese of Egypt, with the churches

beyond the Empire on that

church, which has kept
its

side, speciall}' the

Abyssinian

nationality to our

own

time.

That these Eastern patriarchates have been for ages

disputed by claimants belonging to different sects of
Christianity
history, but
is

a fact which concerns both theology and

does not concern geography.

the see w^as in Orthodox or heretical

in national

that

is

Whether commonly

hands, the

see

and

its

diocese, the geogra-

phical extent on the map, remained the same.

These then are the

five ereat patriarchates

.

which

Latemomipatriarchates.
^'^'^

formed the most ancient geographical divisions of the

Chm'ch.
In later
times

...

the

been more loosely applied.

name patriarchate has As the Roman bishop

grew

into something
title

more than the Patriarch of the

West, the

of Patriarch was given to several metro-

pohtans, sometimes, as far as one can see, without any

170
CHAP.
VJI.
Lisbon, Venice, Aquileia.

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

particular reason.

The

title

has been borne by the

Bishops

of Lisbon and

Venice^

and

specially
last

by the
see.

Metropolitans of Aquileia.
title

These

assumed the

during a time of separation from the

this
five

Eoman

But nominal patriarchates of

fully

kind must be caregreat

distinguished

from the

churches to

which the name was anciently attached.

the
Patriarchate of

In the East

Moscow.
1587.

name was never extended beyond its four original holders, till a new patriarchate of Moscow arose in Eussia, to mark the greatest spiritual conquest of the Orthodox Church. Of the four original Eastern patriarchates
it is

only that of Constantinople which plays

much
three

part in later history.

fell

The

seats

of the other

into the

hands of the Saracens in the very

beginning of their conquests.

^ 2.
Great

The Ecclesiastical Divisions of

Italy.
lie

In no part of Christendom do the bishoprics

of

so

numbers

the Italian bishoprics.

thick

upon the ground

as in Italy,

and especially
fact
it

in the

southern part.

But from that very

follows that

the ecclesiastical divisions of Italy are of less historical

importance than those of most other Western countries.

Small size of the provinces.

In southern Italy above

all,

the

bishoprics

were so

numerous, and the dioceses therefore so small, that the

archiepiscopal provinces were hardly so large as the

episcopal dioceses in
in
Effect of the com

more northern

lands.

So

it

is

the islands

Sicily

contained four provinces and

Sardinia three.
liistory
,

The
.

peculiar cliaracteristics of Italian

ecclesiastical

monw'eaiths on the posi-

also

hindered

geoa;raphy "^

from

tionofthe
I)relates.

being of the same importance as elsewhere.

Where

every city became an independent commonwealth, the

Bishop, and even the Metropolitan, sank to a lower

rank than they held in the lands where each prelate

was

a great feudal lord.

ITALY.
It follows

171
chap.
VII.
Relation to
tife

then

tliat

there are only a few of the arch-

bishoprics and bishoprics of Italy

which

at all stand

out in general history.

also

The growth

of the

Eoman

see

Kom

more
it

distinctly

overshadowed the

Italian bishops

than

did those of other lands.

historical

The

bishoprics

which

Rivals of

have most

importance are those which at one

time or another stood out in rivalry or opposition to

Eome. Such was

took
in

the great see of Milan,

whose province
;

Milan.

crowd of Lombard bishoprics

such was the

juiisAquiieia.

patriarchal see of Aquileia,

diction took in
at the other.

whose metropolitan

Como

at

one end and the Istrian Pola

The patriarchs of Aquileia, standing as they did on the march of the Italian, Teutonic, and
Slavonic lands, grew, unlike most of the Italian prelates,
into

powerful temporal princes.

Ravenna was

tlie

Ravenna.

head of a smaller province than either Milan or Aquileia;

but Ravenna too stands out as one of the churches

which kept up
Eavenna,

for a while

an independent position

in

the face of the growing

in short,
;

power of Eome.
lost

Milan and
of their
first

never

the

memory
its

Imperial days
theological

and Aquileia took advantage, and secondly of

of a

difference,

temporal

position as the great border see.

In the rest of Italy the case

herself

is

different.

Eome

Thei mme(liate

was the immediate head of a large province

Within
this the suhurbi-

Roman
I'rovinc

stretching from sea to sea.

carian sees, those close around Eome, stood in a special

and closer relation

famous
cities

to the patriarchal see itself.

The
Metropoii^
centrd''

of Genoa, Bologna, Pisa, Florence, and

Sienna, were also metropontan sees, though their ecclesiastical

dignity

is

quite overshadowed

by
,

their civic

^''

greatness.

Lucca has been added

.

to the
.

same
-^

list

in
Pisa and Genoa.

modern

times.

The provinces of Pisa and Genoa

are


172
CHAP,
^-

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

nota'ble
'

as

having been extended into the island of

its

VII.

r-^

Corsica after

recovery from the Saracens.

is,

The

his-

tory and extent of the Itahan dioceses

The
southern
province,

with these few

exceptions, a matter ahiiost wholly of local ecclesiastical

coiicem.

Ill

the south and

Sicily the endless archicities,

o-

-i

episcopal sees preserve the

as

names of some famous

Capua on the site of Casilinum Tarentam, Bari, and others. But some even of the me-

Capua

the

later

tropohtaii churches are fixed in places of quite secon-

dary importance, and the simple bishoprics are endless.

3.

The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and

Germany.

By

taking a single view of the ecclesiastical arrangethis side

ments of the whole of the Western Empire on

of the Alps and the Pyrenees,

some

instructive lessons
at tlie

may be

learned.

Such a way of looking

map
if

will bring out

more
of

strongly the differences between

bishoprics of earlier and later foundation.

Gaulish and
(jlennan
dioceses.

And,
t-i

we

take the

name
i

taking in the

it German lands
/-n

Gaul

in the old geographical sense,

west or the Klime which

formed part of the older Empire, we shall find that several ecclesiastical provinces may be called either
Gaulish or German.

With

the boundaries of the French

kingdom we have no concern, except so far as the boundary between the Eastern and Western kingdoms
of the Franks did to some extent follow ecclesiastical
lines.

Modern annexations
flrst

of course have

had no

regard to them.
Province of South Gaul.

Ou

crossiug the Alps from Italy,

we

find the

g(3g|ggjastical

phseuomena of Italy

continu(^.d in the lands

nearest to

it.

ing to the

The two provinces of Tarantaise (answercivil division of A Ipes Pennince) and Enibrun

'

GAUL.
(Alpes Maritimce) which take in the mountain region

173
chap.

between Italy and Gaul, are of small

thick on the ground.

size,

though of

course in the actual mountain lands the bishoprics are

less

The Tarantasian province con-

Tarantaise.

tained only three suffragan sees, Sitten, Aosta, and St.

John of Maarienne, three bishoprics which now belong to three distinct political powers. But in the southern
part of the province of

Embrun, which reaches

to the Embrua.

sea, the bishops' sees are thick

on the ground, just as

in the small provinces

they are in Italy.

So they are

of Aix [Narhonensis Secunda) and Aries.

as

But, as soon aix

and

we

get out of Provence into the parts of Gaul which

less

were

thoroughly Romanized, and where

less

cities,

and
the

consequently bishoprics, lay

close

together,

phasnomena of the

ecclesiastical

map

begin to change.

The Proven9al provinces of Aix and Aries are bounded to the north and west by those of Vienne (which with
Aries

vienne.

answers

nearly

to

the civil
to

Viennensis)

and
Narbonne.

Narhonne (answering nearly

suffragan sees are

Narhonensis Secunda).
size,

These provinces are of much greater

and the
lies
Aucb.

much

further apart.

To

the west

Auch, answering to the oldest Aquitaine or Novempopulana^ and to the north of these,
in the
still

remainder of
greater
size,

Gaul, the original provinces are of

^lost of
divisions.

them answer very nearly

Aquitania Prima

to the older civil

the province of

Bourges.
Luon'<., "J

Bourses,
i-yuns,
'"""'".

Aquiiania Secunda that of Bourdeaux.

Luqdunenms

Prima. Secunda.,
Rouen., Tours.,

Tertia,
Sensi.

and Quarta. answer to

a<i

Sens.

and

Of

these Lyons, as having

been the temporal

of all the Gauls.

capital, became the seat of the

Primate

very nearly to

The province of Rouen too answers the duchy of which that metropolis
;

became the

capital

its

Archbishop

still

bears the

title

of Primate of

Normandy.

174
CHAP.
VII.

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

These are the oldest
ecclesiastical arrano-ements

closely following the civil divisions of the Empire.

These
;

divisions lived through

the Teutonic conquests

and,
city

though here and there a see was translated from one

to another, they
Foimdation
of the provinces of

were

not seriously interfered with

till

the

fourteenth century. Pope

.

John the Twenty-second

.

raised

the scc of Toulouss iw

that of

tlic

proviiice of

Toulouse Aiby,
'^^.^1

Narbonne and

Alhy

in the province of

Bourges to metropoli-

tan rank, thus forming

two new provinces.

He

also

founded new bishoprics in several towns in these two

new
Avisnon,
1475.

provinces and in that of Narbonne.

In the next
,

ceutuiy Sixtus the Fourth

-^
.

made

the church of Avignon ^

,

metropolitan.
district

These changes help to give

Italy

this

whole

more of the character of

it.

and Provence

than originally belonged to

Lastly, in the seven-

teenth century the province of Sens was also divided,

Paris, 1622.

and thc church of Paris became metropolitan.

of these changes
divisions

Some

show how

closely
civil

the ecclesiastical

followed the oldest

divisions,

and how

slowly they were affected

sions.

by changes
first
;

in the civil divi-

When
less

Gaul was

mapped

out, Tolosa

was

of less account than

Narbo

the Parisii and their city

were of
Senones.

account than the great

nation

of the

Tolosa became the royal city of the Goth

till

but

it

did not rise to the highest ecclesiastical rank

ages after the Gothic

after

kingdom had passed away.

Paris,

having been several times a momentary seat of

dominion, became the birthplace of the modern French

kingdom.
for

But

it

had been the continuous

hundred years before
it

seat of kings

more than

six

became the

seat of an archbishop.

As we draw

nearer to

German ground,

the ecclc-

'

GERMANY.
siastical

175
chap.
VII.
'

boundaries are found to have been somewhat

affected

more strongly
Sequanorum

by

pohtical

changes.
to

The

ecclesiastical province of
;

Besanqon answers

Maxima

Besan^on.

but

it

is

not quite of the same extent

the boundary of the

German and Burgundian kingdoms

passed through the

is

Eoman

province

its

eastern part

therefore found in a

German

diocese.

The province
Rheims.

of

Rheims answers
:

nearly, but not quite, to Belgica Se-

cunda

for the ecclesiastical province

took in some

terri-

tory to the east of the Scheld. Here again the boimdary

of the Eastern and Western kingdoms passed through the

province.

The metropolitan

city lay within the region

it

which became the kingdom of France, and

the ecclesiastical head of the kingdom.
its

became

Yet one of
city of tlie
Trier, 783.

suffragan sees, that of Carnbray,

was a

The province of Trier took in no part of the Western kingdom but, besides the old province of Belgica Prima, it stretched away over the German
Empire.
;

lands even beyond the Rhine.

ish bishoprick of

When
its

the old GaulKsin, 78o.

Colonia Agrippina became metrothe Great,

politan under
in nearly all

Charles

province

took

the old Gaulish province of

it

Germania
sees,

Secunda

but

too

came

to stretch

beyond the Ehine

and beyond the Weser.

Trier and Kijln,
frontier land.
torical

These two metropolitan

were old Gaulish bishopricks of the

The

see of

Mainz

has no certain hisIt

Maiuz,747.

being before Boniface

in the eighth century.

too was founded on

soil
;

what was geographically Gaulish

its

but the greater part of

vast extent

was

strictly

German.

Three only of

its

suffragans.

Worms, Speyer,

and Argentoratum or Strassbwy, were even geographically Gaulish.

No
the

provhice has had more fluctuating

elevation of

boundaries

Kuln

to

metropohtan

176
CHAP.
VII.

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ^YESTERN EUROPE.

rank cut
to
it

short to the west, wliile

it

grew

indefinitely

the north, south, and east, as

its

boundaries were

enlarged by conversion and conquest.

was cut short in the fourteenth century

To the east it when the king-

dom
Prag, 1344.

of

Bohemia and
Bamberg,

its

dependencies were formed into

the ecclesiastical province of Prag.

rick of

The famous bishopwas

Bamberg,
1007.

locally in the province of Mainz,

from the beginning immediately dependent on the see

of

Eome.
These three great archbishopricks of the frontier

The

three

ecclesiasti-

cal Electors

and Archchancellors.

land, all of wliose sees

were on the Gauhsh

side of the

Ehine, remained distinguished by their temporal rank

during the whole

the

life

of the

German kingdom.
;

All

German

prelates

became princes

but only these

three were Electors.

The

prelates of these tliree

were the

Arch-chancellors of the three Imperial kingdoms, Mainz

of

Germany, Koln of

Italy, Trier of Gaul.

But, as

tlie

Frankish or

German kingdom spread

to the north-east,

new
Salzburg
798.

ecclesiastical provinces

were formed.

The bishop-

rick of Salzburg became metropolitan under Charles the

Great, with a province stretching

towards his conquests from the

Bremen or Hamburg,

away to the East Avars. The bishoprick

was

oi Bremen., another foundation of Charles the Great,

transferred under his son to Hamburg., as a metropolitan

see

which was designed

to

be a missionary centre for

the

Scandinavian nations.

After

some
as

fluctuations,

the see was finally settled at

1223.

Bremen,

the metroin

polis

of a province, which had now become

no way

Scandinavian, but partly Old-Saxon, partly Wendish.

Lastly, Otto the Gi'eat founded the
Magdeburg, 9G8.

metropolitan see

of

Magdeburg on the Slavonic march.

of vast extent as

Thus

the

German kingdom formed

all

six ecclesiastical provinces,

compared with those of Southern

LATEK CHANGES.
Europe, and with
apart.
theii'

177
sees

suffragan
is

few and

far

^^^^^
'

The

difference
earlier

here

clearly

marked besees of later

tween the

sees

which arose from the very

cities,

beginning^ in the

Eomau

and the

foundation which were gradually founded as

new

lands

were brought under the dominion of the Empire and

the Church.
Still

the old tradition went on so far that

city,

each Bishop had his see in a

and took

his

name

from that

city.

Though

the

large extent, yet none of the

in strictness territorial.

German dioceses were of German bishoprics were

ec-

In no part of Christendom have the ecclesiastical Modem

'-

clesiastical

divisions

been more completely upset in modern times i 1

'

divisions of

Gemiany
and France

than they have been in Germany.

In France the

number
siastical

of dioceses

was greatly lessened by the ConBuonaparte

;

cordat under the

first

but the main eccle-

landmarks were to a great extent respected.

is left.

In Germany, on the other hand, no trace of them

The country has been mapped out afresh to boundaries of patched-up modern kingdoms.
and Trier are no longer metropohtan
sees,

suit the

Mainz

while the

modern map shows such

novelties as an Archbishop of

Munchen and an Archbishop

of Freiburg.
.

Long

before,
changes of
Philip the Second in the Net h 21-I'ln^s.

under Philip ^ the Second of Spain, those parts of the

detached German king^dom which had become practically ^ ^ under the Dukes of Burgundy underwent a complete Camhray and divisions. change in their ecclesiastical
'
_ _ _ _

Cambray,
Mechlin, utrecht.

Mechlin

in the province of

Eheims, and Utrecht

in the

province of Koln, became metropohtan sees.

political

Modern

changes have made these three

cities

members

of three distinct pohtical powers.

178
CHAP.
VII.

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

4.
Peculiarities of

The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain.

peninsula

The
Italy,

ecclesiastical history of the Spanish

Spanish ecclesiastical

presents phasnomena of a different kind from those of

geography.

Gaul,

or

Germany.

In

Italy

and Gaul the

ecclesiastical divisions
earliest

go on uninterruptedly from the

days of Christianity.

Western Germany must

In eastern
in

count for these purposes as part of Gaul.

Germany
Old divisions lost,

the

ecclesiastical

divisions

were formed

later times, as Christianity

was spread over the country.

But the

In Spain the country must have been mapped out for

purposes at least as early as Gaul.

and mapped ecclesiastical

out afresh after the recovery from
the Saracens.

Mahometan conquest of the greater part of the country,

followed by the Christian reconquest, caused the old ecclesiastical lines to

be wiped out, and new divisions had to

be traced out afresh as the land was gradually

Ecclesiastical divisions under

won back.
divisions

The

ecclesiastical divisions of Spain in the time of the

civil

Gothic kingdom simply reproduce the

the WestGoths.

of the period, as those civil divisions are only a slight

modification of the

Eoman

provinces.

Lusitania and

Bceticd survived, with a slight change of frontier, both

as civil

and

as ecclesiastical divisions.

Tarraconensis

wasfor both purposes divided into three, Tarraconensis^

Carthagenensis, and Gallcecia.

As

the land was

won

back, and as
the

new

ecclesiastical provinces

were formed,

number was found their way

Tarragona, Zaragoza, Valencia.

greatly increased,
to

and some of them

new

sites.

Thus the Tarraconensian

province was again divided into three, those of Tarragona, Zaragoza, and Valencia, answering nearly to the

kingdom of Aragon.
politan
Toledo.

New

Carthage

lost

its

metroof

rank in favour

of the great metropolis

Toledo, which numbered Cordova and Valladolid among

its

suffragans.

Leaving out some anomalous

districts,

SPAIN.
the rest of the peninsula formed the provinces of
St.
"

179
chap.

James of

Comjyostella, Burgos^ Seville,

Granada, with

'~"
^^'

Braga, Evo?'a, and the patriarchal see of Lisbon, the

last
it

teiiaf Bur'^'

three answering to the

kingdom of Portugal.

And
in

and
Braga,
Lisbon.

must be remembered that the Pyrenees did not form

ecclesiastical,

an eternal boundary in
civil

any more than

geography.

As

the

kingdom of Navarre stretched

the

on both

sides of the
;

mountains, so did the diocese of

it

Pampelima
01

and to the west of

Bayonne

IT stretched

GauHsh diocese
n

on what

is

now

fepanish ground, and Bay-

Dioceses ..f Pampelun.-i

All these are survivals of a time when, to use the phrase

of a later day, there were no Pyrenees, or
the same rulers,
first

when

at least

Gothic and then Saracen, reigned

on both sides of them.

5.

The Ecclesiastical Divisions of

historical

the British Islands.

The
points

phsenomena of the

British islands

have

The

British

islands.
111

common with more

than one of the continental

countries.

In a very rough and general view of things,

Britain has

some analogies with Spain.

It is

not alto-

gether without reason that in some legendary stories the

names of Saxons and Saracens get confounded.

cases a land

In both

which had been Christian was overrun by

;

conquerors of another creed

in

both a Christian people

;

held their ground in a part of the country

the whole land v/as

and

in

both

won back
no reason

to Christianity,
in

though

by

different

and even opposite processes

is

the two
Celtic episcopate.

cases.

But there

to believe that the Celtic The

churches in Britain and Ireland had anything like the

same complete

ecclesiastical organization as the

Spanish

churches under the Goths.

The

Celtic episcopate
its

was

of an irregular and anomalous kind, and, in

intelligible

most

shape,

it

was, as was
N
'2

natural

under the

ISO

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

circumstances of the country, not a city episcopate,
liardly a territorial episcopate, but

one

strictly tribal.

This

is

nearly the only fact in the history of the early

Celtic

churches which
It

is

of any importance for our

to say

purpose.

might be too much

that traces

of this peculiarity were handed on from the Celtic to

the English Church.

betw^een

The

little

likeness that there

is

them
city

is

rather due to

the

fact

that

in

Northern Europe generally, whetlier Celtic or Teutonic,

a
strictly

episcopate like that of Italy and Gaul

in the nature

was something which

not be.

of things could

In truth the antiquities of the Celtic churches

fairly

may
their

be

left to

be matter of local or of special

Their
effect

eccle;

siastical inquiry.
effect

on history
is
still

is

slight

on

historical

geography

sligiiter.

For

our purpose the ecclesiastical geography of Britain

may

be looked on as beginning
tine.

witli the mission of

Augus-

The English Church was formed, and

and
Irish
its

the Welsh,

Scottish,

Churches were reconstructed, partly

its

under
s,ii"mes of (irei;(jry the
(ircat.

authority, altogether after

model.

In the

original

scheme of Gregory the Great, Britain was clearly

be divided into two
ecclesiastical provinces

meant

to

..

i--i

iw(. equal
ni'itaiu."

ucarly equal in extent.

The

Celtic churches

were

to be

brought under the same

heathen English.
lot

ecclesiastical

obedience as the

As Wales was

to

form part of the

This scheme was

of the southern metropolitan, so Scotland was to

lot of the northern.

form part of the

never

fully carried out.

Wales was indeed brought

;

into full submission to Canterbury

Relation of
the Scottish

but Scotland was

ncvcr brouglit into the same

full
i

submission to York.
i

Bishops to York.

The

allesiance o

pi or the

;:!Cottish

sees to their JNorthum.

tvt

brian metropolis was at

all

times very precarious, and

chap.
"
'

'

ENGLAND.
it

181
off altogether.

was

in the

end formally thrown

Of

this

came the
of
the

singular disproportion in the territorial

extent

two English

ecclesiastical

provinces,

n-afseesof

Canterbury, since the English Church was thoroughly

organized, has had a

and

York!^"^

number

of suffragans which

would

be unusual anywhere on the continent, while York has

always had comparatively few, and for a considerable
time had practically one only.

The
siastical

systematic

mapping out of

Britain for eccle- Foundaexisting QIOCGSGS

purposes, as designed

never fully carried out.

dioceses
existing

by Gregory, was therefore The actual provinces and

as the various English

were gradually formed, kingdoms embraced

Christianity.

each kingdom or independent principality

cese.

As a rule, became a dio-

And, except in the case of a few

sees fixed in cities xonitonai

which kept on something of old

bishops were

Eoman

memories, the

more commonly
their flock, than

called from the ])eople

who formed
some
the

from the

cities wliicli in

cases contained their chairs.

bishop-settle,

For

in

many
it,

ciises

as

our

forefathers

called

wns

not placed in a city at

sohtary spot.
It

all,

but in some rural or even

the time of the

was not

till

Norman
towns

Conquest that a movement began for systematically

placing
the
ecclesiastical

sees

in

the

chief

from that time the

territorial.

civic title

altogether displaces the

As Kent was
was fixed
It

the

first

part of Teutonic Britain to

accept Christianity, the metropolitan see of the south

at Canterbury, the capital of that
in a city

kingdom.

Canter-

was thus fixed

which has
which has

at

no time held
After
Rochester.

that temporal preeminence

in different ages

belonged to York, Winchester, and London.

Canterbury the

earliest

formed sees were Rochester for

182

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

tlie

West-Kentish kingdom, and London

for the East-

Saxons.
Ijondon.

The conversion

of the West- Saxons led to the

first at

foundation of the great diocese whose see was

Dorchester
or Winchester.

Dorchester on the

Thames and then

off.

at Winchester,

and

from which the sees of Sherhorne, Wells, and Ramsbury

Sherborne, \VeUs, IJamsbury.

were gradually parted

diocese with
settled
its

The East- Angles formed a

;

Elmham.

see at

Elmham

the Middle-Angles

down,

after

some

shiftings, into the vast diocese

stretching from the

I

Thames

to the

Ilumber, whose

see,

)orchester or Lincoln.

first at

Dorchester,

was afterwards translated

to Lincoln.

The West-Mercian lands formed the

Worcester,
lereford, Lichfield.
1

dioceses of the

Ilwiccas at Worcester, of the Magesastas at Hereford,

and the great diocese of

to the Eibble.
tribal
first

Lichfield, stretching

northward
see kept
its

Tlie South-Saxons,

whose

name down to

the

Norman

Conquest, had their see

at Selsey,

and then

at Chichester.

Devonshire and

Cornwall, after forming two dioceses, were, just before

the
Exeter.

Norman

Conquest, united under the single see of

too brought about the

Exeter.

The Conquest
submission

more
Sai7it

complete
The Welsh
Sees.

of the

four

Welsh

sees,

Damd's, Llandaff, Bangor, and Saint Asaph.

times just before

To

the

and

just after the Conquest belong

the union of Sherborne and

Salisbury, 1078.

Eamsbury

to

form the

diocese of Salisbury,

and the dismemberment of the

epi-

huge diocese of Lincoln by the foundation of an

Ely, 1109.

scopal see at Ely.

Thus the province of Canterbury

was gradually organized
in the

with

its

suffragan sees
it

form which
to that of

kept from the reign of Henry the First

the Eighth.

Henry

Meanwhile
York.

in the northern province things never

reached the same regular organization.

York,

after

some changes, took the

Lindisfarn

position of a metropolitan see,

'Ai

with one suffragan,

first

Lindisfarn and afterwards at

'

SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.

183
the Scottish
'

Durham, and another

'

at

Carlisle.

As
first

dioceses broke off from York, they

acknowledged
St.

YII.
^

chap.

or Durliam'

a kind of precedence in the Bishop of but

it

Andrews

Carlisle,

was not

till

a far later time that Scotland w^as

Saint

Andrews.

divided into two regular ecclesiastical provinces with

their sees at St. Andreics
iiXi(\.

1^71.

Glasgow.
^

Several of the
titles

?J^!*?'"'-

1492.

Scottish
their sees

dioceses always kept their territorial

were mostly fixed

in small places

and of the

chief seats of Scottish royalty, Dunfermline and Stirhng

never attained episcopal rank at

attained
it

all,

and Edinburgh only

Edinburgh.

in quite

modern

times.

The

endless and fluc-

tuating bishoprics of Ireland were in the twelfth century

gathered into the four provinces of Armagh, Dublin,

.

Cashel,

and Tuam, answering

to the temporal divisions

It is to

The four Irish provinces.

of Ulster, Leinster, Munster, and Connaught.

be noticed

that, in

marked

contradiction to continental

practice, the chief see in all the three British

kingdoms
first

has been placed in a city which has never held the

temporal rank.

Canterbury,

St.

Andrews, Armagh,

were never the temporal heads of England, Scotland,

and Ireland.
pohtan
sees,

York, Dublin, Glasgow, though metro-

were of secondary rank, and London and

Winchester were ordinary bishoprics.

6.

Tlie Ecclesiastical Divisions

of Northern

and

Eastern Europe.
In the other parts of Europe which formed part '
Ecciesiastical division

communion of the Latin Church, the ecclesiastical divisions mark the steps by which Christianity was spread either by conversion or conquest. They
of the

intheconverted
I'lnd"*-

continued the process of which the ecclesiastical organization of Eastern

Germany was

the beginning.

As

a rule, they strictly follow the political divisions of the

184

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

age in

CPIAP.
VII.
The Scandi
iiavinn
l)rovinces.

As the Church in the Scandinavian kingdoms became more settled, its bishoprics parted off from their allegiance to Hamburg
wliicli

they were founded.

or Bremen, and each of the three

kingdoms formed

an

ecclesiastical

province,
earlier

whose boundaries exactly

answered to the
I>und, 1151.

boundaries of the kingdoms.

Denmark had
the Danish

its

metropohtan see iitLnnd,m that part of

kingdom which geographically forms part

is

of the greater Scandinavian peninsula, and which

now

Swedish

territory.

Its

boundary

to the south

was the

Eider, the old frontier of

The

suffragan sees of this province,

Denmark and the Empire. among which the

is

specially royal bishopric of Roeskild

the most famous,

naturally

lie

thicker on the ground than they do in

the wilder regions of the two more northern kingdoms.

But the Baltic conquests of Denmark

of the
isle

also placed part

of Eiigen in the

province of

Lund and

the

diocese of

Eoeskild, and also gave the Danish

metropolitan a far more distant suffragan in the Bishop

of Revel on the Finnish gulf.
L'psala.

The metropolitan
to the east of the

see of

Sweden was placed

carried

at

Upsala, and the province was

by Swedish conquest

Gulf of
in the

Bothnia, where the single bishopric of

Abo took

whole of the Swedish

territory

in

that region.

In

the like sort, the Norwegian province of Nidaros or

Tronfibjom.

TrondJijem stretched tar over the Ocean to the distant

colonies and dependencies of
land,

Norway in

Iceland, Green-

and Man.
of Poland and
tlie

Poland, &c.

The conversion

conquest of

Prussia and Livonia brought otlier lands within the pale

of the Latin Church and her ecclesiastical organization.

The
(iiiezua.

original

kingdom of Poland formed the province of

Gnezna, a province whose boundaries were for som-e

SCANDINAVIA AND POLAND.

centuries very fluctuating, according as Poland or the

185
chap.
'
"

Empire was stronger

Baltic.

in the

Slavonic lands

on the
caused

>

Each change
fall

of temporal dominion

the ecclesiastical frontiers of

to

Gnezna and Magdebirrg

Silesian

advance or

back.
its

The

bishopric of

Breslau always kept

old relation to the Polish meit

tropohs, except so far as

was held

to be placed

under

the immediate superiority of

Eome.

The later union of

added a
Lithua-

Lithuania to the Polish kingdom

nian and a Samogitian bishopric to the original Polish

province.

The

earlier Polish conquests

from Eussia

K'k=i-

formed a new province, the Latin province of Leopol

or Lemberg, a province whose southern boundaries ad-

i-eopi-i

vanced and

fell

back along with the boundary of the

it

kingdom

of which

formed a

part.

The conquests

of

the Teutonic knisjhts in Prussia and Livonia formed the

ecclesiastical province of

Riga, which was divided into

in
its

two parts by the province of Gnezna

extent.

greater

It will

be seen that some of the

ecclesiastical divi-

sions last

mentioned belong

to a later stage of

European

history than the point Avhich

we have
tlie

reached in our
to continue

general narrative.

But

it

seemed better

the survey over the whole of

Latin Church in

Europe, as the later foundations are a mere carrying

out of the same process which began in the earlier.

The
are

ecclesiastical divisions represent the political divisions

of the

time,

whether
or

those

political

divisions

Eoman
once

provinces

independent Teutonic or Slaecclesiastical divisions,

vonic kingdoms.
fixed,

But the

when

were

more

lasting

tlian

the temporal

divisions,

and many disputes have

arisen out of pohtical

186
CHAP,
^

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.

changes which transferred one part of a province or

^

diocese from one pohtical allegiance to another.

Since

the splitting-up of the Western Church, the old ecclesiastical

organization has altogether vanished from

some

countries,

and has been greatly modified in

of
all.

others, in

Germany most
It

seems hardly needful for the understanding of

to carry

European history

our ecclesiastical survey be-

yond the

limits

of the Latin Church,

One

of the

Polish pro\inces, that of Leopol, has carried us to the

borderland of the Eastern and Western Churches, and,

if

we

pass

southwards into the Magyar and South-

Slavonic lands,
Hungary.
strigonium.
Koiocza.

we

find ourselves

still

more

distinctly

Qu au

ccclcsiastical

march.

The Kingdom of Hungary

formcd two Latiu provinces, those of Strigonium or

Gran, and of Kolocza
;

the latter has a very fluctuating

boundary
Daimatia.

to

the south.
all

The Dalmatian

coast,

the

borderland of

powers and of

all religions,

formed

thrcc Latiu proviuccs,

ninsula,

Jadera or Zara^ on her pechiefly

his

was the head of a small province Another metropolitan had

made

up of

islands.

throne in

the very mausoleum of Diocletian, and the province of

Spaiato.

Spalato stretched some

have so often changed masters.

Kagusa.

way inland over the lands which To the south, the see
its

of Ragusa, the furthest outpost of Latin Christendom

]:)roperly so called,

had, besides

own

coasts

and
our

islands,

an indefinite frontier inland.

extent
to

This marks the

furthest

which
It is

it

is

ueedfid to trace

ecclesiastical

map.

the furthest point at which

Latin Christianity can be said to be in any sense at home.

The
but

ecclesiastical

organization of the
furtlier to the south

crusading and

Venetian conquests
little

and

east

have

bearing on historical geography.

But, within

'

SUMMARY.
the bounds of Latin

187
ecclesiastical
"

Christendom, the

chap.

divisions both of the provinces

and dioceses within the

call the

older

Empire and what we may

it,

missionary

provinces beyond

are of the highest importance, and

they should always be kept in mind alongside of the

pohtical geography.

188

CHAPTEE

VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

CHAP.
VIII.

The

division of

887 parted

off

from the general mass

of the Frankish dominions a distinct

(lorn of

Kingdom of
its

the

the

East-Fvanks. the acknowledged head of the Frankish

East-

Franks or of Gerwnmj.

kingdoms, which, as being distinguished from

1

fellows

as the

Regnuin

-nt

m Teutonicum.^ may
'

be best spoken of as a
lasting acquisition of

Kingdom of Germany.
Merging of tlie King>iom in the

But the

the Italian and Imperial crowns

by the German

kings,

and

thclr later acquisition of the

kingdom
of the

of Burgundy,

sfradually tended to

obscure the notion of a distinct

Empire.

German kingdom.
merged
a part.

The

idea

Kingdom was
it

in the idea of the

Empire of which
fell off

formed

Later events too tended in the same direction.

The Empe- Tlic Italian

Italy and IJiirgundy,

kingdom gradually
its

allegiance to *
^}jg

nominal

kino; o the

but keep

dermany.

sreater part of the Burgundian king-dom. O 1

while, though the powers of the

do
of

from any practical So did

Emperor. 1
as

Mean-

Emperors

German
was

kings were constantly lessening,

their authority

never wholly thrown off

till

the present century.

The
and
In
at
it

Emperors

in

short lost their

their

kingdoms of

Italy

Burgundy, and kept

kingdom

Germany.

the fifteenth century the coronation of the

Emperor

Eome had become

no

a mere ceremony, carrying with

real authority in Italy.

In the sixteenth century

Tlie

the ceremony itself went out of use.

Burgundian

THE THREE KINGDOMS.

coronation at Aries became irregular at a very early
time,

189

and

it is

last

heard of in the fourteenth century.

at Frankfurt,
Aries, i365
1792.

But the election of the German kings

their coronation, in earlier times at
at Frankfurt,

Aachen, afterwards
the last years of the

went on regularly

till

eighteenth century.
of Italy and

So, while the national assembhes

said to have

Burgundy can hardly be

all,
1

been
Endurance
of the GerDiet,

regularly held at

while they went altogether out of

use at an early tune, the national assembly ot Germany, man

in

-1

/-(

one shape or another, never ceased as long as there

w^as

any one

calling himself

The tendency
in

in all three

Emperor or German King. kingdoms was to split up

and commonwealths.
But
one

into separate principalities

Germany

the

principalities

and commonwealths

always kept up some show of connexion with

another,

some show of

allegiance

to their

Imperial Companalto- many,

head.
gether.

In Italy and Biu-gundy they parted off

Some became
dependencies

absolutely independent

were
their

Burglmdj^

incorporated with
distant

other
;

kingdoms or became

some were even held by the

Emperors themselves

in

some other

character,

and not

by

virtue either of their

Empire or of
1

their local kingTheEmpire

identitied

ship.
,

Thus, as the Empire became more and more

.

nearly coextensive with the

distinction

n T-(jrerman iungdom,
1

the

with

Germany.

between the two was gradually forgotten.

parts of the other

The smaU

kingdoms which kept any

trace of their Imperial allegiance

as parts of

came

to

be looked on

Germany.

In short, the Western Empire

;

became a German kingdom

or rather

it

became a

TheEmpire
Confederation.

German Confederation with a

which
still

royal head, a confederation

titles

kept up the forms and

of the Empire.
1530.

As no German king received an Imperial coronation

after Charles

the Fifth,

it

might in

strictness

be said

190
CHAP,
VIII
1556

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

that the

Empire came

to

an end at his abdication.

And

in truth

from that date the Empire practically beBut, as the Imperial

came a purely German power.

forms and
titles
still

went on, the Western Empire

as

must be looked on

surviving, in the

form of a
to
its

German kingdom
fall.

or confederation,

down

final

The Ger-

man KingdomrepreEmpire.

The Kinffdom
*p

of

Germany then may be looked on

.

as representing the
-^^q jgf^ Qf i\^q
it

Western Empire,

as being

what

^estcm Empire
away.

after the other parts of

itself

had

fallen

But the German kingdom

underwent, though in a smaller degree, the same fate

Separation of parts of the King-

as the otlicr

two Imperial kino-doms.

and
fell

all

Burgundy, with some very

the

...
Still

While

all

Italy
.

trifling

exceptions,

away from
lost to the

Empire, the mass of Germany

large
less

remained

Imperial.

parts

of

Germany

were

Empire no

than Italy and Bur-

gundy,

considerable territory on the western and

south-western frontier of

Part
states

of this
;

territory

Germany gradually fell away. has grown into independent

part has been incorporated with the French

kingdom.

The Swiss Confederation has grown up on

lands partly German, partly Burgundian, partly Italian,

but of which the oldest and greatest part belonged to

the

German kingdom.

The
^

Confederation

of

the

United Provinces, represented by the modern kingdom

of the Netherlands, lay wholly

within the old

kingdom

so did

by

far the greater part

German of the modern

the

kingdom of Belgium.
Modern
Austria.
*

In our

own day

same
of

ten-

dency has been shewn in south-eastern as well as

soutli-westcm

Germany

several

members

the

Unless we except the small part of Flanders held by the Con-

federation.

'

THE KINGDOM AND THE EMPIRE.

ancient

191
chap.

kingdom have

fallen

away

to

form part of the

Austro-Hunganan monarchy.

But on the northern

and north-eastern frontier the tendency to extension,

with some fluctuations, has gone on from the beginning
of the
Extension
to the north-east.

kingdom

to

our own day.

-,

This tendency to lose

T

territory to the west

and south, and

to

gam

territory to

the east and north, had the effect of gradually cutting

off the
,
.

Western Empire,
-,

as represented
,
1

by the Ger1
.

Geographical contrast of the earlier and later i:mpire.

man kingdom, trom any

.

close geographical connexion

With the earlier Empire

torical

of which

it

was the

his-

continuation.
its

The Holy Eoman Empire,

contained but
little

at

the time of

final fall,

territory
It

which had formed part of the Empire of Trajan.

contained nothing which had formed part of the Empire

of Justinian, save

some small scraps of

territory in the

north-eastern corner of the old Italian kingdom. o

1.

The Kingdom of Germany.

change
in

In tracing out, for our present purpose, the geographical revolutions of

Germany,

look at them, as far as

aspect.

may be, mainly in

...
it

will

be enough to

graphyand
noinenclafu^ of oer-

their

European ^

many.

various

Owing to the gradual way in which the members of the Empire grew into practical

sovereignty
palities

owing

to the constant division of princi-

among many members of the same family no country has undergone so many internal geographical changes as Germany has. In few countries also has the nomenclature shifted in a more singular way. To take two obvious examples, the modern kingdom of Saxony has nothing but its name in common with the
Saxony which was brought under the Frankish dominion by Charles the Great.
of Bavaria

Ancient

saxollya^

The modern kingdom

has a considerable territory in

common

192

THE IMPEEIAL laNGDOMS.

with the ancient Bav^aria
at
;

but

it

has gained so

much
two

one end and

lost so

much

at the other that the

cannot be said to be in any practical sense the same

Uses of the

name
Austria.

country.

The name of Austria has

and

shifted

from the

eastern part of the old Frmicia to the

against the Magyar,
it

German mark
The

has lately wandered altofrontier.

gether beyond
Burgundy,

the

modern German

name
state

of

Burgundy

has borne endless meanings, both

it.

within the Empire and beyond

of

Lastly, the ruling

modern Germany, a
to

state

stretching across

the whole land from east

Prussia.

west,

strangely bears
extinct Prussian

the
race.

name

of

the conquered

and

Many

of these changes affect the history of Eu;

rope as well as the history of Germany

of the endless changes

but

many

among

the smaller

members

of the

Empire are

matters of purely local interest,

historical

which belong to the

only,

geography of Germany
in the historical geo-

and which claim no place

I shall

graphy of Europe.
present section,
the

endeavour therefore in the

first to

trace c^arefully the shiftings of

German

frontier

as regards

other powers,

and

then to bring out such, and such only, of the internal

changes as have a bearing on the general history of

Europe.

Extent of the Kingdom,

The cxtcut of
after

tlic

Gemiau kingdom
has
well to go over

as

it

stood

the division
It will

of 887

been roughly traced

its

already.

now be

frontiers

somewhat more minutely,

final separation
Boundaries under the Ottos, 9361002.

as they stood at the time of

between the Empire and the Westfinal

Frankish kingdom, the time of

^

union between the

mi This marks the Empire and the East-Frankish kmcrdom. ^ The frontier towards the great age of the Saxon Ottos.
^
^
-i

BOUNDARIES OF THE GERMAN KINGDOM.

Western kingdom was
it
is

193

now

fairly

ascertained,

and
It
all

was subject
in

to

dispute only at a few points.

insist

.
fowTais'tiie

chap.

hardly needful to

again on the fact that

of

Lotharingia,
all

the sense

those days, taking in

l^^^^j.
'"^''"^

the southern Netherlands except the French fief

of Flanders,
line that the

was now Imperial.

It

is

along this
EncroachFrance"

German border
back.

has in later times most

of
;

largely fallen

The advance

France
but
it

has
has,

touched Burgundy more than Germany

first

swallowed up, and afterwards partly restored,

of the

a considerable part

German kingdom.

The
TUeNether-

Netherlands had been practically so cut off from Ger-

many

before the annexations of France in that quarter

began, that they will be better spoken of in another

section.

The other

points

at

which the

frontier

has fluctuated on a great scale have been the border

land
of Lorraine

as

distinguished from the c

Lower
his-

r Lorraine

Lotharingia which
tory

has

more

to

do with

the

=''1F'1^^^-

of

the Netherlands

and
,

the Swabian

land of
Fiuctuationsof Bar.

Elsass.

--,,,,, borderlaud, fluctuated

,

The Duchy

of Bar,

the borderland of the

once.
it

more than
In

After

its
1473.

union with the Duchy of Lorraine,

fortunes of that state.

followed the

the next century

came

The Three
15.52?^"''^'

the annexation of the

three Lotharingian bishoprics

of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which gave France three

outlying
of

possessions within the geographical borders

the

Lotharingian duchy.
result

In the next century.

Loss of

as the

of the Thirty Years'

War, France ob-

eisLs!^"

tained

these conquests,
frontier

by the Peace of Westfalia the formal cession of and also the great advance of her
by the dismemberment of
Elsass.

The

cession

now made

did not take in the whole of Elsass, but only

the possessions and rights of the

House of Austria

in

194

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

that country.
-

CHAP,

This cession

still

left

both Strassburg

. and various smaller towns and

but
it

districts to the

Empire

naturally opened the

way

to

further French

advances in a land where the frontier was so complicated and where

Gradual anEkass, 1679-1789.
Seizure of
1G81.
"'

difficulties

were

so easily raised as to

trcaty-rights.

A
all

scrics of annexations, rJimz(??is as

they

were
^

called, gradually all Elsass to France. united nearly J O J

^

btvassbuvg^ as

the world knows, was seized

by Lewis

the Fourteenth in time of peace.

tlic

During the wars with

Seizure of Lorraine, 1678-1697.

Its final
1766.'
'

sauic priucc, the

^

duchy of Lorraine was seized and

it

restored.

In the next century

to

was separated from

the

Empire

become the

life-possession of the
it

Pohsh
added

'

king Stanislaus, and on his death

was

finally

to France just before a far greater series of

Loss of the
the Rhine,

French

annexations began.

The wars of the French Revolution,

Empire
all

Confirmed by the Peace of Luneville, tore away from

1801

Germany and
of the Ehine.
the

the

that lay on the left

bank
the
last

In other words, the Western Francia,

lords of Paris,

duchy of the

advanced

itself to

utmost limits of the Gaul of

Caesar.

This was the

annexation of France at the expense of the old

German

kingdom.
Dissolution of the

It

was indeed the main cause of the formal

dissolutiou of the
later.

kingdom which happened a few years

''

Kinadom
and Empire, 1806.

The

uttcr transformation of Germany wlthiu aud

without wliich
later stage.

uow

followcd must be spoken of at a

Frontier of

Tlic frontier of
Still

Germany and Burgundy, while they

kingdoms, fluctuated a good

and'sm^" ''
Union of

remained

distinct

deal, especially in the lands

which now form Switzerbe of any practical

land.

But

this frontier ceased to

whjfthe^
1033."^^'

importance when the Burgundian kingdom was united

with the Empire.
sisting

The

later history of

Burgundy, con-

of the gradual incorporation by France of the

'

BOUNDARIES TOWARDS FRANCE AND ITALY.

greater part of the kinardom, and the growth of the

1U5
f'HAP.
"-

remnant

into

the western cantons of the Swiss Con-

<.f

federation, will be told elsewhere.

Towards
^

Italy again the frontier

. .

was sometimes
.

Frontier

Germany
and
itaiy.

doubtful.

Chiavenna, tor instance, sometimes appears

in the tenth

and eleventh centuries

as

German

so

do

the greater districts of Trent, Aquileia, Istria, and even

Verona.
in the

All these formed a marchland, part of which TheMarch^

'

land.

end became
,.

definitely attached to

part to Italy.

But here again,

as
1

Germany and long as the German

T

and Itahan crowns were united, and

as long as their
in either king-

union of the Crow nH,

96i-i5;io.

common
dom, the
So in

king kept any real authority

frontier

was of no great

practical importance,

oei-i-ioo.

later times,

both before and after the dissolution

the question has practically

of the

German Kingdom,

been a question between Italy and the

rather than between Italy and

House of Austria
such.

Germany as

These

changes also wiU better come in another section.

The

case

is

quite

different

with regard to the

Eastemand
frontiers,

eastern and

northern frontiers, on which the really

greatest changes took place,

and where Germany,

as
Advance
Empire.

Germany, made
the

its

greatest advances.

Along

this line

Eoman Empire and the German Kingdom meant the same thing. On this side the frontier had to be marked,
so far as
it

could be marked, against nations whicli

to

had had nothing

then for
fell

do with the elder Empire.

Here

many

ages the

Eoman Terminus advanced and

of the

back

according to the accidents of a long warfare.

frontier

The whole
series of

kingdom towards
whose
rulers

its

northern and eastern neighbours was defended by a

marks or border

territories

were

clothed with special powers for the defence and exten2

196
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL laNGDOMS.

sion of the frontier.^

They had

to guard

the reahii

against the

Dane

in the north,

and against the Slave

during the whole remaining length of the eastern frontier,

except where, in the

last

years of the ninth century,

the
Huntrarian
frontier.

Magyar
Croatia,

thrust himself in

between the northern and

southern Slaves.

Here the

frontier, as against

and
Mark
of Austria.

was defended by the marks of

Hungary Krain or

Carniola, Kdimthen or Carinthia, and the Eastern or

Austrian mark to the north of them.

Little

This frontier

has changed

least of all.

It

may, without any great

now.

change on
this-

breach of accuracy, be said to have remained the

frontier.

same from the days of the Saxon Emperors

till

The part where

the south

it

was

at all fluctuating

was along the

Austrian mark, i-ather than along the two marks to

Occasional

of

it.

The Emperors claimed, and someHunga-

homage of Hungary to
the

times enforced, a feudal superiority over the

rian kings.

Em-

jierors.

But this kind of precarious submission does

not affect geography.

separate

Hungary always remained a

it

kingdom

the Imperial supremacy was some-

thing purely external, and

was always thrown

off

on the
Frontier

first

opportunity.

towards

Denmark.

The Danish
Mark, 9341027,

The same may be said of Denmark. For a short time a German mark was formed north of the Eider. But, when the Danish kingdom had grown into the
Northern Empire of Cnut, the German frontier
here
also,
fell

back

Boundary
of the Eider,

and the Eider remained the boundary of the

its

Empire
;

till

fall.

As with Hungary,

so with

Denof

1027-1806.
Occasional

mark more than one Danish king became

Csesar
;

the

man

homage

of

the Danish Kings.

but here again the precarious acknowledgement

of Imperial supremacy had no effect on geography.

It
1

Slavonic
frontier.

is

in

tlie

intermediate

lands,

along the

vast

On

the marks, see Waitz,

Deutsche

Verfassungsgeschichten,

vii.

62, et seq.


EASTERN AND NOHTHERN FRONTIERS.
frontier

197
chap.
.

where the Empire marched on the northern

.

VIII.

Slavonic lands, that the real historical geography of

Germany

lies for

some

ages.

ever nuctuatmg.
the Slaves held
to the west.

At the time
all east

Here the boundary was T nn

Fluctuation
*^'*

of the division oi 887,

r*

hr

territoiv.

of the Elbe and a good deal

Extent of

How
is

far

they had during the Wandering

of the Nations stepped into the place of earlier Teutonic inhabitants

field of inquiry.

a question which belongs to another

We

must here

start

from the geo-

graphical fact that, at the time

when

the

modern

states

of Europe began to form themselves, the Slaves were

actually in possession of the great North-Eastern region

of modern

Germany. Their special mention

;

will

come in
modern

their special place

we must here mark

that

Germany has

largely formed itself

by the gradual con-

quest and colonization of lands which at the end of the

ninth century were Slavonic.

spread

itself far to

the North-East, and

The German kingdom German settlefar be-

ments and German influences spread themselves

yond the formal bounds of the German kingdom. Three

special instruments
this end.

worked together

in bringing about

The Saxon Dukes came

first.

In after times
the famous

came the great league of German

cities,

Hansa which, like some

cial,

other bodies originally

commer-

became

apolitical power,

and which spread German

influences over the whole of the shores of the Baltic.

Along with them, from the thirteenth century onwards,

worked the great military order of the Teutonic

Out of
the
their conquests

knights.

came

the

first

begiunings of the

Prussian state, and the extension of

German rule and German speech over much which in modern geoIn a history of the Gernation
all

graphy has become Eussian.

man

tliese

causes would have to be dealt

198
CHAP.

THE IMPERIAL

KIXGDO:\IS.

vm.

with together as joint instruments towards the same

end.

In a purely geographical view the case

is

different.

Some
actual

of these influences concern the formation of the

German kingdom
to

others have geographically

more

do with the group of powers more to the northSlavonic states of Poland and Eussia, and their

east, the

Lithuanian and Finnish neighbours.

fall

The

orrowth and

of the military orders will therefore most natu-

rally

come

in another section.

We

have here to trace

out those changes only which helped to give the Ger-

man kingdom
Beginning
Slave,

tlie definite

geographical extent which

its final fall.

it

held for some centuries before

at the north, in the lands

where German,

and Dane came into

the Elbe, the

close contact, in

Saxony

beyond
The Saxon Mark.

modern

Holstein, the Slaves held

the western coast, and the narrow

off the

Saxon mark fenced

of the house
in the

German

laud.

The Saxon dukes

of theBillungs, 9G01106.

Mark

of Billung formed a

German mark, which took

But

lands reaching from the Elbe to the strait which divides

the
isle

of Eiigen from the mainland.

It

this posses-

Its fliictua
ticill.i.

sion

was altogether precarious.

again became a Sla-

vonic
it

kingdom

then

it

was a possession of Denmark

cannot be looked on as definitely becoming part

of the

German
the

i-ealm

till

the thirteenth century.

till

The
later

chief state in
Slavonic
princes coutiniie in

these lands which has lasted

times
in its

is

duchy of Mecklenburg, the

divisions, are the only

rulers of which,

two modern

modern

princes

Mecklenburg.

who

directly represent an

old Slavonic royal house.

for a vast extension of

Meanwhile a way was o])ened

German
Foundation
of Llibecli,
IMO-llfi!^.

influence through

the whole North,

by the

growth of the
second time
it

city of Lubeck.

Twice founded, the

by Henry the Lion Duke of Saxony,

gradually became the leading

member

of the great


ADVANCE AGAINST THE SLAVES.
merchant Leas^ue.

'

199

To

the south of these lands

those Slavonic lands which have

grown

into

come the mo-

chap.
^

dern kingdom of Saxony and the central parts of the

Towns.

modern kingdom of
marchlands, a

Prussia.

These were

specially
March-

name which some of them have kept down to our own day. The mark of Brandenburg in its various divisions, the mark of Lausitz or Liisatia, where a Slavonic remnant still lingers, and the mark of Meissen, long preserved the memory of the times when these lands, which afterwards came to play so
great a part in the internal history of
still

Brandenburg.
Lausitz.

Meissen.

Germauy, were

outlying and precarious possessions of the

German

realm.

To
history

the south-east lay the

Bohemian lands, whose has been somewhat different. The duchy, after'

wards king;dom, o^ Bohemia,hecime, early in the tenth ^

. .

Bohemia a
lief,

928.

century, a fief of the

ever afterwards,

German kingdom. From that time save during one moment of passing
it

Becomes a
""''

ilgf.
loos.

Polish annexation,
bers, ruled, as

remained one of

its

principal

mem-

long as the Empire lasted, by princes

holding electoral rank.

itself

The boundaries
all.

of the

kingdom

have hardly varied at

The dependent marchMoravia.

ioi9.

land of Moravia to the east, the remnant of the great

Moravian kingdom whose history

will

come more

fit-

tingly in another chapter, fluctuated for a long while

between Hungarian, Polish, and Bohemian supremacy.

But from the early part of the eleventh century
remained under Bohemian
Imperial superiority.
rule,
it

and therefore under

To

the east of this nearer zone Moredisvonic

of Slavonic dependencies, lay an,other range of Slavonic

states,

some of which were gradually incorporated

with the
distinct

German kingdom, while others remained down to modern times. Pomerania on the

Pomerania.

200
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

Baltic coast
its
is

name which has

and
its

often changed both

political

geographical extent
eastern part of

allegiance.

The

the

land

now

so

called lay

open, as will be hereafter seen, to the occupation of

the Pole, and
its

western part to that of the Dane.

it

But

in

the

end

took

its

place

on the map

in

the form of two duchies, ruled, like Mecklenburg,

Native
jirinees

by

native princes under Imperial supremacy.

South of

Pomerania, the German march bordered on the growPolish

frontier.

ing

power of Poland, and between Poland and HunCroatia

or
Chrobatia.
to

gary lay the northern

The

German supremacy seems sometimes

extended as
land, even
(

have been

far as the

Wartha, and, in the Chrobatian

beyond the Vistula.

;

But

this

occupation was

K;casional

quite

momentary

Poland grew up,

like

Hungary,

as

homage of
the Polish
Jiinffs.

a kingdom, some of whose dukes and kings admitted

the Imperial supremacy, but which gradually

became
Silesia,

Silesia

wholly independent.
after

The border province of

Polish, 999,

some

fluctuations

between Bohemia and Poland,

became
tury.

definitely Polish at the

end of the tenth ceninto several princi-

Afterwards

it

was divided

palities,
Bohemian,
1289-1^27.

whose dukes passed under Bohemian vassalage,

and so became members of the Empire.

Thus

in the

course of some ages, a boundary was drawn between

Germany and Poland which

times.

lasted dow^n

to

modern

Extension
of the l^mlire to the
;it

The
the
a

rcsiilt
_

of

tliis

survcv
*'

is

to

show how

irreat,
_

and

thc sauic time

how

gradual, was the exten.sion of

German power
in

eastward.

A Eoman

Empire with

long Baltic coast was something that had never been

earlier days.
tlie

dreamed of

If the extension of the

German name was but

recovery of

long

lost

'

COLONIZATION OF THE SLAVONIAN LANDS.

Teutonic lands, the extension to them of
rial

201

name which had become identified with Germany was at least wholly new. In all the lands ,. now annexed, save in a tew exceptional districts, German annexation meant German colonization, and
,
. .

...
,

tlie

Irape-

VIII.
vonic lands

chap.

Germanized.

the assimilation of the

surviving

inhabitants to the
Colonists

speech and

manners of Germany.

were

brought, specially from the Frisian lands, by wdiose

means the Low-Dutch tongue was spread along the

Avhole southern coast of the Baltic.

German

cities

were

founded.
states.

The marchlands grew

into powerful

German

At last one of tliese marchlands, united with German conquest still further cut off from the heart of the old German realm, has grown into a state whicli in our own days has become the Imperial power of
a

Germany.

The

internal

geography of the German kingdom

is

interaai

the greatest difficulty of such a

trace the boundaries of the

work as the present. To kingdom as against other

;

oiGermany.

kingdoms

is

comparatively easy

but to trace out the

divisions, of the

endless shiftings, the unions

countless small principalities

and the

and commonwealths which

liopeless attempt.
of the principanties.

arose within the kingdom,

Still

would be a
_

the growth of the dukes, counts, and other princes Growth

_
_

of

Germany into independent feature of German history, as

the special feature of

sovereigns

is

the great

the consequent wiping

out of old divisions, and shifting to and fro of old names,

is

German
old

historical

geography.
historical changes
^^i^e-

The dying out of the

interest,

names has a

in

nomencla-

and the growth of the new powers whicii

historical

have supplanted them has both an

political interest.
It is

and a

specially important to

mark

202

THE IMPEIilAL KINGDOMS.

how

the two powers which have stood at the head of

iu

Germany

modern times

in

no way represent any of

the old divisions of the

German name.

They have
against the

grown out of the outlying mark& planted

Slave and the Magyar.

The mark of Brandenburg, the

mark

against the Slave, has

grown
of

into the

kingdom of

Germany in its latest form. The Eastern mark, the mark against the Magyar, has grown into the archduchy which gave Germany so
Prussia, the Imperial state

many
Analogies between
I'randenliurg

kings, into the so-called Austrian

'

empire,' into

and

monarchy of our own day. The growth of Brandenburg or Prussia again affords an
the Austro-Hungarian
instructive

other

marchla luls.

comparison with the growth of Wessex in

England, of France in Gaul, and of Castile in Spain.

In
all

these cases

alike,

it

has

been a marchland

which has come

to the front

and has become the head

of the united nation.

I'he

great

Starting from
several

the division of 887,

we

shall find

Duchies under the

Srixon and
i''raukish

important landmarks in the

history

of

the

Kings, 9191125.

German kingdom which may

difficult

help us in this

most

part of our

work.

Under the Saxon and

still

Prankish kings
the

we

see the great duchies

forming

main

divisions, while the

kingdom

is

enlarged by
definite ad-

Slavonic conquests to the east and

Decline of tlie Duchies
iiuder the

hesion of Lotharingia to the west.

kings

by the Under

the Swabian

we

see the break-up of the great duchies.

tlie

In

Swahian
Kings,
11.S7-1254.

the partition of Saxony

process which was everyat

where
iMid of
aiing.

silently

and gradually
the greatest

work was formally

all

carried out
tiie

in

case of

by Imperial
the imfinally

and national authority.

changes into a system of
only by the

The Gauverfassung,
territorial principalities,

(iiiuverj'as-

memorial system of Teutonic communities, now

(iniwtli of
territorial

broken

Principalities.

many

free cities

and the few

free districts

THE DUCHIES AND THE CIKCLES.

which owned no lord but the
too
Kinor.

203

During o

this period
,
.

we

see the beoinnings '^ ^ of

^

powers which some of the ^

of the eastern powers '
_

^-

VIII.

chap.

became chief

at a later day, the

Growth of the march

powers.

marchland, Brandenburg, Austria, Saxony in the later

sense.

1254-1512.

The time from

the so-called Interregnum to the

is

legislation

under Maximilian

marked by

the further
Growth
of

growth of these powers.

of the Imperial crown

It is

further marked by the

beginning of that connexion of the Austrian duchy, and

itself,

of Austria.

with lands beyond the

in

bounds of the Kingdom and the Empire which led

the end to the special and anomalous position of the

House of Austria
land

as an

European power. ^
'-

During the

.of

Separation bwitzer-

same period comes the

im(\.

practical separation of Switzer-

i^'jj^d,

1495-

t\iQ
it

Netherlands iYom. the

this

In short
1

was dm'ing
1

age that

German Germany

wtheXekingdom. O
therlandf!.

in

its

later

ii^o-ieiy.

aspect was formed.

The
T

the attempts then

/.

made

legislation of Maximihan's reign, Lepsiatiou under Max1 1 1 1 to brino; the kmwlom to a oreater imiiian,
.

1495-1512.

degree of unity, have

in the division of
.

left

their

mark on geography
This division,
it
Division
"'**' circles,
^

though

it

ii'TT aid not was not perfectly complete, though

n
1

Germany

into circles.

1500-1512.

extend to every corner of the kingdom, was

administrative division of the

strictly

an

kingdom

itself as

such

but the mapping out of the

in point of size
is

circles, the difference

of which

remarkable, was

itself affected

by the

geographi(;al extent of the dominions of the princes

who
is

Thirty
i6i8-i648.'

held lands within them.

The seventeenth century

marked by the
other changes.

results of the Tliirty Years'

Its

War and

of

most important geographical

result
powers
iands"within

was

to carry

on the process which had begun with the

Thus, beside

Austrian House, the formation of powers holding lands

both within and without the Empire.

the union of
tiie

Germany.
Sweden,

Hungarian kingdom with the Austrian

archduchy, the King of Sweden

now held

lands as a

204
CHAP,

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

'

prince of the Empire, and the same result was brought

'

urandenliurg and
I'lussia.

way by the union of the Electorate of Branclcnburg with the Duchy of Prussia. This, and other accessions of territory, now made Brandenburg as distinctly the first power of nortliern Germany as
about
in

another

Austria was of southern Germany, and in the eighteenth

Rivairj-of
Austria.

ccntury the rivalry of these two powers becomes the

chicf ccutrc, uot ouly of
Tlic uuiou of
,

Hannover and Great

Britain, 1715.

tlic
,

German but of European politics. Elcctoratc of Haunovcr under the

,
.
. ,

with the kingdom of Great Britam samc sovereigu ^ ^

.

further increased the

number

of princes ruling both

it.

within

Germany and without

Lastly, the wars of

the latter years of the eighteenth and the beginning of

Dissolution of the Kingdom, 1806.

the nineteenth century led to the dissolution alike of

-^
_

the

German kingdom and

of

the

Koman

Empire.

Then, after a time of confusion and foreign occupation,

TheGerman couics tlic
Confederation,

fomiatiou of a Confederation with boundaries

1816-

nearly the same as the later boundaries of the kincjdom.

But the Confederation now appears

subordinate to
such,
Austria and Prussia
greater than the confedera-

as something quite

its

tw^o leading

members.

Germany,

as

no longer counts

as

a great European power,

the

but Prussia and

oiice of

Austria,

two chief holders

at

Gemiaii and of non-German lands, stand forth

chicf bcarcrs of

amoug thc

European rank.

Lastly, the

changes of our
The new
Confederation and

own day have

given us an Imperial

Germany with geographical boundaries altogether new. a Germany from which the south-eastern German lands
are cut
off,

Empire,
1866-1870.

while the Polish and other non-German

possessions of Prussia to the north-east have

become
to the

an integral part of the new Empire.

geographer
last
is

The

task of the

thereby greatly simplified.

Down

changes, one of his greatest

difficulties is to

make

his

map show

with any clearness wliat was the extent

THE DUCHIES.
of the

205

German Kingdom

or Confederation, and at the

same time what was the extent of the dominions of those princes who held lands both in Germany and out
of
is
it.

By

the last arrangements this difficulty at least

altogether taken away.

map of Germany under the Saxon and Frankish Kmgs, we see that the old names, marking ^ ^ the great divisions of the German people, still keep
If

we

look at the
1
, , ,

1111

Germany
under the Saxon and Frankish Empire,

their predominance.

The kingdom

is still

made up
the

of

the four great duchies, the Eastern Francia, Saxony, The great

Alemannia, and Bavaria, together with

border-land of Lotharingia.
duchies, to w^hich
all

great

These are

still

the gTeat

smaller divisions are subordinate.

'

Amonff ~

the kernel of the kino-dora, the Eastern these, ' o

'

Francia,

is

the only one whose boundaries had

'

little

Eastern Francia cut off from extension.

or no chance of being extended or lessened at the cost of foreign powers.

It

had the smallest possible

the other hand,
./

frontier
Frontier
j)Osition oi

towards the Slave.

On

an Saxony ^ has

the Slave and the ever fluctuatino; O boundary asrainst O Dane Bavana marches upon the Slave, the Magyar,
;

|axony,
Bavaria,
l^^^linilf

and the Kingdom of

shifting frontier

Italy, while

Alemannia has a
Italy.
position of

towards

both Burgundy and

^

lands which
'

Lotharinffia,

and Burgundy & J

_

are the Exposed after its annexation, '

aofo-ression
C30

lie

exposed to ^
this

from the West.

It

is

perhaps for

very reason that, of the four

Lotharmgia and Burgudy-

duchies which preserve the names of the four great

divisions of the

German

nation, the Eastern Francia

is

vanishing
of Francia.

the one which has most utterly vanished

from the

modern map and from modern memory.

cause

Another

may have

strengthened

its

tendency to vanish.

The pohcy

of the kings forbade that the Frankish

duchy

should become the abiding heritage of any princely

206
CHAP.
VIII.
Its eccle-

THE mPERlAL KINGDOMS.

family.

The ducal
its

title

of the Eastern Francia was at

two periods of
siastical

history borne

by ecclesiastical princes
;

in the persons of the

Bishops of Wiirzburg

but

it

never

Dukes.

gave
Analogy
with Wesscx.

its

name,

like

Saxony and Bavaria,

the ancient

to

any ruling

house.

The

English student will notice the analogy

all

by which, among

English kingdoms,
is

Wessex, the cradle of the English monarchy,

the one

whose name has most

utterly vanished

from modern

memory.

The only way to grasp the endless shiftings and divisions of the German principalities, so as to give
anything like a clear general view, will be to take the
great duchies, and to point out in a general
steps

way

the

by which they

split

asunder, and the chief states

of any historical importance which rose out of their

(irowth of

divisions.

new powers
in the

Most of these new powers begin

in

to

be of
is

twelfth century.

importance
specially

the twelfth century, a time which

as the asra

marked

when

those two states

which have had most to do with the making or unBrandenburg and

Austria.

making of modern Germany begin to find their place in history. It is then that the two great marchlands
of Brandenburg and Austria begin to take their place

among
The
Circles.

the leading powers of the

German kingdom.
be well to bear
in

And,

in

making

this survey,

it

will

mind the much

an attempt to

later division into circles.

The

circles,

create administrative divisions of the

kingdom

as such, were, in a faint

way, a return to the

ancient duchies, the names of which

were to some
circles,

extent retained.

Thus we have the two Saxon

tliree

Upper and Lowei\ and the

and Bavaria.

of Franconia, Swahia,

All of these

keep up the names of

ancient duchies, and most of

them keep up a stronger

with the ancient

or fainter

geographical connexion

THE DUCHY OF SAXONY.

lands whose names they bore.

207
circles, the

The other

chap
VIII.

two Rhenish

circles,

Upper and Lower^ and those of

West/alia, Austria,

and Burgundy

used in a sense altogether

new

the arose out

have to

last

name being
of changes
fifteenth

which took place between the twelfth and

centuries,

some of which we

shall

notice.

First then, the great

duchy of Saxony consisted of

Angria,

saxony;its
sions,west-

three

main
'

divisions.

West/alia, Efiger?i or

and East/alia.
. .

Thuringia to the south-east, and the

Frisian lands to
in

1111 the north-west, may be looked

AngVia,
Eastfalia.

on as

some

sort

appendages to the Saxon duchy.

The

duchy was
towards the
the

also capable of
east,

any amount of extension

orowtiiof
thTexJei'se
slaves.

and the lands gradually won from

Wends on this side were all looked on as additions made to the Saxon territory. But the great Saxon
duchy was broken up
at the flill of Henry the Lion. The archiepiscopal Electors of Kbln received the title of Dukes of West/alia and Engern. But in the greater part

Break-up

of

the Duchy, 1182-1191.

ouchy

of

of those districts the grant remained merely nominal,

though the ducal

title,

with a small actual Westfalian

till

duchy, remained to the electorate

these lands

the end.

From
as
use of

the

Saxon name may be looked on

having altogether passed away.

as

The name

of Saxony, New

a geographical

expression, clave to the Eastfahan slxo^^

to Thuringia

remnant of the old duchy, and

Slavonic conquests to the east.
of

and the

In the later division

circles of

Germany these lands formed the two and Lower Saxony and it was within
;

Upper

their limits that xheSaxou

the various states arose

which have kept on the Saxon

name

to our

own

time.

From

the descendants of
allodial lauds

Henry

the Lion himself,

and from the

which they kept, the Saxon

20S

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

name passed away, except
of the Lower-Saxon circle.
princes of the
so far as they

CHAP.
vrn.

became part

They held their place as Empire, no longer as Dukes of Saxony,

Duchy

of

but as Dukes of Brunswick, a house which gave

Eome
After

Brunswick.

one Emperor and England a dynasty of kings.

Its division, 1203.

some of the usual

ties finally

divisions,

two Brunswick

principali-

took their place on the map, those of Liine-

Liineburg

hurg and Wolfenbilttel, the latter having the town of

andWolfenbUttel.

Brunswick

for

its

capital.

The LUneburg duchy grew.

it

I^uiicburc;

Late in the seventeenth century

electoral rank,
finally enlarged

was raised

to the
it

acquires tlie bishoprics of Bremen

!TI1(|

and early

in the

next century

was

by the

acquisition of the bishoprics

Verden, 1715-1719.
l"]lectorate

of

of Hannover or Brunswick Liineburg, 1692.

rate,

Bremen and Verden. Thus was formed the Electoand afterwards Kingdom, of Hannover, while the
tiile

simple ducal
of the other

remained with the Brunswick princes

line.
itself

The new
Saxony.

The Saxon name

the old

withdrew

in the

end from

Saxony
fall

to the lands

conquered from the Slave.

On
Bernhard duke of Saxony,
1180-121.

the

of

Henry

the Lion, the

duchy of Saxony,
was

cut short

by the grant

to the archbishops of Koln,

granted to Bernhard of Ballensted, the founder of the

Ascanian House,

Of the older Saxon land

district

his

house

kept only for a while the small

SachsenLauenburg.

north of the

Elbe which kept the name of Sachsen-Lauenhurg, and

which
torate.

in the

end became part of the Hannover

it

elec-

But

was

in

Thuringia and the conquered

Slavonic lands to the east of Thuringia that a

new

Saxony
This

arose,

which kept on somewhat of the European

position of the Saxon

name down

to

modern
for
its

times.
capital,

new Saxony, with Wittenberg

grew, through the addition of Thuri7igia and Meissen,

into the

Saxon Electorate which played so great a

last

part during the three

centuries of the existence

THE NEW SAXONY.

of the

209

German kingdom.

But

in

Saxony too the

off
;

chap.
YIII.
1423.

usual divisions took place.

Lauenburg parted
still

so
Divisions

did the smaller duchies which

keep the Saxon name.

The ducal and

Saxon

electoral

dignities

were divided,

till

^547

the two, united under the famous Maurice, formed the

electorate as
It
it

stood at the dissolution of the

kingdom.

was

in short a

new

state,

one which had

succeeded to the name, but which could in no other

way be thought to represent, the Saxony whose conquest cost so many campaigns to Charles the Great.
Another power which arose
in the

marchland of
in the later

The Mark
imrg.

Saxon and
sense,

Slave, to the north of

Saxony

was the land known

specially as the

Mark, the

groundwork of the power which has

risen to the

head of Germany.

own day The North Mark of

in our
Ueien of
i^ear,

Saxony became the Mark of Brandenburg. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, under Albert the Bear
and
his house, the

Mark
it

greatly extended itself at the

1134-

expense of the Slaves.

United for a time with the

passed into the house of the
!!

union with
i373-'i4T.3.

kingdom
,
.

of Bohemia,
'

Burgraves of N'drnberg, that House of HohenzoUern

whicli has
perial
T

House of
Hi^henzoiI'^rn, 1416.

grown

step

by

step

till

it

has reached Im-

rank in our

own

day.

The power thus formed

presently acquired a special character by the acquisition of

what may be called a German land out of Germany, a land which gave them in the end a
title,

higher

and which by

its

geographical position led

of territory.

irresistibly to a further increase

Early in

the seventeenth century the Electors of

Brandenburg
is

acquired by inheritance the

Duchy of

Prussia, that

Union of

merely Eastern Prussia, a

the crown of Poland,

Brandeiinot of the Empire but of hm-^nmi and which lay geographically fe'iT-itiLs

fief,

210
CHAP.
VIII.
1056.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

apart from their strictly

Germac dominions.

The com-

Prussia in-

mon sovereign the man of two

of Brandenburo; and Prussia was thus

lords
;

but the Great Elector Frederick

in his

dependent
16.') 6

of Poland, be;

WiUiam became
title

a wholly independent sovereign

comes
kiufidom,
1701.

duchy, and his son Frederick took on himself the kingly

for the land

which was thus freed from

all

homage.

Both before and

after the

union with Prussia, theElectors

of Brandenburg continued largely to increase their Ger1523-1623.

man

dominions.

temporary possession of the princiitself,

pality of /a^^r/zc^^Jr/" in Silesia, unimportant in

Westfalian
possessions of Branden-

led

to great events in later times.

The

acquisition, at various

Imrs, 16141606.

times in the seventeenth century, of Cleve and other

outlying Westfalian lands, which were further increased
in the next century, led in the

1702-1744.

same way

to the

modern
that of

dominion of Prussia
Acquisitions in

in

western Germany. But the most

in this age

solid acquisition of

Brandenburg

was

Pomerania, 1638-1648.

Eastern Poinerania, to which the town of

a further increase of territory,

Stettin,

with

was added

after the

wars

171.3-1719.

of Charles the Twelfth of Sweden.

The

events of the

Thirty Years'

War also increased

at the

the dominions both of

Brandenburg and Saxony

Later acquisitions of

expense of the neighlater acquisitions of

bouring ecclesiastical princes.

the

The
title

House

of Hohenzollern, after the Electors of Bran-

Prussia.

denburg had taken the kingly

from

their Prussian
least as

duchy, concern Prussia as an European power at

much
German
character of tlie Prussian

as they concern

Brandenburg

as a

German power.
Germany.

Yet their proper place comes in the history of

Unlike the other princes

who

held lands within and

Mon-

without the German kingdom, the Kings of Prussia

archy.

and Electors of Brandenburg have remained

essentially

German princes. Their acquisitions of territory out of Germany have all been in fact enlargements, if not of the soil of Germany, at least of the sphere of German

BRAXDEXBURG AND PRUSSIA.

inrtuence.

211
^'^rff-

And,

at last, in

marked

contrast to the fate

of the rival

House of Austria, the whole Prussian do-

"^^'

minions have been incorporated with the new

German
its

Empire, and form the immediate dominion of

perial

Imspread of
^'^^

head.

The outward
.
-,

sign of
.

this
f>

change, the
T

outward sign of the special position of Brandenburg,

T-i

^
as

name

of

Prussia.

compared with Holstein or Austria,

spread of the

is

the

strange do-

name

of Prussia over the

German

minions of the King of Prussia.

taken place with the

No

such spread has

or of Hungary.

name

of

Denmark

Within Germany the greatest enlargement of the

dominion of Prussia
instead of

as

we may now begin

to call

it

Brandenburg
,

was

the acquisition of

by

far
Conquest of
Silesia,

the greater part of Schlesien or Silesia, hitherto part of ^ ^

tlie

Bohemian

lands,
it

and then held by the House of

i^^i-

Austria.

This,

should be noted, was an acquisition

foil

which could hardly

to lead to further acquisitions.

The
,
,

geoQ-raphical

characteristic
. .

of
''

the Prussian
.

do-

<;<'oicniiihi-

cal cliarac-

minions was the

pieces,

way ^

in

which they lay

/

in

detached

terofthe
Prussian
^'^'"'"'ons-

and the enormous extent of

frontier as

com-

pared with the area of the country.

itself

The kingdom

lay detached,

hemmed
The

in

and intersected by the

territory of Poland.

electorate, with the

Pome-

ranian

territory,

formed a somewhat more compact

this

mass

but even
its

had a very large frontier com-

pared with
district of

area.

The Westfolian

possessions, the

Cottbus,

and other outlying dominions, lay

this charac-

quite apart.
teristic

The addition of Silesia increased

yet further.

The newly won duchy, barely

Position of

joining the electorate, ran out as a kind of peninsula

between Saxony, Bohemia, and Poland.

a Polish and then as a

Silesia, first as

Bohemian

fief,

had formed
;

part of a fairly compact geographical mass

p 2

as part of

212
CHAP.
VIII.

THE BIPEEIAL KINGDOMS.

the

same dominion
all

witli Prussia

and Brandenburg,

it

was an
Acquisi-

but isolated land with an enormous frontier.

The

details of the

PoHsh

acquisitions of Prussia will be

from Poland, 1 772-1790.

tions

best given in our survey of Poland.

But

it

should be

Their geographical
character.

noted that each of the portions of territory which were added to Prussia by the several partitions has a geographical character of
its

own.

The

addition of West-

1772.

Prussia

that

is

the geographical union of the

kingdom
or later.

and the electorate

fail
179S

was

something which could not

in the nature of things to

come sooner

The second
peninsular.

addition of South-Prussia might seem geo-

graphically needed in order to leave Silesia no longer

The

last,

and most short-lived addition of

necessity

179.5.

New- East-Prussia had no such geographical

as the other two.
Still it

helped to give greater comits

pactness to the kingdom, and to lessen

frontier in

comparison with

its

area.

Another acquisition of the House of Hohenzollern

during the eighteenth century, though temporary, deserves a passing notice.
East-Friesland, 1744.

Among

its

Westfahan annexa-

tions

was East- Fries land.

The King of Prussia thus

eighteenth century,

became, during the

last half of the

an oceanic potentate, a character which he presently

lost,

and which, save

for a

moment

in the days of con-

fusion,

he obtained again only in our

own

day.

Parts of

large part of Saxony, both in the older and in the

Saxony held by foreign later sense,

kings.

thus

came

to form part of a

dominion con-

taining both

which the
dominant.

German and non-German lands, but in German character was in every way preOther parts of Saxony in the same ex-

tended sense also came to form part of the dominions

of princes

who

ruled both in and out of Germany, but

SAXON POSSESSIONS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN,

in

213
chap.
^-

whom

the

non-German character was yet more

predominant.

The old Saxony beyond

shifting

the

Elbe, the

-^

modern
Kings.

Holstein, passed into the hands of the Danisli

Its

Houtein:
its

relations

towards Denmark and

relation

Germany and towards the neighbouring land of Sleswick, as having become matter of international dispute between Denmark and Germany, will be best spoken The events of w^hen w^e come to deal with Denmark. of the Thirty Years' War also made the Swedisli
kings for a while considerable potentates in northern

Germany.

The Peace of Westfalia confirmed

tlie

to

them
tlie

(jermanter-

Western Ponierania and

Baltic,

town of Wismar on

Sweden,
1048-1815.

and the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden which

gave them an oceanic coast.

as

But these

last lands

were,
i"'-^"-

we have
by

seen afterwards, ceded to Hannover, and

also

tlie

Pomeranian possessions of Sweden w^ere

cession to Brandenburg.

cut

short

But the possession

still

of

Wismar and

a part of Pomerania

gave

tlie

Swedish kings a position as German princes down to

the dissolution of the Empire.

These are the chief powers which rose to

sense of that word.

historical

importance within the bounds of Saxony, in the widest

To

trace every division

and union

which created or extinguished any of the smaller principalities,

^
.

or even to

mark every minute change

-^

of

Free

cities

frontier

among

ofSaxony.

the greater powers,

would be

impossible.

But

it

must be further remembered that the Saxon

circles
cities

were the

seats of

some of the greatest of the

1
r>

free
The Hanse Towns.

seatic

of T

Germany, the leading members of the HanIn the growth of

T*^
1

League.

German commerce the

earliest

/-N

Ehenish lands took the lead, and, in the

of the Hansa, Kobi held the
first

days

place

among
to

its cities.

The pre-eminence afterwards passed

havens nearer

214
CHAP.
VIII.
Liibeck,

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

to the

Ocean and the

Baltic,

where,

among

crowd

of

others, the Imperial cities of Liibeck

Bremen,
Haniburjr.

and Breme7i stand

rival

out foremost, and with them

Hamburg, a

which

has in later times outstripped them.

it

And

at this point

may be

illustrate

episcopal
The
cities

Bremen specially a law which extended to many other of the The Bishop became a cities of Germany.
noticed that Liibeck and
territory

prince,
in

and held a greater or smaller extent of But the

city
in

and the
bishoprics.

temporal sovereignty.

which contained
temporal things,

his see

remained independent of him

and knew him only

as its spiritual shepherd.

Such were

the archbishopric of

Bremen and

the bishopiic of Lii-

beck, principalities which, after the change of religion,

passed into secular hands.

bishopric of

Thus we have seen the archSweden, and then

to

Bremen

pass, first to
cities

Hannover.

But the two

always remained inde-

pendent commonwealths, owning no superior but the

Emperor.

The next among

the great duchies, that of Eastern

is

Francia, Franken, or Franconia,

of

much

less

imIt

portance in European history than that of Saxony.

IJishops
Dulvcs.
I

gave the ducal

it

title

to the Bishops of to
Its

Wiirzburg

but
in

Wiirzbui

cannot be

said

be

in

any sense continued

retreated,
in

any modern
Extent of
the Circle.

state.

name gradually

and

the circle of

Franken or Franconia took

only the

most eastern part of the ancient duchy.

The western

and northern part of the duchy, together with a good

deal of territory which was strictly Lotharingian, beThe
lihfiish
Circles.

came part of the two Ehenish

greatest of

circles.

Thus Fulda, the

German
grew up

abbeys, passed

away from

the

Frankish name.
principalities

In north-eastern Francia, the Hessian

to

the north-west.

Within the

FRANCONIA AND BAVARIA.

Franconiau
circle lay Wiirzburg^ the see of the bishops
title,

215
chap.
-

who

bore the ducal

the other great

bishopric ^

of Bamberg, together with the free city of

Numberg,
Eeciesiasti-

and various smaller

lands,

principalities.

In the Ehenish

both within and without the old Francia, one

is

chief characteristic
tical principalities,

the predominance of the ecclesias.

Mainz, Kbln, JVonns, Speyer, and

on the Khine.

Strassburg.
this

Tlie chief temporal

power which arose

in

region was the Palatinate of the Rhine, a power

which, like others, went through

sions,

many

unions and divi-

and spread into four

Westfalia,

circles,

those of

Upper and

Lower Ehine,

and Bavaria. This

last district,

though united with the Palatine Electorate, was, from

the early part of the fourteenth century, distinguished

from the Palatinate of the Rhine as the Oberpfalz or

Bavaria.

Upper

Palatinate.

To

the south of

it laj^

the Bavarian

priucipahties.

These, united into a single duchy, formed

the power which grew into the

neither this

modern kingdom.

But

duchy nor the whole Bavarian

circle at all

reached to the extent of the ancient Bavaria which bordered on

Years'
Italy.

The

early stages of the Thirty

its

shiftings

War

o;ave

the Rhenish Palatinate, with

;

dec-

Bavariaand
nate, \tm. P21cctorate

toral rights, to Bavaria

the Peace of Westfalia restored

the Palatinate, leavinof Bavaria as a

"^

new

electorate,
to passed i

of Bavaria,

century, Bavaria Late in the eisfhteenth the Elector Palatine, thus forming what
'

itself

Unionofthe
two, 1777.

may

be called
This

modern Bavaria with

acquisition

its

outlying Rhenish lands.

was

at the

same time partly balanced by the

cession to Austria of the lands east of the Inn,

.

known
the

as the Innviertel.

The other

chief state

within

cession to Austria, 1778.

Bavarian circle was the great ecclesiastical principahty

of the archbishops of Salzburg in the extreme south-east,

Archbishopric of

saizbur-

The old Lotharingian

divisions, as

we

see

them

in

216
CHAP.
VIII.
Lotharingia.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

the time of the great duchies, utterly died out.
states

The

which arose in the Lower Lotharingia are among

fell off

those which silently

from the German Kingdom

Lowpr Lotharingia.

to take a special position

under the name of the Nether-

Duchy of I^othringen or Lorraine.

Elsas.s.

lands.

The special duchy oi Lothringen or Lorraine was

Elsass also
circle,

held to belong to the circle of Upper Ehine.

formed part of the same

Circle of iSwabia.

the circle which was

specially cut short by the encroachments of France. The Swahian circle answered more nearly than most of the new divisions to the old Swabian duchy, as that duchy stood without counting the marchland of Elsass. No part of Germany was more cut up into small states

than the old land of the Hohenstaufen.

principalities, secular

crowd of

and

ecclesiastical,

among them

the lesser
of free

principalities

of the Hohenzollern House,

cities, Tind

of outlying possessions of the houses

the

of Austria
Ecclesiastical towns of

made up

main part of the

St.

circle.

Stixissburg,
rich, are
siastical

Augsburg, Constanz,

Gallen, Chur, Zu-

Swabia.
Part of

among

the great bishoprics and other eccle-

foundations of the old Swabia.

fully in

Swabia comes
land.

But, as I shall
districts in the

Ije-

show more

Switzer-

another section, large

south-east, those

which formed the Old League of High Germany, had practically fallen away from the kingdom

before the
Baden.

new

division

was made, and were therefore

circle.

never reckoned in any

lities,

Two
to

Swabian principafirst

Wiirttemberg.

the

mark

of Baden, and Wilrtteniherg,

county

and then duchy, came gradually

this region.

the

first

place in

As such they

still

remain, preserving in

some

sort a divided representation of the old Swabia.

Two
the

important parts of the old kingdom, two circles

still

of the division of Maximilian,

remain.
of

Tliese are

lands which form the

circles

Burgundy and

'

LOTHARINGIA, SWABIA, AND AUSTRIA.

Austria.

217
or
-

These are lands

wliicli

have,

in earher

later times,

wholly

fallen off
circle

from the German Kinoin

VIII.
,

chap.

doin.

The Austrian

was formed of the lands

in

Circle of

Austria.

southern

Germany which gradually gathered

Startina;

the

hands of the second Austrian

of Habsburg.

dynasty, the House

orio-inal
first

from the
-f-^

mark on the
into a great Growth
-,

Hungarian
/^

frontier, those lands

,
,
.

grew,

of

German, and then

politically

into a great European, power,

and

the House of Austria.

the latest changes have

made even their German lands non-German. The growth of the Austrian
be properly dealt with
in a sepaof

House

will therefore
It is

rate section.

enough

to say here that the Austrian Extent

in,

dominion

in

Germany gradually took

besides the

lands.

original duchy, the south-eastern duchies of Steiermavk

or Styria, Karnthen or Carinthia, and

Krain or Carniola,

with the Italian borderlands of Gortz, Aquileia, and part

of Istria.

Joined to these by a kind of geographical

isthmus, like that which joins Silesia and Brandenburg,

lay the western possessions of the house, the Bavarian

county of Tyrol and various outlying

of lands in Sicabia and Elsass.

strips

and points
the

Tyrol,

The growth of
its

Loss of
lands.

Confederates cut short the Swabian possessions of Austria, as

the later cession to France cut short

Still

Alsatian

possessions.

a Swabian remnant remained

down
Bohemia
pendencies.

to the dissolution of the

Kingdom.

The kingdom of

Bohemia, with the dependent lands of Moravia and Silesia,

though held by the Archdukes of Austria and

giving

them

electoral rank,

was not included

in

any

German circle. The Austrian circle moreover was not wholly made up of the dominions of the Austrian house
;

besides

some

smaller territories

it

also

took in the
Trent and Brixen.

bishoprics of Trent
tier of Italy

and Brixen on the debateable fron-

and old Bavaria.

218

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

The Burgundian
circle

was the

last

and the strangest

use of the Burgundian name.

parts of the dominions of the

It

consisted of those

Dukes of Burgundy

of

tlie

House of Valois which remained

of the

to their descendants

House of Austria
These did not
the

at the time of the division into

all lie strictly

circles.

within the boun-

daries of
The Imperial

German kingdom.

Within that king-

dom

indeed lay the Northern Netherlands, the Frisian

Nether-

lands.

lands of Holland, Zealand, and West-Friesland, as also

Brabajit and other Lotharingian lands

County of Burgundy.

But the

circle

also

took in

the

County of Burgundy or

Franche

Comte, part of the old kingdom of Burgundy, and lastly

Flanders and Artois
released

Flanders and Artois, lands beyond the bounds of the

Empire.

from

These were

fiefs

of France which were released

homage
France, 1526.

to

from their homage to that crown by the treaty between

Charles the Fifth and Francis the First of France.

The
fiefs

Burgundian
French

circle thus

took in

all

the Imperial

of

the Valois dukes, together with a small part of their

As all, or nearly all, of these lands altogether fell away from the German kingdom, and as those parts of them which now form the two kingdoms
fiefs.

of the
their

Low

Countries have a certain historical being of

it

own,

will

be well

to

keep

their

more

detailed

mention also for a special

^ 2.
Germany
changed from a

section.

The Confederation and Empire of Germany.

in the last section

Our survey
to

has carried us

down
the
a

to the beginning of the

u})

changes which led to the break-

kingdom
ration.

a confede-

of the old

German Kingdom.
history

Germany
tie

is

only
Sketch of
the process, 1806-1815.

land

in

which

has

changed from

kingdom
was
at

to a confederation. to the king

off

The

which bound
so

the vassal princes

last

became

lax that
this

it

thrown

altogether.

In

process


CONFEDERATION AND EMPIRE.
helped. foreign i c O invasion laro-ely
./

219
chap.
VIII.
^-

Between the two pro^

^

cesses of

foreign

war and domestic

states
all

disintegration, a

chaotic time followed, in

shifting

which boundaries were ever

rising

and new

were ever

and

falling.
The German Bund,
isio.

In the end, nearly

old

the lands which

again, with

had formed the

kingdom came together

boundaries, as

members

latest events of all

IP i-ri'l have driven the former chiet ot the

,.

of a lax

new names and The Confederation.

The new
Confederation

and

Confederation beyond
other

its

boundaries they have joined its

;

igg-i87i.

members together by a much

closer tie

they have

raised the second

member

of the former Confederation

to the post of perpetual chief of the

new

Confederation,

and they have further clothed

rial title.

But

it

him with the Impemust be remembered that the modern

is
still
;

The new Empive

tede-

Empire of Germany
bears the
title

a Federal state.
still

Its chief stm

is

of

Emperor

the relation

federal

and not

feudal.

The

lesser

members

of the

Empire
him and
That

are not vassals of the Emperor, as they were in the days

of the old kingdom.

to

They
tie

are states
is

bound

to

one another by a

which

purely federal.

the state whose prince holds Imperial rank far surpasses

is

any of

its

other

members
;

in
it

extent and power

an important

political fact

but

does not touch the

federal position of all the

states
is

of the Empire, great

;

and
is

small.

Eeuss-Schleiz

not a vassal of Prussia

it

member

of a league in which the voice of Prussia

naturally goes for

more than

the voice of Eeuss-Schleiz.

it

The
pire,

dissolution of the

German kingdom, and with

the wiping out of the last tradition of the

Eoman Emand which

'^'^

cannot be separated from the history of wars of the

it,

French Eevolution which went before

indeed led to
it.

For our purely geographical purpose,

J^'g^'^^'"

we must

distinguish the changes which directly affected

ngyll'siT'


220
CHAP,
VIII.
'

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

tlie

German kinojdom from

.

those which affected the

Austrian

states,

the Netherlands, and Switzerland, lands

historic being

which have now a separate

War
be-

from Germany.

The

List

War which
.

the

Empire

as such wao;ed with

France and tlie Empire,

17113-1^01

Fraiicc

was the eight years' war which was ended by the

Peace of Luneville.
left

By that peace,
at

all

Germany on
in

the

The left bank nf the

Kiiineceded by the

bank on the Ehine was ceded

was we
ill

to France.

What

sacritlce this
tliat it

once

see,

when we bear

mind

Peace of
lAinevilIe,

took

the three metropolitan cities of Koln, '

1801.

Mainz, and Trier, the royal city of Aachen, and the

famous bishoprics of
of princes thus lost
it

Worms and
that

Speyer.

number

all

or part of their dominions, and

was presently agreed

-,

they should compensate

The

litichs-

themselves within the

>

lands

which remained
cities

to the
ec-

deputations-

hauptschhiss,

kingdom

at the

expense or the free

and the

i03. hnd of the Ecciesiastical pnnci-

clesiastical princes. a

The o m^eat German hierarchy j

of

princcly bishops and abbots l j l

now came

to

an end, with
?

As the ancient metropolis of TheSnce- ^ soHtapy cxccptiou. "^ Mainz had passed to France, the see of its archbishop iie""ns"'t'

was removed

to Regensbarg,

where, under the

title

of Prince-Primate^ he remained an Elector and Arch-

SaV^
TheFree

"^

Chancellor of the Empire.

lar electorate.

Salzburg became a secuecclesiastical states

The other
were
left.

were an-

ucxcd by the neighbouring princes, and of the free

cities

six only

These were the Hanscatic

towns of Llibeck, Bremen, and Hamburg, and the inland

towns of Frankfurt,
NewEiec-

N'lirnberg,

and Augsburg.

Besides

Salzburg, three

new

Electorates arose,

Wilrttemberg,

Baden, and IIessen-Casset.

Peace of
i!so5.

None
in

of these

new

Electors
led

cvcr chosc any King or Emperor.

*"

The next war

allies

to the

Peace of Pressburg,

which the Electors of

of

Wiifttem-"
Bavaria.

Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden appear as

Francc, aud by which those of Bavaria and Wurttemberg

DISSOLUTION OF THE EMPIRE.

are acknowledged as Kings.
cut off from south-western

221

Austria was

now wholly
"

chap.
'

Germany. Wiirttemberg and

while Tyrol, possessions, ^

Thev divide

Baden divided her Swabian

the lot of Bavaria.

tiie

Trent, Brixen, together with the free city of Augsburg,

fell to

western lands of Austria.

Austria received Salzburg

his

its

prince
burof, ^'

removed himself and

'^
-^

electorate to Wlirz

and a Grand Diichi of Wurzhurq was formed

its

to Grand Duchy

of

compensate

Elector.
last

warzburg.

These were the

changes which took place while

lasted.

any shadow of the old Kingdom and Empire

The reigning King of Germany and Emperor-elect, Francis King of Hungary and Bohemia and Archduke of Austria, had already begun to call himself Heredi'

xitie of

tary

Emperor
'

oj

Austria,

in the treaty or rressburg

title,

Austria.'

he

is

described by the strange

unheard of before
Austria,'

or after, of
the Empire
ration.'

Emperor

of

Germany and
'

and

itself is

spoken of as a

Germanic Confede-

These formulae were prophetic.

The next year

The confederation of ^^e Khme,

a crowd of princes renounced their allegiance, and formed themselves into the Confederation of the Rhine under ^
''
_

the protectorate of France.

The formal
The
;

dissolution of

the Empire followed at once.

succession which

p,^sokition

had gone on from Augustus ended

the Great was undone.

the

work

of Charles

plre'^Arat
'''

Instead of the Frank ruling

^^^^'

over Gaul, the Frenchman ruled over Germany.

A time
falling,

Repeated
chanjies,

of confusion followed, in which boundaries were constantly shifting, states

isou-isii.

were constantly

rising

and

and new portions of German ground were being constantly

added

to France.

At
The

the time of the greatest Gprmany

in

extent of French dominion, the political state of Ger-

many was on
had released
the

this wise.
all its

dissolution of the

Empire
and
o/nenmaHc
'"^

members from

their allegiance,

German

possessions of the Kings of

Denmark and

den.'


222

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

Sweden had been incorporated with
doms.
their several king-

Hannover was wholly lost

to

its

island sovereign

seized and lost again

more than once by Prussia and by

lost,

France,

it

passed at last wholly into the hands of the

Prussia had

foreign power.

not only its momentary

possession of Hannover, but also everything west of the

Elbe.

Austria had yielded Salzburg to Bavaria, and

part of her

own

south-western territory in Krain and

Kiirnthen had passed to France under the

Annexations to

name

of the
lands

lllyrian Provinces.

France

too, beside all the

France.

west of the Rhine, had incorporated East Friesland,

Oldenburg^ part of Hannover^ and the three Hanseatic
cities.

The remaining

states of

Confederation of the

Confederation of the Rhine.

Germany formed the The chief among these

a

Rhine.

were the four Kingdoms of Bavaria., WUrttemberg,

Saxony^ and Westfalia.

Kingdoms of Saxony
and Westfalia.

Saxony had become

kingdom

under

its

own
:

Elector presently after the dissolution of

the Empire

the

a French king in
burg.,

new-made kingdom of Westfalia had Jerome Buonaparte. Besides Mecklena

Baden

now

Grand Duchy

Berg.,

Nassau,

Hessen, and other smaller states, there were

its

now among

Grand

members the Grand Duchy of Wurzburg, and also a Grand Duchy of Frankfurt, the possession of the Prince
of

Duchy

Frankfurt.

Primate, once

of Mainz,

afterwards

of Eegensburg.

Germany
wiped
out.

We may
from the

say with truth that during this time

to
exist
;

Germany
vani;shed

had ceased

its

very

name had

map

of Europe.

Prussia was a power so thoroughly

the
fate

German

that

even

of

its

non-German

possessions cannot

well be separated from

German geography.
the

The same
in

blow which cut short the old electorate of BrandenThe Kinc-

burg no

less

cut

short

kingdom of Prussia

SUBJECTION AND LIBERATION OF GERMANY.

its

223
left,

Polish acquisitions.

West- Prussia only was

off to

and even here Danzig was cut

republic.

form a separate

chap.
VIII.
.

The other Polish territories of Prussia formed the Duchy of Warsaw^ which was held by the new King of Saxony. Silesia thus fell back again on its half-isolated position, all the more so as it lay between the German and the Polish possessions of the

Prussia cut

CommonDanziJ,^"

wlTrsaw,

Po-sition of

Saxon king.

The

territory left to Prussia

was now
;

Siiesia.

wholly continuous, without any outlying possessions

but the length of
larity of its
its

frontier

and the strange irregustriking

shape on the

map were now more

than ever.

The

liberation of
it

Germany and

the

fall

of Buona-

parte brought with

a complete reconstruction of the

German

territory.

Germany

again arose, no longer as

xheCerfedeiation, 1815.

an Empire or Kingdom, but as a lax Confederation.

Austria, the duchy whose princes had been
'

so often

chosen

\ Emperors, became
of
the

\
its

_.
presiding
state.
diffei'cd
;

The
but
inPrinces
lioldinji;
i-'f'i'^ ij'*'

boundaries
slightly

new

Confederation

from those of the old Kingdom

but the

ternal

divisions
'

had greatly changed.

Once more a
'

number of princes held lands both in Germany and out The so-called 'Emperor' of Austria, the Kino-s of it. ~ of Prussia, Denmark, and the Netherlands, became mem*
'

within the
Conttederation and out "^**-

bers of the

Confederation

for

those

parts of their
states

dominions which had formed}^ been

of

the

Empire.

In the like

sort, the

King of Great Britain

of

and Ireland, having recovered

his continental dominions,

title

entered the Confederation by the

nover.

King of HanKingdom of
isi.i-isgg".

This new kingdom was made up of the former

electorate with

some

additions,

including East-Fries-

land.

In other parts the Prussian territories were largely

224
increased.

THE IMPERIAL KIXGDOMS.

Magdeburg and Halberstadt were recovered.
rest of the ancient

Swedish Pomerania was added to the

duchy
the

and, more important than

this,

a large part of

kingdom of Saxony^ including the greater part of

This change, which

Lausitz and the formerly outlying-land of Cottbus^ was

incorporated with Prussia.

the Saxon

made

kingdom

far smaller than the old electorate,

altogether put an
Silesia,

end to the peninsular position of

strictly

even as regarded the

German possessions
same time rendered
its

of Prussia.

The kingdom was

at the

more compact by the recovery of part of

possessions under the
Posen.

Polish

Posen.
great

name In western Germany

Its

of the

Grand Duchy of

again Prussia

now made
and
toler-

K hellish
and Wesffaliau territory.

acquisitions.

old

outlying Ehenish

Westfalian possessions grew into a large

and

ably compact territory,

the
great

though lying isolated from

body of the monarchy.

The

greater part

of the territory west of the Ehine which had been

ceded to France
cities
ster,

now became

Prussian, including the

of Kbln^ no longer a metropolitan see. Trier, Miln-

and Paderborn.
unequal

The main
of

part of the Prussian

possessions thus

consisted
size,

two

detached masses,

of very

but

which

seemed

to

crave
of

for a closer geographical

Neufchatel.

union.

The

Principality

Neufchatel, which

made

the Prussian king a

member

of the Swiss Confederation, will be mentioned else-

where.

Of the other powers which entered the Confederation

for the also

German

parts

of their dominions, but

which
Territory recovered by Austria.

had

territories

beyond the Confederation,

Austria recovered Salzburg, Tyrol, Trent, and Brixen,

together with the south-eastern lands which had passed
to France.

Thus the

territory of the Confederation,

THE GEEMAN CONFEDERATION.

like

225
to the

that of the old

Kingdom, again reached

Hadriatic.
stein,

Denmark entered the Confederation for Eoland for a new possession, that of Lauenburg, the
in a

ofDenmark.
an.i

duchy which
for the

manner represented ancient Saxony,

Lauen-

The King of the Netherlands entered the Confederation

Grand Duchy of Luxemburg^ part of which however was cut off to be added to the Ehenish
possessions of Prussia.
last

Luxem-

Sweden, by the cession of

to

its

Sweden
Pomerania.

remnant of Pomerania, ceased altogether

There were thus

be a

German power.
five

powers whose dominions lay

it.

partly within the Confederation, partly out of

In
Prussia the

the case of one of these, that of Prussia, the division of

German and non-German

the
greatest

territory

was purely formal.

German

Prussia was practically a purely

of

German power, and purely German powers. Her rival

Austria.

Austria stood higher in formal rank in the Confederation,

and ruled over a much greater continuous

;

terri-

tory

but here the

distinction

between German and

non- German lands was really practical, as later events

have shown.

It

has been found possible to shut out companion

Austria from Germany.

have been to abolish

To shut out Prussia would Germany altogether. Hannover,

sovereign with Great Britain,

uonof^"'''
Prussia.'

though under a

common

was
so

so completely cut off from Great Britain,

and had
practi- Hannover.

little

influence on British politics, that

it

was

cally as

much

a purely

German
it

state before its separa-

tion

from Great Britain as

was afterwards.

In the
Hoistein

cases of

Denmark and

the

Netherlands, princes the

greater part of whose territories lay out of

Germany
and

Luxem^^^'

held adjoining territories in Germany.

materials for political questions

Here then were

difficulties
;

and

226
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

in the case of

Denmark, these questions and

difficulties

became of the highest importance.

Kingdom
Bavaria.
of

Among those members

territory lay

of the Confederation, whose

wholly within Germany, the Kingdom

first.

of Bavaria stood

Its

newly acquired lauds to

;

the south were given back to Austria

large
acquisitions
to
tlie

north-east.

made Modern Babut

it

varia consists of a large mass of territory, Bavarian,

Swabian, and Franldsh, counting within

the

its

boundaries

famous
great

cities

of Augsburg
of

and

Nurnherg and
Wurzburg.

the
Her Ehen
ish territory.

bishoprics

Bamberg and

Besides

this,

Bavaria recovered a considerable part

of the ancient Palatinate west of the Eliine,

which

adds Speyer to the

Wiirttemberg.

list

of Bavarian
title,

cities

The other

states

which bore the kingly

Wiirttemberg and

Sasony.

the remnant of Saxony, were of

Saxony however kept

of
all

a position in

much smaller extent. many ways out

its

proportion to the narrowed extent of

geo-

graphical limits.
additions fi^om the

Wiirttemberg, increased by various

Swabian lands of Austria and from

for itself a
its

other smaller principalities, had, though the smallest

of kingdoms,

won

much

higher position

than had been held by

former Counts and Dukes.

Along with them might be ranked the Grand Duchy

Baden.

of Baden, with

its

strange irregular frontier, taking in

Heidelberg and Constanz.

states
Hesseu.

Among

a crowd of smaller
principalities,

stand out the

two Hessian

the

Grand Duchy of Hessen- Darmstadt, and Hessen- Cassel,

whose prince
still

kept the

title

of Elector, and the

Oldenburg.

Grand Duchy of Nassau. The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg nearly divided the Kingdom of Hannover into two
parts.

Anhalt.

The

principalities o{

Anhalt stretched into the

Prussian territory between Halberstadt and the newly-

STATES OF THE CONFEDERATION.

227
to

won Saxon

lands.

The Duchy of Brunswick helped

territory.

chap.

divide the two great masses of Prussian

In

the north Mecklenburg remained, as before, unequally

^lecklen-'"

divided between the

Strelitz.

Grand Dukes of Schwerin and Germany was thus thoroughly mapped out
;

Some of the old names had vanished some The greater states, with had got new meanings.
afresh.

the exception of Saxony, became greater. of insignificant

principalities

crowd
Saxon

passed away.

Another

crowd of them remained,

But,

especially the smaller

duchies in the land which had once been Thurinoian.

if

we look
the

to

two of the most

characteristic

features of

old Empire,

we

shall find

that one

has passed

away

for ever, while the

other was sadly

n
ecciesiastical prin-

weakened.

No
f

ecclesiastical principality revived in the no

^

new

state

ot

thmgs.

rrn

ihe

territory

oi

one of the

/>

cipaiity.

old bishoprics, that of Liittich, formerly absorbed

by

Luttich

France,

now

passed wholly away from Germany, and

Belgium.

became part of the new kingdom of Belgium.

free cities four did revive, but four only,

Of the
four

Tlie three The

Hanse Towns, no longer included

the

in

French departcommonwealths.

ments, and Frankfurt, no longer a Grand Duchy, entered

Confederation

as

independent

Germany,
life

for a while utterly cruslied,

;

had come

to KovivMiof
naiVoi.Ti

again

she had again reached a certain measure

fail

of national unity, which could hardly

closer.^

to

become
hardly

The Confederation thus formed

'

lasted, with

No

influence

was more poweiful for

this

end than the Zollvercin

or customs union, which gradually united most of the

states for certain purposes.

German

Rut

as

it

did not affect the boundaries

or the governments of sovereign states,

it hardly concerns geography. Neither do the strivings after more perfect union in 1848 and the

following years.

ft2

228
CHAP,
^-

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

any change that concerns geography,
1866.
till

the

war

of

-^-'

The Grand Duchy

of Luxemburg, which had,

the

Luxem-
"'^'
'

by thc arrangements of 1815, been held by

of the Netherlands as a
federation, was,

King

member

of the

German Con-

on the separation of Belgium and the

Part was added to

Netherlands, cut into two parts.

Belgium

another part, though quite detached from the

kingdom of the Netherlands, was held by its king as a member of the Confederation. In 1839 he also entered
it

for the

Duchy

of Limburg.

The

internal
in

movements
to

War

in

wlilch

began in 1848, and the war

in the

Sleswick and

and Hoi1848-1851.

Holstein which began

same time, led

no lasting

geographical changes.
lities

In 1849 the Swabian principa-

of Hohenzollern were joined to the Prussian crown.

Cession of
to Austria

The

last Danisli

war ended by the

cession of Sleswick

and
,

Holstein,toget]ier with Laiienburg, to Prussia and Austria

jointly,

and Prussia,

1864.

an arrangement

m
.

its

own

nature provisional.
to Prussia in the

Austria ceded her

i-ight in

Lauenburg

next year, and in the next year again came the Seven

Weeks' War, and the great geographical changes which

Abolition
of the

followed

it.

The German Confederation was abolished;

all

Con-

fefieration.

Austria was shut out from

r^^i^ gj^g

share

German

/^

rr

affairs.

Exclusion
of Austria,

ccdcd her ioint

''

ritrht in

North-Ger-

Sleswick and Holstein to

manConfederation.

Pj-yssia.

The Northcm

states of

Germany became a
''

sieTwiek^
st'etn^o^'

distinct Confederation

under the presidency of Prussia,

\mT^^'
nexat\ons.'

whose immediate dominion was increased by the annexation of the kingdom oi Hannover, the duchy of Nassau,
the electorate of Hessen, and the city of Frankfurt.

The

States south of the Main, Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden,

All the

and the southern part of Hessen-Darmstadt, remained for The non-Gen nan a while outside of the new League.
domiuions of Prussia, Prussia
Polisli

lamiraT
theConfederation.

strictly so called

with the

duchy of Poseu and the newly acquired land of

TliE

NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION.

229
chap.
VIII.

Sleswick,
tion
;

were now incorporated with the Confedera.

on the other hand,

all

that Austria

had held within

it.

the Confederation was

also

now

shut out of

Luxemburg
after

ofLuxem-

was not included

it

in the

new League, and,

some

disputes,

was

in the next year recognized as a neutral

its

territory

under

own duke the King of the Netherlands.

of Liechtenstein
but,

The

little

principality

was perhaps
in

Liechten-

forgotten

altogether;

as not being included

the Confederation, nor yet incoq)orated with anything

else, it

must be looked on as becoming an absolutely

state.

independent
as they
lution.

Thus the geographical O r fe

at

frontiers of oreatgeo
graphical
^'i^'nges

Germany underwent,

a single blow, changes as great

had undergone

in the

wars of the French Eevo-

The geography
less

of the presiding

power of the

new League was no

changed.

That extraordinary extent of frontier which had

hitherto been characteristic of Prussia

was not wholly

it

taken away by the

lessened.

new

annexations, but
as a

was greatly
is

The kingdom,

kingdom,

made

far

more compact, and the two great detached masses in which it formerly lay are now joined together. Moreover, the geographical character of Prussia

becomes of

much
of the

less pohtical

importance,

now

that her frontier

marches to so great an extent on the smaller members

League of which she

is

herself President.

Next

war

with

came the war with France, the first effect of which was the incorporation of the southern states of Ger-

1870-18-1.

The German
incorporation of the

many with the new League, which presently took the name of an Empire, with the Prussian King O as heredi^
'
.
. .

S(n.thern
states.

tary Emperor.

Then by the peace with France, nearly

Kecovery of
Lothringen,

the whole of Elsass and part of Lotharingia^ including

the

cities

of Strasshurg and Aletz, were restored to

Germany.

They have, under

the

name

of Ekass-

230
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL
Lothringen,
part

KES^GDOMS.
territory,

become

an

Imperial

forming

The Imperial title.

Empire and owning the sovereignty of the Emperor, bnt not becoming part of tlie kingdom of
of the

Prussia or of any otlier

tion of the Imperial
title

German

state.

The assump-

could hardly be avoided in a

confederation whose constitution was monarchic, and

which numbered kings among

its

members.

No

title

but Emperor could have been found to express the

relation

between the presiding chief and the

lesser

The new Empire a

revival of
tlie

Still it

must be borne
in

in

mind

that the

new German

Empire
the

is

Gt-rman

no sense a continuation or restoration of

fell

Kingdom,
but not of
the

Holy Eoman Empire which

its

sixty-four years

Roman

Empire.

before

creation.

But

Comparison
of the old

a restoration of the old

may be fairly looked on as German Kingdom, the Km^it

Kingdom
and the

dom
is

of the East-Franks.

Still,

as

tVir

as

geography

new Empi re.

concerned,

no change can

be stranger than the

change in the boundaries of Germany between the ninth

century and the nineteenth.

The new Empire,

it

cut short

to the north-west, south-west,

and south-east, has grown

has

somewhat
Name
of I'rvssia

to tlie north,

and

grown prodigiously
a
state

to

the

north-east.

Its

ruling state,
cities

which

contains

such illustrious
is

as
itself

Koln,
after

Trier,

and

Frankfurt,

content to call

an

extinct

heathen people whose name had most likely never

Position of
Berlin.

reached the ears of Charles the Great. The capital of the

new Empire, placed far away from any of the antient seats of German kingship, stands in what in his day, and
long
after,

was a Slavonic land.

Germany, with

its

chief state bearing the

name

of Prussia^ with the place

of
Formation
of the

its

national assemblies transferred from Frankfurt to

Berlin, presents
torical

one of the strangest changes that

us.

his-

new

Empire.

geography can show

But, strange as

is

the


THE NEW EMPIRE.
geographical cliange,
it

231
chap.
"

has come about gradually, by

the natural working of historical causes.

The Slavonic

and Prussian lands have been Germanized, while the

western parts of the old kingdom which have fallen away

have mostly

lost their

German

character.

Those Ger-

man

lands which have formed the kernel of the Swiss

Confederation have risen to a higher pohtical state than

that of

any kingdom or Empire.

still

But the German

to

lands which
lands of the

remain so strangely united

the

Magyar and the southern Slave

and

await, at

however
union.

distant a time, their natural

inevitable re-

So does a Danish population in the extreme

less

north await, with

ration from the
nic,
it is

hope,

its

no

less
still

natural sepa-

German body. Posen,

mainly Slavo-

lemains unnaturally united to a Teutonic body, but

not likely to gain by a transfer to any other ruler.
in
its

The reconstruction of the German realm

shape, a
so

present

shape so novel to the eye, but preserving

of ancient
life

much

and ancient

history, has

been

the greatest historical and geographical change of our

times,
llie

3.

Kingdom of Italy.

We

parted from the Italian kingdom at the

moment
^

Smaii geofjrapliical

from the Eastern and Western kingdoms of its separation ^ ^

of the Franks.
little

import mce of tlu' king-

Its history, as
its

a kingdom,

consists in dom

more than

reunion with the East-Frankish

in

crown, and in the way

dually died out within

which the royal power graThere

is

its limits.

but

little

to

say as to any changes of frontier of the kingdom as

such.

As long

as

Germany,
any

Italy,

and Burgundy

ac-

knowledged a

single king,

shiftings of the frontiers

of his three kingdoms were of secondary importance.

232
CHAP.
VIII.

THE DIPERIAL KINGDOMS.

When

the

power of the Emperors

in Italy

had died

out, the land

became a system of independent common-

wealths and principalities, which had hardly that degree

of unity which could enable us to say that a certain
territory

was added

to Italy or taken

from

it.

Even

if

a certain territory passed from an Italian to a

German

or Burgundian lord, the change was rather a change in

the frontier of this or that Italian state than in the fronChanges on
the Alpine
frontier.

tier

of Italy

itself.

The
that

shiftings of frontier along the

;

wliole Alpine border have been considerable

but

it is

only in our

own day
in

we can

say that Italy as such

or lessening her

has become
Case of Verona.

capable

of extending

borders.

When,

1866, Venice and Verona were

distinct

added
in

to the Italian

kingdom, that was a

change

the frontier of Italy.

to endless earlier

We

can hardly give that

name
Case of
Trieste,

changes on the same marchland.

In the fourteenth century, for instance, the town of

Trieste,

disputed between the patriarchs of Aquileia

1380.

and the commonwealth of Venice, was acknowledged

as

an independent

state,

and

it

presently gave

up

its

independence by commendation to the Duke of Austria.

It is

not likely that the question entered into any man's

mind whether the frontiers of tlie German and Italian kingdoms were affected by such a change. Whether as a
free city or as

an Austrian lordship, Trieste remained

under the superiority, formally undoubted but practically

Germany and Italy, Whether the nominal the Eoman Emperor or King. allegiance of the city was due to him in his German
nominal, of the
of

common sovereign

or in his Italian character most likely no one stopped

No
eastern or western
frontiers.

to think.
frontiers
;

East and west, the Italian kingdom had no

the only question which could arise was as

to the relation of the islands of Corsica

and

{Sardinia to


THE KINGDOM OF ITALY.
the

233

kingdom ^
it.

itself

or to any of the states which arose

"^
,

within

To

the south lay the independent

Lombard

VIII.

chap.

duchies, and the possessions

which

still

remained to the

in time into the ^^^ ^?^' These changed man kmgNorman duchy of Apulia and kingdom of Sicily but ^"cu/not

Eastern Empire.
i-

that kingdom, held as

it

was

as a fief of the see of

.I'"p^"^^

Kome, was never incorporated with the

Italian

king-

dom
the

of the Emperors, nor did

its

kings ever become

men

of the Emperor.

Particular

Emperors

in

the thirteenth century, in the sixteenth, and in the

eighteenth, were also kings of one or both the Sicilian

kingdoms
Sicily

but at no time before our

Italy

own day were

that
it

and southern
of Italy.

ever incorporated with a

Kingdom
Italy

When we remember
we

was

to

the southern part of the peninsula that the

name

of

was

first

given,

see here a curiosity of no-

menclature as remarkable as the shiftings of meanino;

in the

names of Saxony and Burgundy.

Naples and Sicily then, the

political

Two
'

Sicilies

of later

nomenclature, he outside our present subject.

far as
y^^iice no part ol ^^^^y-

So does the commonwealth of Venice, except ^ so

Venice afterwards
Itahan mainland.

won

a large subject territory on the

states

Both these

have

to

do with
the
is

Her

Italian

dominiuus.

Italy as a geographical

expression, but neither

Venetian commonwealth nor the Sicifian kingdom

Italian within the

meaning of the present

_

section.

They
Venice and
the Sicilies part of the
''

They formed no part of the Carolingian dominion. ^ were parts of the Eastern Empire, not of the Western,

They remained attached They gradually

rated with
fell

to the

New Eome
their

after

an

Eastern Empire.

Imperial throne had again been set up in the Old.

away from
of the

allegiance

to

the Eastern Empire, but

they were never incorpo-

the Empire

West.

shall

deal

234
CHAP,
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

with them here only in their relations to the Imperial

^.
'

Kingdom
elsewhere

of Italy, and treat of their special history

among

the states which arose out of the

break-up of the Eastern Empire.

Again, on the nort.h-

western march of Italy a power gradually arose, partly

Italian,

but for a long time mainly Burgundian, which

fate,

has in the end, by a strange

The House
'^'^^^-

grown

into a

Italian

Kingdom.

This

is

the

House of Savoy.

new The

growth of the dominions of that house, the process

by which
gained
Its special historv.

it

gradually lost territory in Burgundy and

it

in Italy.,

form another
its

distinct subject.

It

will

bc dealt with here only in

01 Italy.
p T1

relations to the king-

dom

-,

The Kingcontinues the Lorn"

The
whicli

Kingdom of the Karliiigs, the kingdom was reunited to Germany under Otto the Great,
Italian
. ,
.

bard

Icing-

dom.

was, as has bccu alrcadv said, a continuation of the old "

Lombard

kino-dom.

It

consisted of

that

kin2;dom,

enlarged by the Italian lands which

fell off
;

from the
is

Eastern Empire in the eighth century

that

by the

Exarchate and the adjoining Pentapolis, and the immediate territory of

Rome
we

itself.

The Lombard kingdom,

two provinces north of

in the strictest sense, took in the

the Po, in which

^jj^tria

again find, as in other lands, an

It

Austria to the east and a Neustria to the west.

^^^|^ -^

and Neus-

Emilia
as

south of the

Po

the

district of Pia-

TuTcam-.

ccuza, Pamia, Eeggio, and

Modena
modern

also Tuscany^ a to

name, which,
answers pretty

it

no longer reaches
use.

the Tiber,

iif^arly to its
;

Tlie

Tuscan
as

name

has lived on

the Exarchate

and Pentapolis,

having been the chief seat of the later Imperial power

in Italy, got
Romagna.

name of Romania., Romandiola, or Romagna. This name also lives on but the Lombard
the
;

Neustria and Austria soon vanish from the map.

Their

'

CAROLINGIAN ITALY.
disappearance was peiiia])s lucky, as one knows not

235
chap.
^-

what arguments might otherwise have been

built

on

the presence of an Austria south of the Alps.

The
^^"^"'g;'""'^^'

Lombard Neustria together with Emilia got the special name of Lombardy^ while the Lombard Austria, after
various shiftings of

names taken
within
it,

fi'om the principalities

in the

which rose and

to
its

fell

came back

end
Venetia.

oldest

name, that of Venetia.

In the north-west
;

corner Iporedia or Ivrea appears as a distinct march

^^^^

of

but the Venetian march at the other corner,

this stage as the
It takes in the

known

at
"^
J;?j^^J|y

duchy of

Friuli,

is

of

more importance.
the corner

county of Trent^ the special march of

Idtria.

Friidi,
in

and the march of

This

is

ff

boundary

which the German and

Italian frontier has so often

that, after the

nortlf-west
^'"'''^'

fluctuated.
Italian

We

have seen

union of the
itself

and German crowns, even Verona

was

sometimes counted as German ground.

Under the German kings

same
influences as the other
Principalities

Italy

came under the

but, while

^^nt.^fv'^nd
'^^'"'"^"y-

two Imperial kingdoms,

grew up

free cities

grew up

in

Germany

the prmcipalities were the rule

it

and the

cities

the exception, in Italy

was the other way.

Growth of a practically J
L

erradually The land o became a system of J J

system

ot

independent commonwealths.
astical or temporal, flourished

Feudal princes,

ecclesi-

^^""{"^rin
'*^^^"'

only in the north-western

But,
if

and north-eastern corners of the kingdom.

range of the German
cities

the

was

less

wide, and their

career less brilliant, tlian those of Italy, their freedom

was more
under
'

lasting.

The

ffrew into and the tyrants gradually D acknowledged princes. The Bishops of Eome too, by
tyrants, '
./

JO

Italian

cities

gradually

fell
Tyrants

grow

into ^^

}Vj^^^

d series of

claims dexterously pressed at various times,

contrived to form the greatest of ecclesiastical princi-

JJffoQ ^f *^ ^p^^"

236
palities,

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

one which stretched across
tlie

peninsula ii^om

sea to sea.

The geographical
In the
first

history of Italy consists

fell

of four
into

stashes.

the kini>;doni

asunder

principalities.

In the second the principalities

cities.

vanished before the growth of the free

In the

third the cities were again massed into principalities,

till

in the fourth the principalities

were

at last

merged

in a

kingdom

of united Italy.

Under

the

Saxon and Frankish Emperors the old

of Neustria and J^milia pass away.

Lombard names
as

Several small marches he along the Burgundian frontier,

Savona on the

coast,

Iirrea

among

the mountains

to the north-west,

between them Montferrat, Vasto, and

of Marquess

Susa, whose

princes, as special guardians of the passage

title

between the two kingdoms, bore the

in Italy.
It

was

in this region that the feudal princes

were

strongest,

and that the system of

free cities

had

the smallest developement.

The Marqiiesses of

The Savoyard power was

in the

already beginning to

grow up

extreme north-west

Montferrat, 938-1 5b3.

comcr
for

Italian o;reater part strictly but at this time a o J r history is played by the Marquesses of Montferrat, who
: '

....

many

centuries kept their position as important

cities.

feudal princes quite apart from the lords of the

In the north-east corner of the kingdom the place of the

old Austria
is

taken by the border principalities where

all

the Italian, the German, and the Slave

contact,

come

in

and which fluctuated more than once between

the Italian and the

German crowns.
it

We have

here the

great march of Verona, beyond

that of Friuli, Trent,

the marchland of the marchland, between Verona and

Bavaria, and the
Istrian

peninsula

on the Slavonic
districts

side of the Hadriatic.

Between the border

on

237
chap.
VIII.
--

NORTHERN ITALY.
either side lay the central land,

Lombardy,
. .

in

the nar-

rower sense, the chosen home of the free

,,
,

cities.

Here,

<-'

by the middle of the twelfth century, every

1
1

city

had

the Lom-

bard

cities.

practically

become a separate commonwealth, owning

superiority in the Emperor.

only the most nominal

Guelfic cities withstood the

Emperor

Ghibelin

cities

welcomed him
the Swabian

but both were practically independent

war^of tiie
Emperors.

commonwealths. Hence came those long wars between

Emperors and the

Italian cities w^hich

form

the chief feature of Itahan history in the second half of the twelfth century and the
first

half of the thirteenth.

Milan and

Eound

the younger and the elder capital, round Guelfic

Milan and Ghibelin Pavia, gathered a crowd of famous

names, Como^ Bergamo^ and Brescia^ Lodi,

Crema,

The

other

and Cremona^ Tortona^ Piacenza, and Parma, and

Alessandria, the trophy of republican and papal victory

citre's.*"^

dria,

iiea

over Imperial power.

in cities of the

The Veronese march was less

historical
-^

rich

same

importance

but both
veronaand
Padua.
'

Verona

itself

seats first

(:freat part, as the a ^ and Padua played ^ ^ of commonwealths, then of tyrants. Further

north and east, the civic element was weaker again.

Tre7it

gradually parted off from Italy to become

principality

an

Trent.

ecclesiastical

of

the

German kingdom
powerful
Aquiieia.

and the

Patriarchs of Aquileia gi'ew into

princes at the north-eastern corner of the Hadriatic.

Within the Veronese or Trevisan march

lords of

itself,

the The

lords of

of Este
san

Romano and the more important marquesses also demand notice. Eomano gave the Treviits

Kfimano andEste.

march

famous tyrant Eccelino

in the days of

Frederick the Second,

and the Marquesses of Este,

'

kinsmen of the great Saxon dukes, came

rank among the chief Italian princes.
north-eastern

in

time to

eastern
off from'

The extreme
from Italy

march

so completely

fell off

238
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

that
it

will

be better treated

in tracino; the 2rrowth of

the powers of Venice and Austria.

Tuscany,

In the more central lands of the kino;dom, in the

old exarchate,

Romagna,
and the

March

now known

as

Romagna,

in the

march

of

Ancona.

variously called

Ancona, and above

southern
sea, the

by the names of Camerino, Fermo, or all in the march of Tuscany on the

same developement of
later.

city life also

took place, but somewhat

nines,

North of the Apenarose a cro^^'d of

along

the

Hadriatic

coast,

small

commonwealths which
Tuscany,
a few

gradually passed into

The Tuscan small tyrannies. commonwealths. parted off into

on the other hand, was

illustrious

commonwealths of

name.

For a while one of these ran a course which

apart from the

stood rather
Pisa

common run

of Italian

history.

Pisa, then one of the great maritime and com-

mercial states of Europe, became, early in the eleventh

her wars with the

century, a

power which

forestalled the crusades

and

Saracens 1005-1115.

won back
this

lands from the Saracen.

Though she was

kingdom, Pisa
at

in every sense a city of the Italian

time held a position not imlike that which was

afterwards held by Venice.

Like her, she was a power

seas,

which colonized and conquered beyond the

but

which came only gradually

main course of
Ligurian gulf.
Italian affairs.

to

take a share in the

Beyond the borders of

the Saracen

Tuscany, the same

Genoa.

position

was held by Genoa on the

;

Pisa

won Sardinia from

Occupation
of the island of Sardinia by Pisa, and of Corsica by

Genoa,

after long disputes

with Pisa, obtained a more

lasting possession of Corsica.

Eeturning to Tuscany,

Genoa.
Lucca,
Siena, Florence.

three great commonwealths here grew up, which graThese were dually divided the land between them.

Lucca and Siena, and Florence, the last of Italian cities to rise to greatness, but the one which became
in

many ways

the greatest

among her

fellows.

In the

'

ROMAGNA AND TUSCANY.

centre of Italy, within the bounds of old Etruria but
.

239
chap.
VIII.

not within those of

modern Tuscany, Perugia, both

as tyranny, held a high place

as

commonwealth and
Italian cities.

among
Rome,
little

Of Rome

herself

it is

almost impossible

to

speak.

She has much history, but she has

geography.

Emperors were crowned there

;

Popes

sometimes Hved there

sometimes

Rome

appears once

more

as a single Latin city,

waging war against Tusfellows.

culum or some other of her earhest

The
ciaim? of
the Popes.

claims of her Bishops to independent temporal power,

founded on a succession of real or pretended Imperial

and royal grants, lay

still

in the

background

but they

were ready

to

grow

into reality as occasion served.

The next
all

stage of Italian political geography

may
may

second
i25o-'i53o.

be dated from the death of Frederick the Second, when

practical

power of an Imperial kingdom

in Italy

be said to have passed away.

Presently begins the

Growth
.

gradual change ^ of the commonwealths into tyrannies, grouping together of many of them into larger and the
states.

of tyrannies.

We

also see the beginning of

more

definite

claims of temporal dominion on behalf of the Popes.

In the course of the three hundred years between

Frederick the Second and
processes

Charles

the

Fifth,

these Dominion
of Spain,

gradually changed the face of the Italian

It

1555-1701.

kingdom.
palities,

became

in the

end a collection of

princi-

broken only by the survival of a few oligarchic

commonwealths and by the anomalous dominion of

Venice

on the mainland.

Between Frederick the

Second and Charles the

Fifth,

we may

look on the

Empire

as practically in

abeyance in

Italy.

The comstir for

ing of an
time, but

Emperor it was only

always caused a great

for the time.

the

After the grant

240
of Eudolf of

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

Habsburg
to the Popes, a distinction

was

drawn between Imperial and papal territory While certain princes and commonwealths
Imperial and papal
fiefs.

in Italy.
still

ac-

knowledged

at least

the

nominal superiority of the

to stand in the

Emperor, others were now held

relation of vassalage to the Pope.

same

We
states

must now trace out the growth of the chief

which were formed by these several processes. Beginning again in the north, it must be remembered
that
all

this

while the power of Savoy was advancing

in those north-western lands in

which the influences

old

which mainly ruled

elsewhere.

this

period had less force than

its

Montferrat too kept

character of

a feudal principality, a state

rious

whose

rulers

had

in va-

ways a singular connexion with the East. As Marquesses of Montferrat had claimed the crown of
Jerusalem and had worn the crown of Thessalonica,
as
Palaiologioi at Montferrat, ISOf*

so,

if

to

keep even the balance between East and West,

in

return a branch of the Imperial house of Palaiologos

came

to reicjn at Montferrat.

To

the east of these

more
These

ancient principalities, two great powers of quite different

kinds grew up in the old Neustria and Austria.

Duchy
Milan. Venice.
of

were the Duchy of Milan and the land power of Venice. Milan, like most other Italian cities, came under the influence of party leaders,

who grew

first

into tyrants

and

then into acknowledged sovereigns.

after the sliorter
The
Vis-

These

at Milan,

domination of the Delia Torre, were the

of the Visconti.

more abiding house

after

Their dominion,

conti at

Milan, 1310-1447.

various fluctuations and revolutions, was finally

tlie

estabhshed when
Grant of the Ducliy by Kins" WenceslauB, lo9f).

coming of the Emperor Henry the

Seventh generally strengthened the rule of the Lords

of the cities throughout Italy.

At

the end of the four-

teenth century their informal lordship passed

by

a royal

"'

DUCHY OF MILAN.
grant into an acknowledged duchy of the Empire.

241

The
"

chap

dominion which they had gradually gained, and which

of

was thus
cities

in a

manner

legalized, took in all the great

of

Lombardy, those

especially

which had formed

the

Lombard League

against the Swabian Emperors.

County

Pa via indeed, the ancient rival of ]\Iilan, kept a kind of separate being, and was formed into a distinct county.
But the duchy granted by Wenceslaus
leazzo stretched far
to

Gian-Ga-

on both sides of the lake of Garda.

Extent of
the duchy.

Belluno at one end and Vercelli at the other formed

part of
it.

It

took

m
.

the

mountain lands which

afterwards passed to the two Alpine Confederations

it

took in

Farma, Fiacenza, and Beggio south

Veroiia and

of

the Po, and

Vicenza in the old Austrian

all this,

or Venetian land.

Besides

Fadua^ Bologna^
this great

even Genoa and Fisa^ passed at various times under

the lordship of the Visconti.

But

power
of the
it

was not
lords,

lasting.

The Duchy
but,

of Milan, under various

till

native and foreign, lasted

;

the wars

French Eevolution

long

before that

time,

had been cut short on every

first

side.

The death of

the
Decrease on

Duke
-.

w^as followed

by a separation of the duchy

.
.

of Milan and the county of Pavia between his sons,

-,

and the restored duchy never rose again

power.

Ill

Giln Galeazzo, 1402.

to

its

former
xheeasteiu

The

eastern

parts,

Padua, Verona, Brescia,

Bergamo, were gradually added to the dominion of

Venice.

w'venke,

By
In

the middle of the fifteenth century, that

republic had become the greatest

Italy.

power

in

northern
House of
um-ibzr^.
the Kings

the

duchy of Milan the house of Sforza

;

succeeded that of Visconti

but the opposing claims

of the Kings of France were one chief cause of the

long wars which laid Italy waste in the latter years

of the fifteenth

1499-1525.

century and the early years

of the

242
CHAP,
sixteenth.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

The duchy was
tossed to and fro between
its

-.-^^

the Emperor, the French King, and

own
It

dukes.

Meanwhile the dominion which was thus struggled

for
Cessionto

was cut short

at

the

two ends.

was

dis-

membcrcd

to the north in favour of the

two Alpine
detail.

Leagu^.
1512-1513.

Leagues, as will be hereafter shown more in

South of the
The Popes

Po, the Popes

obtained

Parma and
fiefs

Piaceuza, which were afterwards granted as papal

to

Pamfa and
]5i5.
'

form a ducliy

for the

house of Farnese.
in the

Thus the
Spanish

Duchy

of Milan which
Fifth,

became

end a possession
his

Parma and
Piacenza,
i^'i^-

of Charlcs the

and afterwards of

and Austrian successors, was but a remnant of the great

dominion of the
first

Duke.

The duchy underwent

to deal in her

still

further dismemberments in later times.

With Venice we have here

Land power uiiuatural positiou as
oniy.

somewhat
This posi;

an Italian land power.

tion she took

on herself
it

in the fifteenth century

in

the sixteenth
War
of the

led to the

momentary overthrow and

woudcrful rccovcry of her dominion in the war of the

of Cambray. Lea<^ue
quite
distinct

ca'mbrav, 1608-1517.

This land power of Venice stands

.

from the Venetian possessions

east of

the Hadriatic.
igtria.

With

this

last

her possession of the

coast of

tlic

IstHan peninsula must be reckoned, rather

than with her Itahan dominions.

Between these lay

Aquileia, Trieste, and the other lands in this quarter

Extent
of

dominion.

whlch gradually came under the power of Austria. Thc coutinuous Italian dominion of Venice took in
Udine at one end and Bergamo
at the other, besides

Ravenna,
1441-1530.

Crema, and
rpu^g
^]^g

for a while

Ravenna, as outlying possessions.

ojS"

Byzautinc city which lay anchored

the

shore of the Western

Empire could
its

for a season call

the ancient seat of the Exarchate

TwopavtBof

own.

But even two por-

the continuous land territory of Venice lay in

'

VENETIAN DOMINIONS IN ITALY.

tions.

243

Brescia and Bera;amo were almost cut off from

.

Verona and the other possessions

.

to the east

by the

Lake of Gar da, the bishopric of Trent

and the principahty of Mantua

to the north,

the Venetian teni-

VIII.

chap.

to the south.

The mention of
the
tyrannies,

this last state ieads us

back again
first

to

commonwealths which, like Milan, changed,

and then into acknowledged
mention
all

into

principalities.

It is impossible to

of them, and

some of

those which played for a while the most brilliant part in

Italian history

had no

lasting effect

on Italian geography.
Kuie of
VeVona,
l-.>(;0-1387;
tiif

The

rule of the house of Scala at Verona, the rule of the

left

house of Carrara at Padua,

.

no

lasting ^ trace
states

on the

map.

It

was otherwise with the two

which bor-

"ftheCarr.ira at
i'-^'^'"''''

dered on the Venetian possessions to the south. ^

captains, then

The

1318-1-405

house of Gonzaga held sovereign power at Ilantua,

first

^J^^^^?""'
??;28ii7b8.
JJ-^y,^!^^''^^^'

as

as marquesses, then as dukes,

years.
in

for nearly four

hundred

Of greater fame was

Their position

the

power that grew up

the house of E&te, the HoS'of"'

Italian
is

branch of the house of Welf.

one specially instructive, as

illustrating the various

tenures by which dominion was held.

The marquesses

of Este, feudal lords of that small principality, be-

came, after some of the usual fluctuations, permanent

lords of the cities of Ferrara

and Modena.

About

Theiords of
Modena.*"*^
of'

the same time they lost their original holding of Este,

which passed
'

to Padua,

and with Padua

to Venice. Duchy

Thus the nominal marquess of Este and real lord of h errara was not uncommonly spoken of as Marquess of
Ferrara.

1453'''
DltellV of

Fenara,

In the fifteenth century these princes rose to

;

ducal rank

but by that time

tlie

new

doctrine of the

temporal
advances.

dominion of the Popes had

made

great

Modena, no man doubted, was a city of the Empire; but Ferrara was now held to be under the
K 2

244
CHAP,
"-

THE IMrERIAL KINGDOMS.

supremacy of the Pope.
'

of

The Marquess Borso had thus

rank from two separate
of

to seek his elevation to ducal

lords.

Duchy
145;!.

iHMiara,

Modena and Eeggio bv the Emperor, and afterwards Duke of Ferrara by the Popc. Th'is difference of holding, as we shall presently

Hc was

created

Duke

see, led

to the destruction of the

power of the house

are

of Este.

In the times in which

we
;

their dominions lay in

two masses.

now concerned, To the west lay

the duchy of
Loss of

east lay the

Modena and Eeggio apart from it to the duchy of Ferrara. Not long after its creaduchy was cut short by the surrender of

i48ir

'

tion, this last

the border-district of Rovigo to Venice.

Cities of

Between the two great duchies of the house of Este

lay Bolof/na, gradually changed from

Romania

in

one

sense into
cities,

Romagna in

another.

Like most other Italian

the

commonwealths of the Exarchate and the Pen-

tapolis

changed into tyrannies, and their petty princes

were one by one overthrown by the advancing power of

the Popes,
r,o!(nn,
liiniiVii'.'

Every

city

had

its

dynasty

but

it

was only

a few, like the houses of Bentevoglio at Bologna^ of Baglioni

Sit

Penigia, and Malatesta at Rimini^ that rose to

any

historical

importance

One only combined

historical

importance with
The Duciiy
i478-i'("j*i.

acknowledged princely rank.

The

liousc of Moiitefeltro, lords of Urbino,

became acknowthe duchy

flourished

ledged dukes by papal grants.

passed to the house of

From them
it

La Eovere, and

under five princes of the two dynasties.

Gradually,

by

successive annexations, the papal dominions, before the

Exiian.sion

middle of the sixteenth century, stretched from the Po

to Taxracina. Ferrara
states,
tlie

(loininiour

and Urbino

still

remained

distinct
fiefs

but

states

which were confessedly held as

of

Holy

See.

Creatinii of

To

the wcst, iu Tuscauy, the phcenomena are some-

CITIES OF
wliat different.

CENTRAL ITALY.
"
.
.

245

The

characteristic of this part of Italy

cities

was the grouping together of the smaller

the power of the larger.
in the

under

^^

VIII.

chap.

Nearly
;

all

the land

came

cities.

end under princely rule

but both acknowit

ledged princely rule and the tyrannies out of which

sprang came into importance

in

Tuscany
.

later

than
Castruccio castracani, 1320-1338.

anywhere
.

else.

Lucca had

in the fourteenth century Lucca under

,
.

a short time of greatness under her illustrious tyrant Castruccio but, before and after his day, she plays,
-^
_

as a
Still

commonwealth, only a secondary part

changes

in

Italy.

she remained a commonwealth, though latterly

all

an oligarchic one, through

down

to the
pisa.

general crash of the French Eevolution.

Pisa kept for

a while her maritime greatness, and her rivalry with

the Ligurian

commonwealth of Genoa.
proved a
far

Genoa,

less Genoa.

famous
power.

in the earliest times,

more

lasting

She established her dominion over the coast

sides of her,

on both

and kept her island of Corsica

Physical causes caused the
Pisa
;

Her mie

in

down
to

to

modern

times.

fall
Sardinia
Araj;(,u,

of the maritime

power of

Sardinia passed from her

become a kin^jdom of the House of Aragon, and she

under the dominion of Florence.
This
the greatest of Tuscan and even of
befjins to

i42>r

herself passed

last illustrious city,

Pisa subI'lorenco,

Italian

commonwealths,

stand forth as the

MIO

foremost of republican states about the time

when her
She

(jreatnessof

forerunner Milan came under the rule of tyrants.

extended her dominion over Volterra^Arezzo^rni^nvdwy

smaller places,
till

she became mistress of

all

northern
sieua.

Tuscany.
also

To

the south the

commonwealth of Siena
In Florence the rule of
;

formed a large dominion.

Rule of the
1434-1491.

the Medici

grew

step

by

step into a hereditary tyranny

but

it

was an intermittent tyranny, one which was supwliicli

ported only by foreign force, and

was overturned

246
CHAP,
viii.

THE IMPEEIAL KINGDOMS.

'

<'f

whenever Florence had strength

-

to act for herself.

It

'

was only after her last overthrow by the combined powers

of PoiDC and Co3sar that she became, under Alexander,
,

Alexander,

Duke
in;io.

i-'iorence,

tlic first

Cosmo
Siena, 1557.

principality.

the housc of Medici, an acknowledged * ...dulvc of the second duke, anCosmo the
.

First,

ucxcd Sicua, aud

all

the territory of that commonwealth,

as Stati degli Presidi,

except the lands

Elba, &c.

known

that

is

the

isle

of Elba

and some points on the

;

coast.

These became parts of the kingdom of Naples

at that time, parts of the

that

is,

dominion of Spain.

The

state

thus formed
in Italy,

by Cosmo was one of the most considerable

the whole of Tuscany except the

taking in

territory of
Its ruler
(^osmo

Lucca and the lands which became Spanish.

of Florence for

presently exchanged

title
^j,

of

Duke

by papal authority the that of Grand Duke of

(irandDuke ofTuscanv,
1567.

iUSCauy.

4.
Abeyance of
(lorn

The Later

Geocp\ij)hi/ of Italy.
it

Uudcr Charlcs thc

both the

of"

Eoman Empire and

Italy, 15.30180.5.

come
was
of the

to life again.

...
Fifth

might have seemed that

the

kingdom

of Italy

had

prince

who wore both crowns

But though the power

practically master of Italy.

Emperor was
In truth

restored, the powder of the

all

Empire

was

not.

we may look on

notion of a king-

dom

of Italy in the elder sense as having passed

away
at

with the coronation of Charles himself.

The thing
pageant

had passed away long before

ccuturies and a half.
;

after the

Bologna the name was not heard

Italy a geegra])liical

for

more than two

'

Italy

became

truly a

geograof

expression,

phical exprcssioii
principalities

'

the land consisted of a

all

number

and a few commonwealths,

nominally

independent, some more or less more part of which were under

practically so, but the

foreign influence, and

"

'

DOmNION OF SPAIN AND AUSTRIA.

i^rinces. The some of them were actually ruled by foreioin ^
^
.
. .
~

247
chap.
VIII.

states of Italy

were united, divided, handed over from

to the will of

the

one ruler to another, according to the fluctuations of war

among
states.

and diplomacy, without any regard either

the inhabitants or to the authority of any central power.

practically

dominant power there was during the

;

greater part of this period

but

it

was not the power

of even a nominal

King of

Italy.

For a long time that

in

dominant power was held by the House of Austria

its

two branches.

The supremacy

of Charles in Italy

passed, not to his Imperial brother, but to his Spanish

son.

Then followed the long dominion of the Spanish

;

Dominion

branch of the Austrian house

then

came the
This

less u,d-i7()\;

thorough dominion of the German branch.

last
of Austri.i,

was a dominion

strictly of the

House of Austria

as such,

not of the Empire or of either of the Imperial kingdoms.

And now that

as they

the

surface on. the

name of Italy means merely a certain map, we must take some notice, so far
kingdoms
at the other.

regard Italian history, at once of Savoy at one

Sicilian

end and of the

this

From

time both of them have a more direct bearing on

Italian history.

By
his

the time of the coronation of Charles the Fifth,

jhussingof

or at least within the oreneration which could

coronation,

remember

lar-e/"
state.''.

the greater
states,

part of Italy had been

massed into a few

which, as compared with the

size.

earlier state of things,

were of considerable
still

few

smaller principalities and lordships

kept their place,

of which one of the smallest, that of

Monaco

in the Monaco

extreme soutli-west, has Hved on

the small
first

to

our

own time. So has

San Marino

commonwealth of San Marino^ surrounded,

by the dominions of the Popes and now by the modern kingdom. But such states as these were mere

'

248

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

survivals.

^^

CHAR

In the north-east, Venice kept her power

on the mainland untouched, from the recovery of her

dominious after the league of Cambray down to her
final fall.

Venice on
land, 1406-

By
too

the treaty of Bologna she lost

the

Ravenna

Sheiosesher
itaiLn^'
possessio
.,

shc

lost

towus of BHudisi

aud Monopoli
JSTaples
;

which she had gained during the wars of

but

^^^ continuous dominion, both properly Venetian and

Duchy
Milan
]

of

Lombard, remained.
(,

The duchy of Milan

succession
.

to the west

Spanish,

of her
tlic

was held

by the two branches of

"^

540-1700;

Austrian, 1706-1796.

Housc

of Austria,

first

the Spanish and then the ^

as

Advance

of

Grermau.
^^^^

But the duchy,

an Austrian possession,

MiiS

being constantly cut short towards the west by

the growing power of Savoy.

For a while the Mila-

nese

and

Savoyard

states

were conterminous only

during a small part of their frontier.

Montferrat.

The marquisate

of Montfevrat, as long as
cipality, lay
states.

it

remained a separate prin-

between the southern parts of the two

the failure of the old line of marquesses,

On

Montferrat was disputed between the Dukes of Savoy

United to
1.536,

^iitl

Mantua.

Adjudged

to

Mantua, and raised into

it

but
^

duchy by Imperial authority,

was

still

claimed,

Savoy,

and partly conquered by. Savoy.

^^^^

At
to

last,

by one of

Mantuaforthe Empire,
ferratjoined

^^^^

cxerciscs of Imperial authority in Italy, the

itself

duchy of Mautua

was held
aii

be forfeited to the

Empire

that

is, it

became

Austrian possession.

At

1708-1 71 3.

the same time the Imperial authority confirmed Montferrat to Savoy.

extended

to

The Austrian dominions in Italy were thus the south-east by the accession of the
;

Mantuan
First dis-

territory

but the whole western frontier of

the Milaucsc

now

lay open to Savoyard advance.

to

The

ment

of
in

samc

trcatics

which confirmed Montferrat

Savoy and

Milan

favour of
Savoy,!?!.".

Milan to Austria also dismembered Milan in favour of

Savoy.

corner of the

duchy

to the

south-west,

CHANGE AFTER CHARLES THE

Alessandria and the neighbouring
given to Savoy
;

FIFTH.

249

districts,

were now
off

tlie

Peace of Vienna further cut

^^

r
VIII

chap.

Novara

to the north

and Tortona

to the soutli.
all

The
west

Furtherces''"^'

next peace, that of Aix-la-Chapelle, gave up

of the Ticiiio, which river

became a permanent

frontier.

Among

the other states, the

duchy of Parma and

1 1

Parma and
siven to the Spanish Bourbons,
17.31-1749.

Piacenza was, on the extinction of the house of Farnese, ,,, /'in 'IT ot the Spanish branch of theBourhanded over to princes ^
.

bons.

Modena and Ferrara remamed united,

as

till

Ferrara

Ferrara
confiscated
^^'^ ^ Popes, \:jW.
,

was annexed
its

an escheated

fief to

the dominions of
still

spiritual overlord.

But the house of Este

reigned
its
i7i8.

over

Modena with Beggio and Mirandola^ while

were
of

dominions
tion

extended to the sea by the addi-

Massa and other small possessions between Lucca and Genoa. The duchy in the end passed by female succession to the House of Austria. Genoa and
Lucca remained
aristocratic

i77i-i80;3.

commonwealths but Genoa

;

lost its island possession

of Corsica, which passed to

Corsica
France,"

France.
the

The Grand Duchy of Tuscany remained in house of Medici, till it was assigned to Duke
it

1768
ExtinctioTi

Francis of Lorraine, afterwards the

the First, and after that

Emperor Francis remained in the House of

Medid,
Francis of

Habsburg-Lorraine.
.

The

States of the Church, after (land'onke

the annexation ot Jberrara, were

further enlarged

m
. .

ofTiiscanv.

the next century

Urbinoannexed bv
the Popes,

by

the annexation of the duchy of

Urbino.

Thus,

except

on die

frontier

of Piedmont

and

1530-1797.

Milan, the whole time from Charles the Fifth to the compara-

French Eevolution was, within the old kingdom of

Italy,

iToVraph?-^
*^^

much

less

remarkable for changes in the geo-

'^"^'''"

graphical frontiers of the several states than for the

in

way

which they are passed

is

to

and

fro

from one master to

if

another. This

yet

more remarkable,

we

look to the

250
CHAP,
''

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

southern part of the peninsula, and to the two great
"

islands

which

in

modem

geography we have learned

'

The Nor-

man
dom

kingof

The Norman kingdom which, by steps which will be told elsewhere, grew up to the south of the Imperial Kingdom of Italy, has hardly ever changed its boundaries, except by the various
to look

ou as attached to

Italy.

separations and unions of the insular and the conti-

nental kingdom.
Benevento.

Even
But the

the outlying papal possession

^f Beneveuto after each

astical master.

war went back

shiftings,

to

its ecclesi-

divisions,

and

re-

unions of the

Two

Sicilies

and of the island of Sardinia

Sicilian

have been endless.

The

kingdom of the

Norman and Swabian

Charles of

kings, containing both the island

and the provinces on the mainland, passed unchanged

to Charlcs of Anjou.

The

revolt of the island split the

Kevoit of
the island of
Sicily, 1282.

kingdom "

The two
kingdoms,

into two, one insular, one continental, each of n- n t ^ ^ which Called itself the kinqdom of bialy, though the '
/^

continental realm

was more commonly known

as the

Kingdom of Naples.
in
Union of Aragon,
Sardinia,

The wars of

the fourteenth and

fifteenth centuries caused endless

changes of dynasty
frontier.

the continental kingdom, but no changes of

in
. .

Under the famous Alfonso Arasou,. Sardinia, and the

'-'

the fifteenth century, i re m continental Sicily were

and continentai Sicily

under

while the insular uudcr one sovereign, thrcc kiuo'doms ^ "^

Sicily

U42'**''

was ruled by

anotlier branch of the

same house.

kin^<lof the

Then
Sicily

continental Sicily passed to an illegitimate branch

1296-1442.

of the

wSUgin-

House of Aragon, while Sardinia and insular were held by the legitimate branch. The French
the
conquests,

SiL'fte invasion under Charles the Eighth and the long wars
H94-1528.

that

followed,

the

restorations,

the

schemes of
Kingdom
sidiieT'
of

division, all

ended

in the

union of both the

Sicilian

kingdoms, now known

as the

Kingdom of

the

Ttvo Sicilies, along with Sardinia, as part of the great

'

SICILY
Spanisli

AND SAVOY.

251

monarchy.

insular

kingdom,

in

momentary separation of the order to give the husband of Mary

is

-^

chap.

of England royal rank while his father yet reigned,

i.jo6-i70i.

important only as the

first

formal use of the

title

of

King of Naples.
trian

In the division of the Spanish monfell

archy, Sardinia and JSTaples

to the lot of the to the

Aus-

Sardinia

House, while

Sicily
I

given was ^

JJuke oi
Pre-

Austrian.

Duke

of

Savoy,

who
;

thus gained substantial kingly rank.

Savov king
i^i^-

sently the kings of the

two island kingdoms made an

exchange

Sardinia passed to Savoy, and the

Emperor

Exchange
and Sardinia, 1718.

Charles the Sixth ruled, like Frederick the Second and

Charles the Fifth, over both Sicihes.

Lastly, the kingThe Spanish

Bourbons,
i7;5.^)-i8ot;.

dom was handed

Bourbons.

over from
c
first
c

master, the Spanish ^

of the

an Austrian to. a new T fTVT T

^

line

oi iSeapohtan *

1817-18GU.

Thus, at the end of the

last century, the

Two

Sicilies

formed a

distinct

and united kingdom,

while Sardinia formed the outlying reahn of the

of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont.

Duke

His kingdom was

of far less value than his principality or his duchy.

But,

as Sardinia
title,

*-

wave their

common

sovereign
_

his Use

of the
.Sar-

name
dima.

highest

the Sardinian

name often came in common

speech to be extended to the continental dominions of

its

king.

This period, a period of change, but of comparatively

^

Time
ti^*!,

of the

lif'volu-

shght geographical change, was followed by a time

1^07-

when,

in Italy as in

Germany, boundaries were changed,

new names were invented or forgotten names revived, when old land-marks were rooted up, and thrones were
set

up and

cast

down, with a speed which

first

baffles the

chronicler.

The

strictly

geographical

change

wdiich

was wrought

in Italy

by the revolutionary wars

was a

characteristic one.

Cispadane

Repfublic, the cispadane

252
CHAP.
VIII.
Republic,
1796.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

number of momentary commonwealths bearing names dug up from the recesses of bygone times, took in the duchy of Modena and the Papal Legations
first

of a

of

Eomagna.
it

Without exactly following the same

answered roughly to the old Exarchate.
caused the

boundaries,
Transpadane l!epublic,1797.

Then

the French victories over Austria

Austrian duchies of Milan and Mantua to become a

Transpadane Republic.
Treaty of
Canipi)

Then Venice was wiped out

at

Campo Formio, and her Lombard possessions were joined

together with the two newly

Formio,
1797. Cisalpine Kepublic.

made commonwealths,

to

form a Cisalpine Republic. But the same treaty wrought

another change which was more distinctly geographical.

Venice surrendered to
Austria.

Venice and the eastern part of her possessions on the

mainland, the old Venetia, the

now handed
latter

over to the

Lombard Austria, was modern state which bore the

as distinctly

name. This change

may be looked on

cutting short the boundaries of Italy.

The duchy

of

Milan in Austrian hands had been an outlying part

of the Austrian

dominions

but Venetia marclies on

house, and was

the older territory of the Austrian thus

more completely severed from

sense.

Italy.

The whole

north of the Hadriatic coast thus became Austrian in the

modern

One

Italian

commonwealth

had long counted

as Italian

was thus wiped

for Venice
out,

and
at

handed over

to a foreign king.

But elsewhere,

this stage of revolutionary progress, the fashion

ran in

favour of the creation of local commonwealths.

Ligurian
Republic,
1

The
;

dominions

of Genoa became

a Ligurian Republic
;

797.

Naples became a Parthenopman Republic

self

Eome

her-

Parthenopiean Republic.

exchanged

for a

moment

the memories of kings,

consuls, emperors,
Tiberinc Republic, 1798-1801.

and

pontiffs to

become the head

;

of a

Tiberine Republic.

Piedmont was overwhelmed

the

greater

part

was incorporated with France.

Some


CHA^'GES IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS.
small parts were added to the neighbouring republics,

253
chai>.

and the king of Sardinia withdrew

dom. Amid
this

to his island kingstates

-^^
joined to

crowd of new-fangled
still

and new-

fangled names, ancient San Marino

lived on.

1798-1800.

Thus

far revolutionary Italy followed the

example of were
all at

revolutionary France, and the

least

new

states

nominal commonwealths.

In the

next stage,

when France came under above all when that single

perial
title,

the rule of a single man,

ruler took

on him the ImIn

the tide turned in favour of monarchy.

Eome and Naples it had already turned so in another way. By help of the Czar and the Sultan, the new republics vanished,

Hestonitiou

and the old

rulers,

Pope and King.

andThf*^^"

came back again. And now France herself began to Parma create kingdoms instead of commonwealths.
was annexed
in Tuscany
'I

TwifsJ?*'
'^'""

to France,
title
''

and

its

Duke was
o/" JS'^rwn'a.
c/

sent to rule

by the

of /iTmgr 1/
to a

Presently J

,,.

Kingdoni
f^^oi-isos

or

Italy herself gave her

name

kingdom.

The

Cisal-

pine republic, further enlarged

territory
also

by Venice and

the other

ceded to Austria at
Valtellina

Campo Formio,

enlarged Kingdom
of ihUV

of

by the

and the former bishopric

Trent at one end and by the march of Ancona at the

other,
since

became the Kingdom of Italy. Its King, the first Charles the Fifth who had worn the Italian crown,
self-

j^onapaite
uah-."^

was no other than the new ruler of France, the

styled 'Emperor.'
tions of Italian territory,

But, in Buonaparte's later distribuit

was not
'

his Italian kingAnnexa-

dom, but
tended.

his

French

'

empire whose frontiers were ex;

The Ligurian Republic was annexed so before ^m\t\m; new kingdom of Etruria Lucca mean- 18O8. while was made into a grand duchy for the conqueror's Grand sister. Lastly, Pome itself, with what was left of the Lucci papal dominions, was also incorporated with the French tion^of^Kome
long was the
;


254
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPEIilAL KINGDOMS.

dominion.

The work

alike of Csesar
City.

and of

Ciiarles

was wiped out from the Eternal

and France,
1809.

the Gauls, which Civilis

The Empire of had dreamed of more than

last.

seventeen centuries before, had come at

The

fate of the

remainder of the

]:)eninsula

had been

already sealed before

Eome became

French.

The kinghis.

dom
Kingdoms
of Naples

of the

Two

Sicilies fell

asunder.

The Bourbon
a

king kept his island, as the Savoyard king kept

The

continental
first

kingdom

passed,

as

Kingdom of

and
]

Sicil}',

Naples^

to

Joseph Buonaparte, and then to Joa-

806. 1809. Stati degli Presidi.

chim Murat.
the Sicilian

But the outlying Tuscan possessions of

crown had already passed

to France,

and

Benevento.

Benevento^ the outlying papal possession in the heart

of the kingdom,

became a separate

principality.

Italy under

Thus

all

Italy

French
dominion.

unless we count the

in

island

kingdoms

of Sardinia and Sicily as parts of

Italy was brought

But

under French dominion

one form or another.

of that dominion there were three varieties.

The whole

western part of the land, from Aosta to Tarracina

Part incorporated

unless

it

with
France.

duchy

new Lucchese was formally incorporated with France. The

is

worth while

to except the

north-eastern
Extent of
the king-

side,

from Bozen

to Ascoli,

formed a

Kingdom
the

of Italy, distinct from France, but held

by

dom

of

same sovereign.

And this Kingdom

of Italy was
Italian

Italy.

further increased to the north

by part of those

lands which had become Swiss and German.

Kingdom
Naples.
of

Southern

Italy, the

Kingdom
;

of Naples, remained in form an inde-

pendent kingdom

but

it

was held by princes who could

not be looked on as anything but the humble vassals

of their mighty kinsman.

Never had

Italy been brought

Still,

more completely under

foreign dominion.

in a

part at least of the land, the

Kevival of

name

of Italy, and the

shadow of a Kingdom of

Ital}',

had been revived.

FRENCH KINGDOM OF ITALY.

And,
in
as

ZOO

names and shadows are not without influence

the mere existence of an Itahan by the Italian name, did something. The of a sham Italy w^as no unimportant step
affairs,

human

state, called

creation

towards the creation of a real one.

The settlement
w^as far

of Italy after the

fall

of Buonaparte

settiemeut
1815.

more

strictly a

return to the old state of things

Italy

than the contemporary settlement of Germany,

remained a geographical expression.

of one another. before, independent ^
.

Its states

were, as
Xo
.

They were practi:

cally

dependent on a foreign power

but they were in

tie.

tie bet^^een the Italian

no way bound together, even by the laxest federal

The main

principle of settlement
lost

was that the princes

Tiie princes

who had
that the

their

dominions should be restored, but

whicli

but not the

commou-

commonwealths
to
live on.

had been overthrown

Aveaiths.

should not be restored.

Only harmless San Marino

Venice, Lucca, and

was allowed

Genoa
of

remained possessions of princes.

The sovereign
himself
'

Hungary and
ror
'

Austria,

now

calling

Empe-

of his archduchy, carved out for himself an Italian

Kingdom
of

kingdom which bore the name of the Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. On the strength of this, the
Austrian, like his French predecessor, took upon

andVeuiJe.

him

to

wear the

Italian crown.

The new kingdom

by

consisted

of the former Italian possessions of Austria, the duchies

of Milan and Mantua, enlarged

of Venice,
formio.
Italy

the former possessions

at

its extent.

which had become Austrian

old

Campowere

The

boundary between Germany and

Trent,
Aquileia,
Trieste,

was

restored.

again severed from Italy.

of the same

They remained

possessions

prince as Milan and Venice, but

his

they

formed no part of

Lombardo- Venetian kingdom.

256
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

On
to

another frontier, where restoration would have had

be made to a commonwealth, the arrangements

less

were

conservative,

and the

Valtellina

remained
as

part of the
before, the

new kingdom.
came again
into

The Ticino formed,

possession

boundary towards Piedmont.

The King
of
tliis

of Sardinia
Genoa annexed to Piedmont.
Monaco.
Tuscany, Parma, Modena,
Lucca.

last

country, enlarged

by the former dominions of Genoa. This gave him the whole Ligurian seaboard, except where the little principality of Monaco still went on.
Parma., Modena, and Tuscany again became separate
duchies.

Lucca remained a duchy alongside of them.

The family arrangements by which these states were handed about to this and that widow do not concern
geography
Lucca annexed to Tuscanv.
;

all

that need be

marked

is

that,

by vktue of

one of these compacts, Lucca was in the end added to

Tuscany.

That grand-duchy was further increased by

the addition of the former outlying possessions of the

Sicilian
The Papal
states.

crown, including Elba, the island which for a

moment was an Empire.

The Kingdom
the
of the

The Pope came back

Sicilies

to all

his old Italian possessions, outlying

The Two
Sicilies.

Benevento included.

Two
the

was formed again by

of

restoration

of

Kingdom

Naples to the
Italy of 1815,
its

Bourbon

king.

Thus was formed the

in the

an Italy which, save

sweeping away of

com-

monwealths, and the consequent extension of Sardinian

and Austrian

territory, differed geographically but little

from the Italy of 1748.

But

in

1815 there were hopes

Italy

which had had no being

on the map
;

in 1748.

was divided
to

but she had made up her mind

of Italy

be one.
of

The union
ctmes^Lui

^hc uuion
on

was

at last to

come from one

those comcrs which in earlier history

as being hardly Italian at
all.

we have looked

It

was not Milan or

THE REUNION OF ITALY.

Florence or
Italy.

257
into the

Eome which was

to

grow

new

chap.

That function was reserved

for a princely

house

<^

whose beginnings had been Burgundian rather than

Italian,

whose chief

territories

had long

lain

on the Bur-

gundian side of the Alps, but which had gradually put

on an

Italian character,

and which had now become the

one national Italian dynasty.

The

Italian possessions of

the Savoyard house, Piedmont, Genoa, and the island of

Sardinia,

now formed one

of the chief Italian states, and

despotic, Avas not foreign.

the only one whose rule,

if still

Savoy, by ceasing to be Savoy, was to become Italy.

The movements of 1848

affect
if

in Italy,

hke those
:

in

Germany,

Movements

led to no lasting changes on the

map but

they do so far

geography that new

states

were actually founded,

ac- Momentary
wraitiiT.

only for a moment.

Eome, Venice, Milan, were

and the

tually for a while republics,

for a while separated.
as before.

Two

Sicilies

were

In the next year

lasting

all

came back
of Italy.
campnisn

The next

change on the map was

that

which
joint

at last restored

a real

Kingdom

The

campaign of France and Sardinia won Lorn-

^arc/y for the Sardinian kingdom.

defined as that part

which lay west of

Lombardy was now of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom the Mincio, except tliat Mantua
was
left

was

left

out.

She

to Austria.

French

scheme

for

an Italian confederation came to nothing.

union of
stateTisGo.

Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Piomagna voted their

own annexation to Piedmont. The Two Sicilies were won by Garibaldi, and the kingly title of Sardinia was merged in that of the restored Kingdom of Italy. This new Italian kingdom was, by the addition of the
Sicilies,

extended over lands which had never been

part of the elder Italian kingdom.

6till

But Venetia was

side of

AtWition of

cut off

the

Pope kept the lands on each

25

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

CHAP. Eome, the so-called Patrimony and the Campagna. r-^-^ But France annexed the lands, strictly Burginidian
SiivoTand
France.

ratlicr

than Italian, of Savoy and Nizza.

called into being
Italy
;

The
but

Italian
it

kingdom was thus again

had
be

not yet come to perfection.

a geographical expression
;

had ceased

to

but the Italian frontier

still

presented some geographical anomalies.

Recovery of
1866
of
' ;

Tlic
to Italy

war bctwccn Prussia and Austria gave Venetia

;

tlie

war between Germany and France allowed

Rome,

Italy to recover

frontier were thus

Part of the

Eome. The two great gaps in her made good but, to say nothing of the
;

anncxatious
.

made by
.

France, a large Italian-speaking

.
'

domno'tyet
recovered.

poindatiou, lying wlthiu thc bouuds of the old Italian

.

kingdom,

still

remains outside
are

its

modern revival. Trent,

parts, not of an Italian

Aquileia, Trieste, Istria,

still

kingdom, not of aGerman kingdom, confederation, or empire,

but of an Austro-Hungarian monarchy.

Otherwise
its

the Italian
place

kingdom has formed

itself,

and

it

has taken

among the

great powers of Europe.

Yet the whole

peninsula does not form part of the Italian kingdom.

Surrounded on every
San Marino
remduis

side

by

tliat

kingdom, the com-

niouwealth of Sa7i Mavino^ like Ehodes or Byzantium

uncler the early Cassars,
still

keeps

its

ancient freedom.

5,
Union of
wit'h

The Kingdom of Burgundy.

G-

The Burgundian Kingdom, which was united with those of Germany and Italy after the death of its last
Separate king Eudolf the Third, has had a fate
that of

Italy, 1032.

unhke
as a

Dyinffoiit of the king-

any other part of Europe.

,

Its

memory,
lie

_.

_.

dom.

separate state, has gradually died out.

of
its

greater part

territory has been

swallowed up

bit

by

bit

by

a neighbouring power, and the small part which has

escaped that fate has long

lost all trace

of

its

original


KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY.
259
c-

name

or

its
.

orioinal political relations.

.

By a lonji; series
./

chap.
Vlll.
^-

of annexations, spreadin"; over

years, the greater part of the

more than

five

hundred

'^

Chieflv

kingdom has gradually

Of what remains, a
Italy,

annexed by

been incorporated with France.

small corner forms part of the

modern kingdom of

partitaiian;

while the rest

still

keeps

its

independence in the form

of the commonwealths

wiiich

make up

cantons of Switzerland,
truest

These cantons, in

modern

representatives of the Burofundian kino-- Burtamdy

'-

dom.

And

it

is

on

tlie

Confederation of which they

f^^^^'"'^**'"'

CO
fact,

the western
are
tlie
p^rt Swiss.

represented

form a part, in_terposed as

the

it

is

between France,

Italy,

new German Empire, and

some

the

modern Austrian moBurgundy,

it

narchy, as a central state Avith a guaranteed neutrality,

that

trace of the old function of

is

as the

middle kincrdom, ^

thrown.

This function

shares

Ne'itraiity
ot

Switzer-

with the Lotharino-ian lands at the other end of the C^

1;>"''.'ti

Belgium.

Empire, wdiich

now form

part of the equally neutrid

kingdom of Belgium, lands which, oddly enough, themselves

became Burgundian

in

another sense.
lying between the Alps,

The Burgundian Kingdom,

the

Saone and the

Ilhone, and the Mediterranean,

Boundaries
'"'"

mio'ht be thought to have a fair natural boundary.

And, while

it

kept any shadow of separate being,

its

boundaries did not greatly change.

They were howii'ictuation

frontier.

ever somewhat fluctuating on the side of the Western

kingdom,

beinof

sometimes bounded by the Ehone and

hills to

sometimes reaching to the line of

it.

the west of
fluc-

They were

also, as

we have

seen,

somewhat

tuating on the side of

Germany.
,

At
,

this

end the king;

dom

took in some German-speaking districts

otherwise
,

ChieHy
Iioniance
speakin.tc.

the laniuao:e was Eomance, includin^T several dialects

of the tongue of Oc.

The northern

part of the kingdom, answering to the

8


260
CTiAP.
VIII.
^
'

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

County
Paiatiue.

former Transiiirane kingdom tlie Reqnum Juren^e ^ ^ formed two cliief states, the Countu Biir^ Palatine of ^
-^
_ ^

gunclij

Lesser Bvir-

tlie

modern Franche Comte

and

the Lesser

gundy.

Burgundy, roughly taking

northern Savoy.

in western Switzerland

and

On

the Mediterranean lay the great

rrovence.

coimty of Provence,
lying between
it

Avith a

number

of smaller counties

and the two northern prmcipalities.

land w^as that, next
consi-

But the great

The Free
Cities.

charactei'istic of the

to Italy,

uo part of Europe contained so many

cities

derable

lying near together.

strove

Many

of these at

different times

more or

less successfully after a

it

republican independence, and a few have kept

to our

own
Little real unity in the

day.
'

kingdom,

But, thouo'li tlic Bur^undian kino-dom mii^ht be & & O & thought to havc, on three sides at least, a good natural
frontier,
it

had but

little
its

real unit3^

The northern

part naturally clave to

pii'e

connexion with the Emsouthern.

much

longer than the

The County

The Burijundian
i'aiatinate.

Palatine of
to auothcr,

Burgundy
' . .

often passed from one dynasty

and
it

it

is

remarkable for the number of

as a separate state
It

times that
Held by the
Kniperor
Frederick,
*"

was held
t

by several

of the gi'cat priuccs of Europe.

^

was held by the

i
t^

Euipcror Frederick Barbarossa in rioht of his wife marriage of one of his female descendants carried
Philip

ft the
;

Philip of France, 1315-1330.

i.y

it

to

the Fifth

of France.

Then

it

became united

United with

witli tlic Frciich ducliy of

Burgundy under the dukes

Saving a momentary French
the Bold,
it

Duchy.
1477.

of the

House of
after

Valois.

occupation
.

the

death of Charles
tlieir
1

Held by the House of Austria, Charles the Fifth Count

of Bur-

remained with them and

representatives. ^

Austrian and Spanish

1

Amoii"; ' these it had a second imiieCharles the Fifth. But, of xml Count in the person ^
throu2;:h all these

IT

gundy.

changes of dvnasty,
of the Empire,

it

remained an
annexation to

Annexed

to

acknowlcdgcd

ficf

till its

THE PALATINATE AND THE LESSER BURGUNDY.

France under Lewis the Fourteenth.
this county,
ecclesiastical
it

261
chap.
"-

The capital of must be remembered, was Dide. The

of
Besan(-o?2,

viu. ^^

metropolis

tliough
city

sur-

1674.
capital of
Bt-san^'oi/a

rounded by the county, remained a free

of the

Empire from
_ _

tlie

days of Frederick Barbarossa to those

"
_ _

Free Impe-

of Ferdinand the Tliird.

It

was then mers^ed O

it

in the

"aidty.
1189-ltiol.

county, and along with the county

passed to France.

Unite.i

t..

And

it

should be noticed that a small Burg-undian land

in this quarter, the county of Montbeilliard or

Mlim-

M.mtbdi-

pelgard^
the

lirst

as a separate state, then in

its

union with

duchy of Wurttemberg, kept

till

allegiance to the

Empire

the wars of the French Eevolution.

to

when

it

was annexed
an unit

France and was never restored.

its

While the Burgundian Palatinate thus kept

as
in

history The

Les^^er

European geography, the Lesser Burgumbj

it

"'^^""' ''

to the

south-west of

had a

ditlerent history.

The
fact

geography here gets somewhat confused through the

that this Lesser

Burgundy, which

in tlie twelfth

century

passed imder the })ovver of the Dukes of Zdhringen in

Swabia

as Rectors^ took in

some
was

districts

which were

not parts of the Burgundian kingdom.

part of
tlie

The eastern
speech. The
eastern
^'^

kingdom

itself

of

German
of

and
Ilia

its

frontier towards the

German duchy
fluctuating.

Aleman-

inan.

or Swabia was

somewhat

The Aar
cities of the

may

be taken as the boundary of the kingdom, while

as an administrative division,
to the East.

the Lesser Burgundy, stretched

j/umiy.

somewhat further

Thus

Basel, as
at

well the foundations of the

House of Zahringen

Bern

and Freiburg, stood on

strictly

Burgundian ground,

while the city of Luzern and the land of Unterwalden

come under

the head of the Lesser Burgundy, without

forming part of the Burgundian kingdom.

These lands

long kept up their connexion with the Empire, though

262
CHAP,
'

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

of

the Lesser
"

unit.

Dukes

Zahringen.

Burgundy did not long remain as a separate the House of Zahringen came to an end, ,,..,.. the couutry began to spht up into small pnncipalities

When
*

End of their
house, 1218.

and
,

tree

-^
i

cities

which gradually
,

in
i

grew
i

into

iiide-

lireak-up of the duchy.

peudciit coininonwealths.

The counts

of Savoy,

of

Savoyard
tcri'ltorv.

wlioni iiiorc presently, acquired a large territory on

both sides of the Lake of Geneva.

iv.shops.

Other considerable

princes were the bishops of Basel, Lausanne. Geneva,

aiid Sitteu,

Counts, .and Free Cities,

the couuts of GeneiM, Kyburg, Gruyeres,

Basel, Solothurn, and Beivi were Im-

and NeufchctteL
The Free
Lauds.

The complicated relations between the Bishops and the city of Geneva hindered that city from
pcrial citics.

having a

strict right to that title.

In Unterwalden and

in Wallis, notwithstanding the possessions

and claims of

various spiritual and temporal lords, the most

feature

marked

was the retention of the old rural independence.

cities

Of
The Old
Leafiue of

tlie

in this region, Luzern, Bern, Freiburg,

all

Solothurn, and Basel,

'
,

gradually became
"^

members of

the Old League of Hiqit

"^

Germany, the ground-work of

_

HishGerman}'.

thc

uiodem Swiss Confederation. The Savoyard lands

''

Conquests
of

uortli

Bern and

Freiburg trom Savoy,

i.5ac.

-,.,. buFg
ui
. _

of thc lakc were conquered

./

by Bern and
-i

Frei-

the sixtecnth centurv, a conquest wliich also All these lands,

allies

secured the independence of Geneva.

after

going through the intermediate stage of

or

The Burgundian
cantons of
Switzerland.

subjccts of souic or Other of the confederate cantons,

have lu

modem

times

become iudeiDendent cantons ^

themselves.
will

This process of annexation and liberation

be traced more fully when

we come

to the history

of the Swiss Confederation.

To

the south of this group of states, and partly

intermingled with them, lay another group, lying partly

within the Cisjurane and partly within
tlie

Trausjurane

kingdom, which gradually grew

into a great

power.

THE SOUTHERN BURGUNDIAN LANDS.

These were the
states

263

which were united step by step

^^

under the Counts of Mauriemie, afterwards Counts of

Savoy.

chap.

-^

When

their

dominions were at their greatest

Savoy.

extent, they held south of the

Lake of Geneva,

besides Burgun-

Maurienne and Savoy

cigny, together with

strictly so called, the districts simrofTtr^"

of Aosta, Tarantaise, the Genevois', Chablais, and Fau-

Vaud and Gex

north of the lake.

Thus grew up the power of Savoy, which has already

been noticed
in its purely Italian aspect,
fuller

but which

must receive
of
its

separate

treatment in a section

own.
the Bursundian "^

The remainder of
sisted of a

Kingdom
_

con-

states be-

tween the

number of small

states stretchins; ^

from the

southern boundary of the Burgimdian county to the

Palatinate and the Mediterranean.

Mediterranean.
of

North of the Ehone lay the

districts
Bresseand
become
Savoyard.
Blimey,

Br esse and Buyey, which

passed at various times to

the House of Savoy.

Southwards on the Ehone lay a

^
.

I'll number of small states, among which the most important

.

1137-1344;
^[^f^^^-

in history are the archbishopric, the free city of Lyons, the

county, and the

county or Dauphiny of Vienne

Lyons,
Orange', &c.

and the

city of

Vienne, the county or principality of

Orange, the city of Avignon, the county of Venaissin,

the free city oi Aries, the capital of the kingdom, the free
cit}^

of Massalia or Marseilles, the county of Nizza or

provence.

Nice, and the great county or marquisate of Provence,

In

this last

power lay the

first

element of danger, especities.

of

cially to the republican

independence of the free

its

After being held by separate princes of

as
1

own,

as well changes

by the Aragonese kings,

it

passed by marriage into

'

11

dvnasty.

the hands of a French prince, Charles of Anjou, the TheAn-

conqueror of

Sicily,

and

also the destroyer of the

second

i24ti.

freedom of Massalia.

The

possession of the greatest Growing

ruler,

member

of the

kingdom by a French

though

it

connexion.

264
CHAP.
Vlll.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

made no immediate change

in the formal state of things,

gave fresh strength to every tendency which tended to

withdraw the Burgnndian lands from

to the

their allegiance

Empire and

to bring

them,

first

into connexion

with France, and then into actual incorporation with

the French kingdom.
Process of annexation.
Freiieli

Step by step, though by a process which was spread

over

many

centiuies, all the principalities

and common-

wealths of the Bnrgundian kingdom, save the lands

which have been Swiss and the

is

single valley

which

now

Italian,

have come into the hands of France.

itself early.

Avignon
first seized,

The tendency shows

for a

Avignon was seized

;

1226.

moment during

the Albigensian wars

but the

permanent process of French annexation began when

Annexation
of Lyons,
1310.

Philip the Fair took advantage of the disputes between

the archbishops and the citizens of Lyons, to join that

Imperial city to his dominions.

The head
all

of

all

the

Gauls, the seat of the Primate of

the Gauls, thus

passed into the hands of the

new monarchy

of Paris,

the first-fruits of French nggrandizement at the cost of

the Middle Kingdom,

Purchase of
the Dauphiny of Vienne, 134a.

Later in the same century, the

its

Dauphiny of Vienne was acquired by a bargain with

last

independent prince.

This land also passed, through

fief

the intermediate stage of an Imperial

held by the

heir-apparent of the French crown, into a mere province

of France.
Tlie city of
\ ienne annexed,

But the acquisition of the Dauphiny did not

it

carry with
for

that of the city of Vienne,

which escaped
acquisition
city,
tlie

more than

a century.

Between the

1448.

of the Dauphiny and the acquisition of the

Valence,
144(5.

county of Valence was annexed to the Dauphiny. Later

in the

same century followed the great annexation of

itself.

Provence, 1481.

Provence

Tlie rule of

French princes

in that

county for two centuries

had doubtless paved the way


FRENCH ANNEXATIONS.
for this annexation.

265

And

the acquisition of Provence

carried with
Marseilles,

it

the acquisition of the cities of Aries and

...

^-^

chap.
"^'iiJ-

-'

which the counts of Provence had deprived

of

their

freedom.

By

this

time the whole of

the sea

tlie

land between the

Ehone and
state

had been swal-

lowed up, save one

which- were

at the

extreme south-east

corner of the kingdom, and a group of small states

now

quite

hemmed
^

in

by French

territory.
xizza
passes to

The

first

was the county of Nizza or Nice, which had

to

passed

away from Provence

Italian

Savoy before the French

this

savoy,i388.

annexation of Provence.

But by

time Savoy had

become an
forth

power, and Nizza was from henceItalian

looked on as

rather than Burgundian.

city of

Between Provence and the Dauphiny lay the

of OraiK/e.
^

Avicfuon, the county of Venaissin, and the principality

Avignon and Venaissin became papal pos;

Avignon
n.nssin

sessions by purchase from the sovereic^n of Provence and, ^ ^

^

become
Papal, isjh.

they were at last quite surrounded thoujzh *^

"^
-^

by French
*'

Annexed
f-y{^*^'^'

to

territory, they

remained papal possessions

till

they were

annexed

in the course of the great Eevolution.

These

outlying possessions of the Popes perhaps did

somewhat
This was
Orange.

towards preserving the independence of a more interesting fragment

of the ancient kingdom.

the Principality of Oramje^ which the neighbourhood

of the

Pope hindered from being altogether surrounded

territory.

by French
become
so

This

little state,

whose name has

itself,

much more famous than

and by France
in the

passed
it

tlirough several dynasties,

for a long time

was

regularly seized

course of every war.

But

it

was

as

reo-ularly restored to ^
_

independence at
.

itsaniiexaiion to
y'|'"ce2^

every peace, and

its final

annexation did not happen

till

the eighteenth century.

The

acquisition of

Orange,
of

Avignon, and Venaissin, completed

the

process

266
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL ONGDOMS.

French
a2;2;randizement
in

the

lands

between the

Ehone and
as

the Var.
to the

The

stages of the
will

same process

apphed

Savoyard lands

be best told in

another section.

Modern
states which

Wc

liavc thus traccd the

_

of history geographical ^ o o
It

have

.-piit

oit trom the three kiug-

kingdoms themselves. the three Imperial ^

*-"

now

fol-

]^^yg ^^ tracc in the like sort the orig;in

and f^rowth of

certain of

tlie

modern powers of Europe which have

Certain
Italian,

grown out of one or more of those kingdoms.

parts of the

German,

and Burgundian kingFive

doms have

split off

from these kingdoms, so as to form from any of them.

in later

new

political units, distinct

states of

no small importance

European history

have thus been formed.

Their charnt't(ir

Most of them partake more

or Icss of the character of middle states, interposed

as

middle
states.

between France and one or more of the Imperial

.

Switzer-

kingdoms.
land,
cities

First, there is the

Confederation of Switzer-

which arose by
forming so close

German districts and an union among themselves that

certain

their
out.

common

allegiance to the

Empire gradually died

the

The Confederation grew into its present form by addition to these German districts of certain Italian
districts.

and Burgundian
Savoy.

Secondly,

there

are,

or

rather were, the dominions of the

Dukes of Savoy,

formed by the union of various Italian and Burgundian

districts.

This however, as a middle power, has

;

ceased to exist

nearly

all

its

Burgundian possessions
its

have been joined to France, while

Italian possessions

have grown into a new

The Dukes
<>t'

Italy.

Thirdly, there were the

forming a middomiuious of the Dukes of Burtjundy, ^

die

iiiir-\

guudy.

power between France and Germany, and made up

fiefs.

r^

by the union of French and Imperial

These are

MIDDLE STATES.
represented on the

267
tlie

modern maps by
tlie

kingdoms of

chap.

the Netherlands and Belgium,

greater part of both

of which belonged to the Burginidian dukes.

Of

these by'thT"*^
of

kingdoms much the greater part had spht

old

off

from the

the'LoV

kingdom of Germany.
fiefs,

Certain parts were once

so.

French

but had ceased to be

The

position of

Recosmized
neutrality of Bei-i'm, Switzer'^nd, an.i once of i)art
<jf

.-,-,,

three out of these four states as middle powers, and their

miportance in that character, has been acknowledg-ed ~

*

even by modern diplomacy in the neutrality which

still

is

^a^^'oy-

guaranteed

to

Belgium and Switzerland, and wh'ch

to certain districts of

was formerly extended

Savoy

Of these four

states,

Switzerland, Savoy, and the

duchy of Burgundy

as represented

by the two king-

doms
in

some have been merged other powers, and those which still remain count
of the
Countries,

Low

only
fifth
still

among
ranks

the secondary states of Europe.

also

But a

power has

broken

off

from Germany wliich

The Au=trian do1

among the greatest in Europe. This is the 1*1 /-^ f 11 power which, starting ironi a small German mark on

minions.

the Danube, has,

by the gradual union of various

lands,

German and non-German, grown into something distinct from Germany, first under the name oHhe Austrian ^Empire' and

more

latterly

under

that of the Austro-IIunga-

rian Monarchy. This power differs from the other states

of which

we have been

just speaking, not only in

ifis

its is
Position of
triln do-

vastly greater extent,

but also in

position.
in

It

a marchland, a

middle kingdom, but

a different

sense from Burgundy, Switzerland, Savoy, or Belgium,

marchiand.

All these were marchlands between Christian states,

Comparisoa
western''

between

states all of

which had formed. part of the

All
Italian
lie

Carolingian Empire.
of the

on the

western
Austria,

side

German and
as

kingdoms.
implies,

on
the

the other hand,

its

name

arose on

268

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

German kingdom, as a mark against Turanian and heathen invaders. The first mission of Austria was to guard Germany against the Magyar. Wlien the Magyar was admitted into the fellowship of
eastern side of the

Europe and Christendom

was united under a

when,
in

after a while, his

realm

sinoie

sovereim with Austria

another form.

the

same duty was continued

Austria and

The power

fomied by the union of Hungary and Austria was one of

thrmarkof the chlef

domairainst
+1

amoug

those which had to guard Christendom

Its history therefore

affiiinst

the Turk.

forms one of

1-

the connecting links between Eastern and Western Europe.

In

this

chapter

it

will

be dealt with chiefly on

its

its

Western

side,

with I'egard to

relations towards Ger-

many and

Italy.

The Eastern aspect of

to

the Austrostates

Hungarian power has more

These

do with the

which

arose out of the break up of the Eastern Empire.

states then, Switzerland, Savoy, the

Duchy

of Burgundy, the Netherlands, and Austria, form a

proper addition to the sections given to the three

Lnnerial kinsjfdoms.
I will

now

szo

on to deal with

them

in order.

6.

The Swiss Confederation.

Theorfciiiai
ti'.'mpial^i-

havc just spokcu of the Swiss Confederation as

its

being in

origin purely

German.

This statement

is

Gtrmau,

practically correct, as all the original cantons

were Ger-

man in

speech and feeling, and the formal style of their

the

Old League of High Germany. W\i in strict geographical accuracy there was, as we have seen in the
last section,

union was

a small Burguntlian element in the Confede-

ration, if not

from the beginning,

in the thirteenth

at least

from

its

ag-

grandizement

and fourteenth

centiuies.

That

is

to say, part of the territory of the states

which

'

ORIGIN OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION.

269
chap.

formed
the

tlie

old Confederation lay geographically within

a further part lay within

kingdom of Burgundy, and

the Lesser
the the

Burgundy of the Dukes of Ziihringen. But, by Su fe.r'"* when time the history of the Confederation begins, Bifr;!;un- ^ kingdom of Burgundy was pretty well forgotten,
territory

and the small German-speaking

in at
its

which

it

took

extreme north-east corner

may be
more

looked on

as practically

German ground.

practical diviis
;

sion than the old boundaries of the

kingdoms

the

aii the

om
in

boundary of the Teutonic and Romance speech

cept part of Freiburg, are German.
tons are those which
tlie allied

in German

this sense all the cantons of the old Confederation, ex- The

L.t.r

I!(iiii;mce

were formed
states.
till

in

The Romance canmodern times out of

tliir-

Cantons.

and subject
first,

It is specially needful to

bear in mind,

that,

the last years of the

.Ai.niy

teenth century, not even the

germ

ot

modern
;

fcwitzer-

errors.

land had appeared on the

map

of Europe

secondly,

that the Confederation did

not formally become an

;

independent power
that,

till

the seventeenth century

in

lastly,

though the Swiss name had been

it

common

use

for ages,

did not
till

become the formal

style of the

Confederation

the nineteenth century.

is

Nothing

in

the whole study of historical geography

more

neces-

sary than to root out the notion that there has always

been a country of Switzerland, as there has always been

a country of Germany, Gaul, or Italy.
less

And

it

is

no
The Swiss
present the
Helvetii.

needful to root out the notion that the Swiss of

the orio;mal cantons

.

any way represent the Jdelvetu

.

of Caesar.

The

points to be borne in
is sira[)ly

mmd
.

are that

the Swiss Confederation

one of many German

Leagues, which was more lasting and became more Summary

closely

united than other

split off

gradually

German Leagues that it from the German Kingdom that

history.'

Leajju'e''^"

270

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

in the course of
tliis

process,

tlie

League and

its

mem-

bers obtained a large body of Italian and Burgundian

allies

and subjects
in

lastly, that these allies

and subjects

have

modern times been joined

original

into

one Federal

body with the

German

Confederates.

The three Swabian lands which formed the kernel

of the Old League lay at the point of union of the
three Imperial kingdoms, parts of
all

of which were to
in its later form.

become members of the Confederation

The

first

known document

of confederation between the

three lands dates from the last years of the thirteenth

century.

But that document

is

likely to

have been

rather the confirmation than the actual beginninfj of

their union.
ecclesiastical

They had

for

their
lords,

neighbours

several

and temporal

some other Imperial

all,

lands and towns, and far greater than

of the
lately
Giowth of
the Leasrue.

the Counts

house

of
into

Kyhurg and Ilabsbimj, who had

the

grown

more dangerous character of

for a while

Dukes of

Austria.

The Confederation grew

by the admission of neighbouring lands and cities as members of a free German Confederation, owning
no superior but the Emperor.
Luzern,
];5o2.

First

of

all,

the city

of LiLzern joined the League.

rial city

Then came the Impe-

Zurich, 1351.

of Zurich^ which had already begun to foYm

a
Glarus and
Zii-, 1.852. Bern, 1353.

little

dominion in the adjoining lands.

Then came
witli its small

the land of Glarus and the town of

territory.

Zug

And

lastly

came

the

great city of Bern.,

which had already won a dominion over a consider-

body of detached and outlying allies and subjects. These confederate lands and towns formed the Eight
able
The Eight
Ancient
Cantons.

Ancient Cantons.

Their close alliance with each other

helped the growth of each canton separately, as well as

that of the Lea^aie as a whole.

Those cantons whose

TPE OLD LEAGUE OF HIGH GERMANY.

geographical position

271

allowed them to

do

so,

were

chap.

thus able to extend their power, in the form of various

shades of dominion

and

alliance,

over the smaller

yrowtb.

lands and towns in their neighbourhood.

These

lesser
;

changes and annexations cannot

all

be recorded here

but
cess

it

must be carefully borne

on.

in

mind

that the pro-

was constantly going

Zurich, and yet

Bern, each formed,

after the

manner of an

.of ancient

more

Dominion
Ziirich

and Bern.

Greek

city,

what

in ancient

Greece would have passed

for an empire.

In the fifteenth century, large conat

quests were
-

made

the expense of the

'-

House of

Conquests from Aiis^^"a^"^^'^" 1460.

Austria,

'

of

which the

earlier

ones were

made by
*'

The Confederation, or some or other of its members, had now extended its terriThe tory to the Ehine and the Lake of Constanz. lands thus won, Aargau^ Thurgau, and some other
direct Imperial sanction.
districts,

Aarpan.
Tlnirgaii,

&c.

were held

as subject territories in the

hands

of some or other of the Confederate states.

It is a fact to

be specially noticed

in the history of Xonew canton formed

the Confederation, that, for nearly a

years,

hundred and

thirty
^

for

along

time.

though the territory and the power of the Con-

federation were constantly increasing, no

new states were

Before

admitted to the rank of confederate cantons.

the next group of cantons was admitted, the general

state of the Confederation

and

its

European
to be a

position

changed. had greatly t) J C

It

had ceased

purely J t

Beginning
ofltiihan dominions.

German power. The first extension beyond the original German lands and those Burgundian lands which were practically German began in the direction of Italy. Uri
had, by the annexation of Urseren, become the neigh-

bour of the Duchy of Milan, and

fifteenth century,
this

in the

middle of the
in
uri obtains
vantina,

canton acquired some rights

the Val Levantina on the Italian side of the Alps. This

272 was
tlie

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

beginning of the extension of
far
tlie

Confederation
this

on Italian ground. But

more important than

was

the advance of the Confederates over the Burgundian

hinds to the
Avest.

The war with Charles of Burgundy-

enabled Bern to win several detached possessions in the

1475.

Savoyard lands north and east of the lake, and even on

the lower course of the Ehone.

And, while Bern adof the Confede-

vanced, some points in the same direction were gained

by her
Savoyard
conquests of I'reiljiirg

allies

who
city

are not yet

members

ration,

by

tlie

oiFreibarg and the League of Wallis.

This

last

confederation had

grown up on the upper

Soon
after this

aad

VVallLs.

(irOMtll of

course of the Ehone, where the small free lauds had

Wallis.

gradually displaced the territorial lords.

came the next admission of new

FiC'ibur;;

cantons, those of the

cities

of Freiburg and Solothurn, each of

it its

them bringing

and

Siilo-

tiiiirn

with

small following of allied and subject territory.

later,

liecoine

Cantons,
1481.

Twenty years

Basel and Schafhausen, the

latter

Basel and
Schaffliausen,
liJOl.

being the only canton north of the Ehiue, were admitted

with their following of the like kind. Twelve years
Appenzell, a
little

later,

Appenzell,
1513.

land which had set

itself free

from

the rule of the abbots of Saint Gallen, after having

long been in alliance with the Confederates, was admitted to the rank of a canton.
The Thirteen (Iantons, 1513-

Thus was made up

the full

number of Thirteen Cantons, which remained unchanged down to the wars of the French Eevolution.
linally

1798.

But the time when the Confederation was settled as regards the number of cantons was
of the Confederation and of several of

also a

time of great extension of territory on the part both

its

members.

At
of

the south-east corner of the Confederate territory,

on the borders of the duchy of Milan and the county

Granblinden.

Tyrol,

the League of

Graiibunden

or the
of

Grey

Leagues had gradually

arisen.

number

commu-


CONQUEST OF THE EOMANCE LANDS.
nities, as in

'

273
chap.
^<

Wallis,

had got

rid of the neicrhboiiring;

lords,

and had formed themselves mto three leagues,

which three were again
tie.

the Grei/ League proper, the Gotteshausbu?id, and the

League of

Teji Jurisdictions^

Their aiiiciiic6 with

united by a further federal

fifteenth

At the end of the

theConftderates.

century, the Leagues so formed entered into

an alliance with the Confederates.

accession of territory towards
tlie

Then began

a great

149.3-1567.

south on the part

both of the Confederates and of their

new

aUies.
''

TJie

Confederates received a considerable territory within

the duchy of Milan, including Bellinzona, Locarno^ and

i^^w^n dominion of theconfefieration,

^^^-^

Lugano^

as the

reward of services done to the House

of the
i^i-*-

The next year their new alHes of the Grey Leagues also won some Italian territory, the Valtellina and the districts of Chiavenna and Bormio. Next came
of Sforza.

Grey

the conquest of a large part of the Savoyard lands, of

all

^.a";'.^'

north of the Lake and a j^ood deal to the south, by J

<~>

'n<iuest.sof Bern, frei'^yjj^j'j^?"'^

the arms of Bern, Freiburg, and Walhs.

Bern and

Freiburg divided Vaud in very unequal proportions, y^^^ Bern and Wallis divided Chahlais on the south side of
the lake, and Bern annexed the bishopric of

Lausanne
was now

Lausanne.
r.eneva in
alliance

on the north.
with her
little

Geneva, the ally of Bern and Freiburg,

territory of detached scraps,

with
^^^f^-

ikm

and Frei-

surrounded by the dominion of her most powerful

allies at

Bern.

But by a
*'

later treaty ''

Bern and Wallis

Territory
rc-tored to

gave back to Savoy

all

that they

had won south of the

it.

s^voy.isc?.

Lake, with the territory of Gex to the west of

Geneva thus again had Savoy

bour
at

for a neighbour, a neigh-

whose expense she even made some conquests Gex among them conquests which the French ally

of the free city

would not allow her

to keep.

Later

changes gave her a neighbour yet more dangerous

than Savoy in the shape of France
T
itself.

Before these

274

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

changes, Bern and Freiburg divided the county ofGruyeres

between them, the

kist

important instance of that

kind of process.

The Confederation was thus

Thirteen Cantons and their allied
Saint,

fully formed,
states.

with

its

Of

these the

Gallm.
Bieune.

Abbot of Saint Gallen, the town of Saint Galleji, and the town of Biel or Bienne, were so closely allied with
the Confederates as to have a place
in

their Diets.

Besides relations of less close alliance

which the Con-

federates had with various Alsatian cities, several other

states

had a connexion so

close
its

and

lasting with the

as to

Confederation or with some of

part of
the

members,

form

same

political

system.

Such were the

and

I^eagues of Wallis and

Bischof/xixel.

Graublinden, the Bishop of

in Elsass,

Basely the outlying

town of MUhlhaiisen
Bern
too,

Miihl-

for a while that of Rottweil.

and sometimes

hausen and
Eottweil.

other cantons, had relations both with the town and

Neufchatel
passes to Pru'sia, 1/07.

with the princes of Neufchatel, which, after passing

through several dynasties, was at

last inherited

by the

Constanz.

Kings of Prussia.

Constajiz, at the other

end of the

Confederate land, was refused admission as a canton, but

for a while
Passes to
Austria, 1648.

it

was

in

alhance with some of the cantons.

But

this

connexion was severed when Constanz, instead

of a free Imperial city, became a possession of Austria.

The power thus formed, a power

in

which a

body of German Confederates was surrounded by a body of allies and subjects, German, Italian, and BurThe Confederation
released from the allegiance to the P'nipire, ler.S.

gundian,

all

of

them

originally

members of
its chief.

the Empire,

was by
all

the Peace of Westfalia formally released from

allegiance to the

Empire and
dated

Their

]^rac-

Date of the practical separation, 1495.

tical

separation

may be

much

earlier,

from the
the

time

when the Confederates

refused to

accept

legislation of Maximilian.

THE COMPLETE CONFEDERATION.

The OTOwth
phical position,

275

of the League into an independent

.

power was doubtless greatly promoted by

T.1-.

as

occupying the natural citadel of

in

i-iip
it

its

geogra-

'

chap.
YIII.
'

Geographicaiiwsition

Europe.

But the piecemeal way

which
its

grew up
on

League.

was marked by the anomalous nature of

..everal points.

frontier

On

the north the Ehine

would seem beyond

itsanoma"^"^

to be a

natural boundary, but SchalThausen

tier.

the Ehine formed part

of

the

Confederation, while
it

Constanz and other points within

did not.

To

the

south the possession of territory on the Italian side

of the Alps seems an anomaly, an anomaly wdiich
is

brought out more strongly by a singularly irregular

and arbitrary
,

frontier.

But looking on the Confedera

The Confcderatifin as
.a

tion as

in the middle

state, arising

.,

,1 at the
it

point ot junction

middle

of the three Imperial kingdoms,

fitting that it

was

in a

manner

should spread

itself into all three.

The form which

the Confederation thus took in the Waisofthe

French Retill

sixteenth century remained untouched

the wars of

volution.

the French Eevolution.

when
public.

the Italian
[
-,

The beginning of change w^as districts subject to the Grey Leagues

1

were transierred to the

IP newly formed
1

oismemberinentot'the <;re; rev

^c.igues,

Cimipine Re-

/^'

'

In the next year the whole existing system

;

i'^-

was destroyed.

The Federal system was abolished instead of the Old Leao-ue of Hio;h Germany, there ^ arose, after the new fashion of nomenclature, a Helvetic
'

Abolition of ^'"^ Federal

.s-^stem,

]798.

The ueive^'"^

Iiepuohc,

r>

wduch the w^ord canton meant no more

Kepult-

^c.

than department.
this

Yet even by such a revolution

as
of

some good was done.

.

The

subject districts were Freedom

districts.

the .subject

freed from the yoke of their masters, whether those

masters were the whole Confederation or one or more

of
its

several cantons.

Thus, above

all,

the

land of

Vaad was

freed from subjection to

T 2

its

Eomance German

Freedom

of

276

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

masters at Bern.

Some of the

allied districts, as the

bishopric of Basel and

to

^he city of Geneva,

were annexed

But the Leagues of WaUis and Graubilnden were incorporated with the Helvetic Eepubhc. In 1803 the Federal system was restored by BuonaFrance.

Act of Mediation, which formed a Federal reThese were the original public of nineteen cantons.
parte's
TLeninetons.*'''""

thirteen,
St.

with the addition of Aanjau, Graubtinden,

Gallen, Ticino,

Thurgau, and Vaiid, which Avere

allied

formed out of the formerly

^\'^\^\<. in-

and subject lands.

Wallis

was separated from the Confederation, and

first

with

'

became,

a nominally distinct re])ublic, and after-

Neufchatei

wards a French department.

Neufchdiel was, in the

Prussia,

course of Buonaparte's w^ars with

1806,

detached
hisi

from that power, to form a principality under

General Berthier.

The Swiss
ti(jn

At

last, in

1815, the present Swiss

of

Confederation was established, consistmg ot twenty-two

cautous, the
'
_

cantons. 1815.

^ ^ of Neufchdtel, Wallis, and Geneva.

, .

uumbcr

he\n<i

made up by The
,

the addition
.

bishopric of

Bischof*^

Basel w^as also again detached from France, and added

to tlic cautou of BcHi, a cautou differing in language;

to Bern.'

and

religion,

and cut

off

by a mountain range.

great constitutional changes which have been

Neufchatti

sincc that time

couttt

have not affected

The made geography, unless we

fnmiVrus-

thc divisiou of thc city and district of Basel,

Baselstadt and Baselland, into distinct half-cantons, and

the surrender
of
all

rights over Neufchatel

this last

by the
a geo-

King of

Prussia.
;

But
it

was not

strictly

graphical change

was rather a change from a quasi

monarchic

to a purely republican

government

in that

particular canton.

'

BEGIXNIxXGS OF SAVOY.

277
CHAP.

7.

Tlie State

of Savoy.
"^

,-^
'.

<?rowtli of the iDower Tlie ^ of Savoy, the border state ^

Position

and

t;iowtli

of Biirgimcly and Italy,

lias

necessarily been spoken of

;

o^ ^-^^'^y-

more than once

in earlier sections

but

it

seems needful

to give a short connected account of its progress,

and

to

mark the way

in

which a power originally Burgundian

gradually lost on the side of

the side of Italy,
into
till
it

Burgundy and grew on

itself

has in the end

grown
Geographical position

new

Italy.

ent times passed under the rule of the

lie

The lands which have at differHouse of Savoy

of the

Savoyard

continuously, though with an irregular frontier, and

i^nds.

though divided by the great barrier of the Alps. They

fall

however
at

into three

main

geoiiraphical divisions,
political

which
being

one time became also

.....

Their thne
divisions.

divisions,

held

by

different

branches of the

Savoyard
House,
Italian,

House.

There are the

Italian possessions of that

which have grown into the modern Italian kingdom.

There are the more
strictly

Savoyard lands south of the

Burr^unof the lake.

Lake of Geneva, and the other lands south of the

Ehone

after

it

issues

from that lake,

all

of which have

passed awa}- imder the power of France.

are the lands north of the

And

there

Bursunof tiieiake.

Lake and of the Ehone, part

Both these
\

of which have also become French, while others have

become part of the Swiss Confederation.

last lay

within the kingdom of Burgundy, and stretche

its

into both

divisions,

Transjurane and Cisjurane,

is

In

no part of our story

language which
times.

it

more necessary

to avoid

forestalls the

arrangements of later
is
is

A wholly false
as

impression

given by the use

used.

Popular
contusions

of language such

commonly

We
by

often

hear of the princes of Savoy holding lands 'in France

and

'

in Switzerland.'

They held lands

whijch

virtue

278

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

of later chano-es "
. '

'

viii.

CHAP,

have severally become French and

.

Swiss

but those lands became French and Swiss only

to

by ceasing
Italy

be Savoyard.

On

the other hand, to

speak of them from the beginning as holding lands in

is

perfectly accurate.

The Savoyard

states

were

a hirge and fluctuating assemblage of lands on both

sides

of the Alps, lying partly within the Italian and

partly

within

the Burgundian

kingdom.

These

last

have shared the

The Savoyoriginniiy
tiiau'^

fate of the other fiefs of that

crown.

Thc

cradlc of the Savoyard

power

lay in the Bur-

guudiau lauds immediately bordering upon Italy and

stretching on both sides of the Alps.
It

was

to their

geographical position, as holdnig several great mountain

passes, that the

Savoyard princes owed their

first

im-

portance, succeeding therein in

some measure

to the

Burgundian kings themselves.^

The

early stages
;

of
its

the growth of the house are very obscure

and

power does not seem

the union of
plain that, at the
Possessions of the Counts of

to

have formed
the Em])ire.

itself till

after

Burgundy with

But

it

seems

end of the eleventh century, the

earliest title,
dis-

Couuts of 31aurienne, which was their

held
tricts
riiihts "^

of
^

sovereimty

in
.

the

Burgundian

Maurienne.

of Maurienne^ Savoy strictly so called, Taran-

Aosta;its
position.

taise^

aud Aosta.

This

last

valley

and

city,

though

on the Italian

side of

the Alps,
Italian.^

had
Its

hitherto been
allegiance

rather Burgundian than

'

had

Compare the mention

of Rndolf in the letter of Cnut, on his

Roman
'

Pilgrimage, in Florence of Worcester, 1031.

He

is

there

Eodnlphus rex, qui maxime ipsarnm claiisurarum dominatur.' 2 That Aosta was strictly Burgundian appears from the Divisic Imperii, 806' (Pertz, Leges, i. 141), -where Italy is granted
'

Avhole to Pippin,
l)ut
it is
'

Burgundy

is

divided between Charles and Lewis

provided that both Charles and Lewis shall liave success to

pertinet.'

Italy,

Karolus per vallem Augustanam qufe ad regnum ejus

is still

The

Divisio Imperii of 839

plainer (Pertz, Leges,

i.

373, Scrip-


FIRST BURGUNDIAN POSSESSIONS.
fluctuated several times between the two kincrdoms
;

279
but,

chap.
"<

from the time that Savoy held lands

m both, the question

And,
it

-^

became

of

no practical importance.

Avithout

entering into minute questions of tenure,

said that the early

may be

Savoyard possessions reached to the

sides of the inland

Lake of Geneva, and spread on both

mouth of the Ehone. The power of the Savoyard princes in this region was largely due to their ecclesiastical position as advocates of the

abbey of Saint Maurice.

Thus

ceographiter

their possessions

had a most

irregular outline, nearly sur-

onuT'

rounding the lands of Genevois and Faucigny.

state

dian^'tem-

of this shape, like Prussia in a later age and on a greater

scale, was,

as

it

were, predestined to

make

further
Their eariy
Italian possessions.

advances.

But

for

some centuries those advances were

made much more largely in Burgundy than in Italy, The original Italian possessions of the House bordered
on
their

Burgundian counties of Maurienne and Aosta,

taking in Susa and Turin.

its

princes the sounding

The

endless shiftings of territory in

at

.....
title

This small raarchland gave

of Marquesses in Italy.
tliis
Marqv.esses
in Italy.

quarter could
Fluctuations of
tiominion.

be dealt with only

extreme length, and they are

In truth, they are
strict sense

matters of purely local concern.

not always fluctuations of territory in any

at
all,

but rather fluctuations of rights between the

cities,

feudal princes, the

111
still

and

their bishops.

In the
Their posi*^" '" twelfth
^^^^

twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the princes of Savoy

were
tores,].

1--1hemmed in their
in
est,

own
'

corner

PTll oi Italy by
districts.

and

434). There the one share takes in

valleni

Regnum

Italic

partemque

Burgundiae, id

Augustanam,' and certain other

So Einhard (Vita Karoli, 15) excludes Aosta from Italy. 'Italia tota, qus ab Augusta Prastoria usque in Calabriam inferiorem, in qua Grajcorura et Beneventanorum constat esse confinia, porrigitur.' As Calabria was not part of Italy in this sense, so neither was
Aosta.

280

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

princes of equal or greater power, at Montferrat^ at

Saluzzo, at Icerea, and at Biaiidrate.

And

it

must be
at

remembered
other
once italinn

that their
Italian

position

as

princes

once

Burgundian and

was not peculiar

to them.

The

Dauphlus of thc Viennois and the Counts of Provence

both held at different times territories on the Italian
side of the Alps.

and

r.urgundian.

The

Italian

dominions of the family

its

remained for a long while quite secondary to

gundian possessions, and the
traced out
Advance
of

Bur-

latter

may

therefore be

first.

The main object of Savoyard policy

aud thc

in this region

Burgundy,

was ueccssarily tlic acquisition of the lands of Faucigny

(jrenevois.

and the
Genevois.

But the nnal mcorporation

till

or those

lands did not take place

pletely

they were

still

more com-

hemmed

in

by the Savoyard dominions through

the extension of the Savoyard

First ad-

power

to the north of the

Lake.

vance north
of the hike,

This beffan early in o

./

tlie

thirteenth century j

by
./

(rant oi Moudun.
J

o^rant of a royal ^ C3

Moudon
'

to

Count Thomas

of Savoy. ^

20/.

Romont was next won, and became

^|_^g

the centre of the

after,

nor"h"rn'^^
capital.

Savoyard power north of the Lake. Soon

conquests of Peter of Savoy,

through
as the

who was known

Peter,

Little

Charlemagne and who plays a part

^^^

in English as

1203-1268

^^^^ ^^

Burgundian

history, these possessions

grew
as

into a large dominion, stretching along a great part of

the shores of the

1239-1268.

Lake of Neufchatel and reaching

But
it

far north as

Murien or Morat.

was a

straggling,

and

in

some

parts fragmentary, dominion, the continuity

of which was broken by the scattered possessions of the

Bishops of Lausanne and other ecclesiastical and temporal lords.

This extension of dominion brought Peter

into close connexion with the lands

and

cities

which

were afterwards
His
reia-

to

form

tlie

Old

Lea<ji:ue

of Hi<]?h Gerhis con-

many.

Bern

especially,

the

power

to

which

LANDS NORTH OF THE LAKE.

quests

281
chap.
Yin.
tlie
' <

were afterwards
.

to

be transferred, looked on him

.
.

as a protector.

This

new dominion

north of

Lake

was, after Peter's reign, held for a short time by a

separate branch of the Savoyard princes as

Bern.

Barons of

Barons of
Unioiiof Valid with
the eider branch. i^^9-

Vmid; but
their
"^

in the

middle of the fourteenth century,

,

barony came into the direct possession of the elder ^

branch of the house.

The lands

of Faucigny and the

Genevois were thus altogether surrounded by the Savoy-

Faucigny had passed to the Dauphins of XTp o the Vienuois, Avho were the constant rivals or the fcavoyard territory.
1

-1

Faucii^ny

by the Dauphins oftheVien

^"^"''^^

ard counts,
their

down

to the time of the practical transfer of

nois.

dauphiny

to France.
'

Soon
_

after that annexation,

Savoyacquires Fau'^j-ny

Savoy obtained Fauciqny^ with Gex and some other

'

districts

beyond the Ehone,

in exchan";e for

some small

^nd

Savoyard possessions within the Dauphiny.

The long
was

i^^^-

struggle for the Genevois, the county of Geneva,

ended by
century. "

its

purchase in the beginning of the fifteenth

left

This

the city of Geneva altoj^ether sur- The

Genevois.
_

rounded by Savoyard

territory, a position

... which
_

before

'^^^^

long altoE^ether changed the relations between the

Savoyard counts and the

struggles *"
. .

city.

Hitherto, in the endless

ciian-ed
relations to

between the Genevese counts, bishops, and

_

citizens, the

Savoyard counts, the enemies of the imciti-

<'tyof Geneva.

mediate enemy, had often been looked on by the

zens as friends and protectors.

Now

that they

had

become immediate neighbours of the

before long to be
its

city,

they began

most dangerous enemies.

...
the famous

acquisition or the Genevois took inace in the reign ot Count

/i/~)

11

The

Amadens

n the Eighth,

Amadeus

the Eighth, the *-

first

Duke
. .

of

E>ukei4i7;
Antipof>e

Savoy,

who

received that rank

bv grant of King

SiegFelix.

1^40

mund, and who was afterwards the Antipope

In his reign the dominions of Savoy, as a power ruling

Greatest
the douA-

on both sides of the Alps, reached their greatest ex-

282
tent.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

But the Savoyard power was
still

pre-eminently

Burgundian, and Cliambery was

its capital.

The con-

tinuous Burgundian dominion of the house

now reached
lake of

from the Alps

to the Saone, surrounding the lake of sides of the

Geneva and spreading on both

Neufchatel.
Annexation
i)t

Besides this continuous BurG:undian domi-

iiiou,

the

Housc of Savoy had already become possessed

by which
their

Nizza.

i;j88.

o{ Nizza^

dominions reached to the

sea.

Savoy
intothe
neiichbour-

This

last territory

had however, though technically Bur-

gundian, geographically more to do with the Itahan

possessions of the house.
'
^

hoodof
France.

But
its

territory

brought Savoy on

...

this great extension of

western side into closer

connexion with the most dangerous of neighbours.

Her frontier for a certain distance joined the actual kingdom of France. The rest joined the Dauphiny, which was now practically French, and the county of Provence, which was rided by French princes and which before the end of the century became an actual French possession. To the North again the change
in the relations

between the House of Savoy and the

New

reia-

city of

Gcucva
i

Icd lu coursc of time to equally

changed

wards Bern and the

Confederates.

rclatious towards
i
r

Bern and her Confederates.

i

Through
House
ter-

tlic

workiug of thesc two

causes,

all

that the

Loss of the

of Savoy
ritory
is

now keeps

of this

great Burgundian

dia[fdomi-

the single city and valley of Aosta.

After

Savoy.

the fifteenth century, the Burgundian history of that

house
tliree
lost.

consists of

the steps

spread over more than

this great

hundred years by which

dominion was

Growth
'

of

The
of
its

real

importance of the house of Savoy in Italy

the same time as the great extension

itaii^

dates from

much
in

power

Burgundy.

During the eleventh and

FIRST ITALIAN POSSESSIONS.

twelfth centuries, partly through the growth of the
cities,

283
chap. Yin.
"^^^ largest

partly

through the enmity of

the SLxth, the

,,-,.. dommions
beyond
their

the
n

Emperor Henry

-I

of Susa had been cut short, so as liardly marquesses

to reach

...
oi
first

the Savoyard prmces as

dominions
cut short in the twelfth century.

immediate Alpine

valleys.

In

the beginning of the thirteenth century,

when Count
Grants to

Thomas obtained
lake,

his

royal grant nortli of the

he

also obtained

grants

of Chieri and

other

Thomas.

places in the neighbourhood of Turin.

These grants
less

were merely nominal

the beginnincr of the

but they were none the

Italian

advance

of the house.

In the same reign Saluzzo for the

precarious

first

time

i)aid

First
saiu'zzo.

homage
Sicily, J^

to Savoy.

Later in the thirteenth

century, Charles

of Anjou,

now Count
way
-^

of Provence
^

Italian do-

minion of

and Kino; ^ of
also,

made

his

into

Northern Italy J
into

fharies of Anjou.
i-^^-

and thus brought the house of Savoy

on

a
its

dangerous neighbourhood with French princes on

Italian as well as
its

Burgundian

side.

Through
Italian pos-

the thirteenth

and fourteenth centuries the Savoyard

itself.

border went on exteridiiig

sessions of the house, like
lake,

But the

its

possessions north of the

were separated from

to

tlie

main body of Savoyard

one
of

territory

form a

fief

for

the

younger

branches.
title

This branch bore by marriage the empty

Morea memories of while, as Frank dominion within the Eastern Empire ^

of Counts of Achaia and

Counts of
Ailiaia in i''c<imont.

'

1301-1418.

if to

keep matters

straight, a

branch of the house of

Palaiologos reigned at Montferrat.

During the fourin

.

teenth century,

among many

struggles with the mar- Advance

the fourteenth century.

of Montferrat and Saluzzo, the Angevin counts quesses ^ of Provence, and the lords of Milan, the Savoyard

power

in Italy generally increased.

Under Amadeus

the Eighth, the lands held

by

the princes of Achaia

284
CHAP,
"-

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

were united
to the possessions of the
reiejn "^

Reunion of Piedmont,
1418.

head of the house.

Before the end of the

'

of

Amadeus, the dominions

.

of Savov stretched as far as the Sesia, takinp; in Biella,

t->

? i

-^^cqmsuion

SaiitUa aud VercellL

Itahan, wliicli they

Counting Nizza and Aosta as

practically were, the Italian

^35

now

dominions of the
Relations
witli

House reached from the Alps of

^

Mont-

ferrat.

WalHs to the sea. But they were nearly cut in two by f -Mr c the dommious oi the Marquesses or Montferrat., irom whom however the Dukes of Savoy now claimed

,..
'-'

fi/'

Claims on
Saliizzo;
its

hoinaQ;e.

Saluzzo.
'

doubtful

Qf

gQgrj^

r^j^^j

^\^Q

o between the old inheritance yg^y posscssiou of Nlzza, also passed

lyino;
../

under Savoyard supremacy.

But

it

lay open to a very

dangerous French claim on the ground of a former

homage done
first
Establishnient ot Savoy as a

to the

Viennese Dauphins.
title

Amadeus, the

Duke

of Savoy, took the

of Count of Piedmont,

and afterwards that of Prince.

^

His possessions were ^

state,
'

middle
state.

j^Q^y

fairly established as a
-^

middle

Italian

and

Burgundian, in nearly equal proportions.

In the course of the next century and a half the

Effects of
'

wars.'

Savoyard

state

altogether

changed

its

character in

many

ways.

The changes which

affected all Europe,

especially the great Italian wars, could not fail greatly

to affect the border state of Italy
is

and Gaul.

And

there

no part of our story which gives us more instructive

lessons with regard to the proper limits of our subject.

French
in-

Duriug

this

time the Savoyard power

influences, all

was brought

oce upat'ion.

uudcr a number of

of which deeply
all

affected its history, but

which did not

alike affect

its

geography.

We

have a period of Erench influence, a

period of French occupation, and more than one actual

freeh settlement of the fi'ontier.

Mere

influence does not

concern us at
it

all.

Occupation concerns us only Avhen

takes the form of permanent conquest.

An

occupa-

'

ADVA"S^CE IN ITALY.
tion of nearly forty years

285
to

comes very near

it

permanent
to

conquest

still

when, as

in this case,

comes

an end
it

chap.
r

without having effected any formal annexation,

is

hardly to be looked on as actually working a change

on the map.

France occupied Piedmont for nearly

occnpatioa

as long a time as
lake.

Bern occupied the lands south of the

as simply

Yet we look on the one occupation

part of the military history, while in the other

we

see

a real, though only temporary, geographical change.

But the
actual

result alike of influence, of occupation,

all

and of

incroaspd

change of boundaries,
all

tended

tlie

same way.

character

They
the

tended to strengthen the Italian character of

to

House of Savoy,
if

cut

short

its

Burgundian
its

possessions, and,

not greatly to increase

to
])ut
it

Italian

possessions, at least

in

the

way

of greatly

increasing them.

During the second half of the

fifteenth century, the

power of the House of Savoy greatly

declined, partly

Decline of

through the growing influence of France, partly through

the division, in the form of appanages, of the lands

which had been so

compact
^

lately

formed together into a

the Italian wars, in

state.

Then came

which

The

Italian

wars.

the Savoyard dominions became the highway for the

kings of France
territorial

in their invasions

of Italy.

The
side

strictly

changes of

this

period chiefly concern the

Italian
side.

marquisate of Saluzzo on the

and the

northern frontier on the Burgundian

these two points of controversy
settlement.
r irontier,

In the end
in a single
First loss of lands north of the lake.

were merged
^

The
n

first loss

of territory on the northern

^

the

nrst sign

that the

r,

Savoyard power

in

Burgundy was gradually

Charles of

to fall back,

was the

loss of

part of the lands north of the lake in the

war between
Granson

Burgundy and the Confederates.


286
CHAP,
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

"-

'

on the lake of Neufchatel, Marten or

'

Mo rat

on

its

own
all

lake, Aiijle

at the south-east

end of the great lake,

Echallens lying detached in the heart of Vaud,

passed

away from Savoy and became

for

ever Con-

federate ground.

Sixty years later, the affairs of

Geneva

led to the great intervention of Bern, Freiburg and

Loss of the

Wallis,

by which Savoy was

iiortli

for ever

shorn of her

both sides
of the lake. 1686.

posscssious ^

of the lake.

For a while indeed

;

she was cut off from the lake altogether

Chablais

passed

away

as well as

Vaud.

Geneva, with her de-

tached scraps of territory, was

Reunion of
south of the
if'tj'-

now wholly surrounded

by
all

licr

own

allies.

Thirty years later, Bern restored

her conquests south of the lake, together with

Gex

to the w^est, leaving

Geneva again surrounded by the

dominions of Savoy.

Walhs
loss

too gave
strip

up part of her
left

share, keeping only the

narrow

on the

bank

of the Ehone.
Charles the
1504^15.53

The

and the recovery mark the

difference

between the reigns of Duke Charles the

Third, called the Good, and

Duke Emmanuel
to France.

Filibert

Emanuel
Filibert.

with the Iron Head.

is

The

difference of the

1553-1580.

two reigns &'

Almost
n

equally

marked with regard

.

at

Beginning
of French

the samc moiiient as the conquests

that occupatioii,

made by Bern, began

r-

oeeupatiou
Its end. 1574.

wholc or

partial, ot

Savoyard territory
to

by the French arms which did not come wholly

end
as a
for thirty-eight years.

an

Savoy then appeared again

lay in Italy,

power whose main strength

whose
Italian
tlie

capital, instead of Burgundian

Chambery, was

Turin.

And

all

later

changes of frontier and

changes of frontier in her more southern dominions

also

tended the same way to increase the Italian chaits

racter of the Savoyard power, and to lessen

in the lands

extent

which we may
them.

distinguish as Transalpine,

for the

Burgundian name has now altogether passed

away from

"

LOSSES IN BURGUXDY.

287
chap.
VIII.
'

The

first

formal exclianfre of Buro-untlian for Italian

.^.

ground happened under Emmanuel

Filibert, shortly after

the emancipation of his dominions.

The small county

Acquisition
of Tenda.

of Tenda was acquired in exchange for the marquisate of Villars in Bresse.

This extended the Italian frontier,

without formally narrowing the Burgundian frontier

still it

was a

step in the direction of

first

more important by the endthe

Disputes

changes.

The

of these was caused

less disputes

which arose out of the disputed homaixe

homage
Saluzzo.

of

of Saluzzo.

The Marquesses of Saluzzo preferred

French claimant of their

homage
first

to the Savoyard, a

preference which led in the end to definite annexation

by France.
soil

This was the

acquisition of Italian Annexa-

by France

as such, as distinguished

from the claims

France

Saiuzzoby
France.
io48.

of French princes over Milan, Naples, and Asti.

thus threw a continuous piece of French territory into

the heart of

tlie

states of Savoy.
still

When

the French
conquest of

occupation ceased, Saluzzo

Presently
nuel.
it

remained to France,

was conquered by Duke Charles Emmareign of this prince marks the final change

im
Reign of

The

in the destiny of the

house of Savoy.

He
to

himself had
side of the

Emanuei.
108O-1680.

dreamed of wider conquests on the Gaulish

Alps than had ever presented himself
his house.

any prince of

He was

to

be Count of Provence, King

of Burgundy, perhaps
results of his reign told

King
in

of France.

The

real

exactly the opposite way.

his

By

the

treaty

which ended

war with France,

Bre?s.e,

Saluzzo was ceded to Savoy in exchange for Bresse^

&c.

Bugey, Valromey, and

Geo;.

powerful neighbour

foi-^sailfzzo.

was thus shut out from a possession which cut the

Savoyard
states in

twain

but the price at which this

final

advantage was gained amounted to a

of the old position of the Savoyard

surrender

Lossofposithe" Alps'"

House beyond the

Saone became the

Alps.

The Ehone and not

the

288
CHAP,
VIII.
^

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

bouiidary, while the surrender of

"^
'

Gex brought France

.

to the sliores of the Lake.

Geneva,

lier city

and her

on Geneva.
1G02-160!).

Scattered scraps

of territory, had now, besides Bern,

in

two other neighbours

tempts of Charles
fruitless.

France and Savoy.

The two

at-

Emmanuel to seize upon the city were Savoy now became distinctly an Italian power,

keeping indeed the lands between the Alps and the Lake, the proper Duchy of Savoy, but having her main
possessions

and

lier

main

interests in Italy.

We may

here therefore hnish the history of the Transalpine posLater

Savoy".

scssioiis of tlic

remained
nental

The Duchy of Savoy own Dukes till their contidominion was swept away in the storm of the
Savoyard House.
hands of
its

in the

Annexed

to

Frcuch Ecvolution.

It

was restored

after the first fall

fi'ontier,

179-2-179G. Restored.

of Buonaparte, but with a narrowed

left
its

which
set

1814-1815.

capital

Cliamhery to France.
next year.

This was

right

by the

treaties of the

Lastly, as all

the world knows. Savoy

Savoy and

itself,

including the guaranteerl

iieutral lauds

on the Lake, passed, along with Nizza, to

itself
its

nexedto
France.
I860.

Fraucc.

Savoy

was so

far favoured

as to

be

allowed to keep

ancient name, and to form the de-

partments of High and

Low

Savoy, instead of being

condemned,

as in the

former temporary annexation, to

Blanc.

bear the names of

Leman and Mont

land under whose

The Burtheir

gundian Counts wiio have grown into Italian Kings

have thus
Aosta

lost the

name

House
of

grew famous.
the times

Aosta alone remains as the

last relic

when

the Savoyard Dukes, the greatest lords

still

of the Middle Kingdom,

kept their place as the

itself.

truest representatives of the

Middle Kingdom

Italian his-

Tlic purcly Italian history of the house

now begins,
in dealing

Hor.se of""

a history

which has been already sketched

'

ITALIAN

mSTORY OF
Italy.

SAVOY.

289

with the geography of

in

Savoy now takes part

its

every European struggle, and, though

position

chap.

led to

constant foreign occupation, some addition of

itseharac-

territory

was commonly gained

at

every peace.

Thus,

before the reign of Charles

Emmanuel was

over, PiedFrench occupation. 1629.

mont was again overrun by French

the Savoyard possessions in Italy

Though were presently mtroops.

.

creased by a part of the

Duchy

of Montferrat, this was Annexa-

a poor compensation lor

the Irencii

occupation 01

ofMonticsi.

in the heart of Piedmont, Pinerolo and other points ^

French occupation of
1 inerulo.

which lasted

till

nearly the end of the century.

'' ''

The

gradual acquisition of territory at the expense of the

Milanese duchy, the acquisition and exchange of the

iao-iG96.

Later advance,

two
the

island kingdoms, the last annexation

by France,
of Italy,

the acquisition of the Genoese seaboard, the growth of

Kingdom

of Sardinia into the

told.

Kingdom

have been already

with

Our present

business has been

Savoy as a middle power, a character which

practically passed

from

it

with the loss of

Vaud and
in the

Bresse,

and

all

traces of

which are now sunk

higher but less interesting character of one of the great

powers of Europe.

From Savoy

in its character of a

middle power, as one of the representatives of ancient

Burgundy, we naturally pass

to another

middle power

which prolonged the existence of the Burgundian

name, and on part of which, though not on a part
lying within
its

Burgundian possessions, some trace of

the ancient functions of the middle

laid

kingdom
policy.

is

still

by

the needs of

modern European
the

8.

The Duclty 0/ Burgundy and

all

Low

Countries.
as
position of

Among

the powers which

we have marked

having for their special characteristic that of being

Dukes

of

1^90

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

middle
states, the

CHAP.
VIII.
Buriiuiidv.

one which came most nearly to an

actual revival of the middle states of earlier days

was

the

Duchy

of

Burgundy under the Valois Dukes.

A
In

great
their
Their twofold vassal-

power was formed whose princes held no part of

dominions in wholly- independent sovereignty.

practical

power they were the peers of their Imperial and

;

age.

royal neighbours

but their formal character throughout

every rood of their possessions was that of vassals of one

or other of those neighbour's.
Its effects.

Sucli a twofold vassalage

naturally suggested, even

to a single lord could

more strongly than vassalage

have done, the thought of eman-

cipation from all vassalnge, and of the gathering to-

gether of endless separate

fiefs

into a single

kingdom.

The
Schemes
for a

gi'adual acquisitions

of earlier princes, especially

those of Philip the Good, naturally led

up

to the design,

Bui-

fliindian

kingdom.

avowed by
title

his son Charles the Bold, of

exchanging the

of Duke for that of King,

The memories of the older

Burgundian and Lotharingian kingdoms had no doubt a

share in shaping the schemes of a prince
so large a share of the provinces

who

possessed

which had formed

one can

those kino-doms.

The schemes

of Charles,

hardly doubt, reached to the formation of a realm like

that of the
first

Lothar, a realm stretching from the

Ocean

to the Mediterranean,

His actual possessions, at

to

their greatest extent,

formed a power

which Bur-

gundy gave
as
Historical
iin))ortniK'e

its

name, but which was

as

historically at least

much Lotharingian
which
fills

Buro;undian,

And

thouo;h

this actual

dominion was only momentary, no power

a wider

of the Hur-

gundian
power.

ever arose

and more oecume-

nical place in history

than the line of the Valois Dukes.

Their power connects the earliest settlement of the

European
years,

states with the latest.

It

spans a thousand

and connects the division of Verdun with the

HISTORICAL POSITION OF THE BURGUNDTAN DUKES.

last treaty that

291
chap.
VIII.
1870.

guaranteed the Deutrality of Belgium,

their

The growth of
in

power was

directly influenced
;

by

memories of the early Carolingian partitions

its
fall, it

and, even

has

itself

influenced the geography and

politics of
it

Europe ever

since.

As a Burgundian power,
Burgundian powers have
abides
of the
still

was as ephemeral

as all other

ever been.
in its effects.

As a Lotharingian power, it The union of the greater part

to the

Low

History of

Countries under a single prince, and that a prince Avho

SfuntdLs.

was on the whole foreign

already at

Empire, strengthened

that tendency to split off from the

Empire which was

Later events

work

in

some of those

lands.

caused them to
last

split off in

two bodies instead of one. This

tendency became so strong that a modern attempt

to unite

them broke down, and

Europe
is

their place in the

distinct
is

modern

polity of

that of

two

kingdoms.

The
Final reBurj,niil-"

existence of those two

kingdoms

the final result of the

in the fifteenth cen-

growth of the Burgundian power

tury.

And by

leading to the separation of the northern

it

nion.'"^'

Netherlands from the Empire,

has led to one result

which could never have been reckoned on, the preservation of one branch of the

Low-Dutch tongue
were the

as the

its effect

acknowledged and
nation.

literary speech of
results

an independent
creation, in the

J^age."

Its political

shape of the northern Xetherlands, of a power which

^^^
i.-mrf/nnd
^
''""'

once held a great place in the

the world,

affairs

of

Europe and of
shape of

and the slower growth,

in the

the southern Netherlands, of a state in which

modern
of

European policy

still

acknowledges the chatacter of a

the
neutral

middle kingdom.

As

confederation

Switzerland represents the middle kingdom of Bur-

gundy, so the neutral kingdom of Belgium represents

the middle

kingdom

of Lotharingia. V 2

\
292

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

The Ducliy of Burgundy which gave
'

CHAP.

its

name
./
^

to

Ducal Bursiundyafief of the

the Burgundian O

of the power L

fifteenth century

one amono; ^
_

Western

Kmgdom.

name

lands bearinof ^ the Burgundian ^ outside the Burgundian kingwholly which lay ^ j
tlie
"^
_

many

dom

of the Emperors.

This Burgundy, the only one

to

do
_

was that
_

which has kept the name

of which Dijon
is

our

own

time, the
fief

duchy
of the

the capital, never

was a

Eastern Kingdom
separation.
It

or of the Empire, after

the final

always acknowledged the supremacy of

Paris.
P

'^

Two

lines

tlic

kiugs of

Laon and
T

By

these last the

p
1

duchy
house,

of Dukes. 10B2.
TlieViilois.
i;j63.

granted was twice ^

.

nef to princes or their

.

own

once in the eleventh century

This
last

and once

in the fourteenth.

grant was the beg-inninc^ of the Dukes of the

Valois, with the

House of
Union of
amiBur1369."^'

growth of wliose power we

first

have now to deal.

tliis

Philip the Hardy, the

Duke

of

liuc,

obtaiticd,

by

his

marriage with Margaret of

Flanders, the counties of Flanders, Arlois, Ehetel, and

Nevers,
The county
gundy.

all fiefs

of the crown of Prance, together with

the Couuty Palatine of

Burgundy

as a fief of the

Empire.
this

The
line

peculiar position of the

Dukes of Burgundy of
this marriage.

was

at

once established by

Duke

Philip held of two lords, and his dominions lay in two

Two
masses

distinct iTiasscs.

The two Burgundies, duchy and county,

and the county of Nevers, lay geographically together

Planders and Artois lay together at a great distance
the small
possession of Ehetel
princes
tail

lay

again

detached
terri-

between the two.

Any

who
to

held such a

tory as this could hardly

policy to the

devote their main

work of bringing about the geographical

union of their scattered possessions.

Nor was

this all.

The possession of the two Burgundies made

their

common

sovereign a vassal at once of Prance and of

the Empire.

The

possession of Planders, Artois, and

'

COUNTY OF HOLLAND.
Elietel further broiio'ht

293
chap.
VIII.

him
,
.

into connexion Avith those

border lands of the Empire and of the French kingdom

,
.

where the authority

and which had
of this
Ions;

ot either over-lord

was weakest,

Position of the Netherlands,

been tendino- to form themselves

into a separate political system distinct

results

from both. The

complicated position, as worked out,

whether by the prudence of Philip the Good or by the

daring of Charles the Bold, form the history of the

Dukes of Burgundy of the House

of Valois.
to

The
.
.

lands

which we are accustomed

group

imperial
tiefs in

together under the name of the Netherlands or

Countnes lay chiefly within the bounds of the Empire

but the county of Flanders had always been a
France.
fief

...

Low
.

the

Nether;

lands.

of

Part however of the dominions of

its

counts,
Fief of the

the north-eastern corner of their dominions, the lands

oiAlost?i\\^ Waas.^xQYQ held of the Emijire.
'

Counts of

These

Finnders within tlie

lands, together with the neighbouring islands of Zea- Empire.

Zeahmd,

land^

formed a ground of endless disputes between the

This

Counts of Flanders and their northern neighbours the Counts of Holland.

last

county eradually

diseii-

Countv

of

tangles itself from the general mass of the Frisian lands

which

lie

along the whole coast from the mouth of the

Scheld to the mouth of the Weser.

And

those great in-

inroads of
1210, 1282.

roads of the sea in the thirteenth century which gave the

Zuyder-Zee

its

present extent helped to give the country

it

a natural boundary, and to part

lands to the north-east.

off

from the Frisian

thir- Disputes
''^'fh

Towards the end of the

teenth centuiy

-ri'lT Iriesland

flrTTr^'lT west of the Zuyder-Zee had

The land
freedom,
its

the

free Fri-

sians.

become part of the dominions of the Counts.

immediately east of the gulf established

indepen-

while East Friesland passed to a line of counts, under west

fhcs-

whom
lands.

its

fortunes parted off from those of the Nether- u\i-uM.

its

Part of

later history has

been already given

East Fries-

294

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

in the character of a

more purely German

state.

Both

the counts and the free Frisians had also dangerous

neighbours in the Bishops of Utrecht, the great ecclesiastical

princes of this region,

who

held a large temporal

sovereignty lying apart from their city on the eastern

side

of the gulf.

These disputes went on, as also

disputes with the

Dukes of Geldern, without any

to the time

final

settlement, almost

when

all

these lands

began

to

be united under the Burgundian power.

But

before this time, the Coimts of Holland had

closely

become

Touchy of Brabaut.

County

of

much further to the south. number of states in this region, the most powerful was the Duchy of Brabant, which represented the Duchy of the Lower Lotharingia, and whose princes held the mark of Antwerp and the cities of Brussels, Lowen or Louvain, and Meddin. To the Soutli of them lay 'the county oi Ilennegau or Hainault. At the end
connected with lands
a

Among

] leniiej^au

or Hainault
iinited
299.

of the thirteenth century, this county

was joined by

with

Holland.
1

marriage with that of Holland.

Holland and Hainault

Mark

of

Namur.

were thus detached possessions of a common prince, with

Brabant lying between them.
the small

South of Brabant lay

mark

or county of

Namur, which, without

being united to Flanders, was held by a branch of the

princes of that house.
Common
character of these states.

All these states, though their princes held of two

separate over-lords, had
w^ell fitted to

much
in

in

common, and were

a single political in the physical

be worked together into

system.

They had much

common

character of the country, and in the unusual

number

of great and flourishing

Importance
of the
ties.

cities

which these countries

contained.

None

of these cities indeed actually reached

cities

ci-

the position of free

of the Empire

but their

wealth, and the degree of practical independence which

'

STATES OF THE NETHERLANDS.

they possessed, forms a main feature in the history of
the

295
chap.

Low

Countries.

In point of language, the northern

dialects of

part of these states spoke various

Low-

Dutch, from Flemish to Frisian

of Hainault, Artois,and

in the southern lands

Namur, the language, though not French, was not Teutonic, but an independent Eomance To the west of these states lay speech, the Walloon.
another group of small principalities connected with
tlie

Southivestern

group of

former greater group in

those wliich

many

ways, but not so closely as

we have just gone through.

The

gi'eat ec-

clesiastical principality of Luttich or Liege., lying in

two

Bishopric

detached parts, divided the lands of which

_
_

we have
Duchies of
Luxeniliurg
'in-i i-iii-

been speaking from the counties, afterwards duchies, of

Lilzelburq J or

Luxemhurq J and
Limburg passed

of Limhurq. >}

Of

these the

burg.

more
to the

distant

in the fourteenth century

is

Dukes of Brabant.
to the Empire,

Luxemburg
and
in their

famous as

having given a series of princes to the kingdom of

Bohemia and

hands it rose to

the rank of a duchy.

Lastly, to the north of Luttich, Luxemburg

this

forming a connecting link between

group of

states

isos.

and the more purely Frisian powers, lay the duchy of

Geldern, of whose quarters the most northern portion GeWem.
stretched to

the

Zuyder Zee.

These eastern

states,

though not so closely connected with one another

those to the west, were easily led into the
tical

as

same
.

i)oli-

system.
"
.
_

Without drawing any hard and

.

fast line,
if

Middle
position of an these
states.

we mav say that

all

the states of this ref^ion formed,

not

yet a middle state, yet a middle system, apart alike from

France and the Empire, though in various ways connected with both.

Mainly Imperial, mainly Teutonic,

?.o.

they were not wholly

Besides the

homage

lawfully
in- French

due

to

France from ilanders and Artois, French

fluence in various ways, in politics, in manners,

and

in

''^''*^*^'

296
CHAP.
YIII.
.

TIIE
laDguajre,

IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

--

'

inroads in the southern had made great & Netherlands. Brabant and Hainault had practically
quite as

CO'
this

much

to

do with France as with the Empire.

And
Walloon
language.

French influence was of course helped by

the fact that a considerable region in the south was,

thouf>;h "-

not of Frencli, yet not of Teutonic speech. Alto"^

'

much to unite them to the great powers on either side, with much to keep them apart from either of them, with much more to unite them to one another.
gether,.with
Union of
the ^Gtli6r~ lands under

the states of the Netherlands might almost seem to be

dcsigiicd

by uaturc

to

be united under a single

political

otBurgundy.

head.

Such a head was supplied bv the Dukes of Burin the course

gundy and Counts of Flanders, by whom,

of the Netherlands was united into a single

of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, nearly the whole

power which

was

to

be presently broken into two by the results of

religious divisions.

Leaving then for the present the growth and

the Burgundian power in the lands

fall

of

more

to the south,

we

will

go on to trace the steps by which the provinces

of the

Low

Countries were united under the Valois

their

Dukes and

Austrian

descendants.

The

great
the

increase of territory in this region was

Reiffn of

made during
acquisition

loug rcigu of PliiHp the Good.

^
''

His

first

was

(M
Namur.

the county of

Namui\

a small and outlying district,

still

but onc whlch, as small and outlying, would

more

1421-1429

strongly suggest the rounding off of the scattered ter1429-1433

ritory.

series of

marriages and disputes next enaa

bled
1405.

Pliilip

to

make

much more important

exten-

sion

of his dominions.

Brabant and Limburg had

passed to a younger branch of the Burgundian House.

1418.

John,

Duke

of

Brabant, the

cousin of Phihp

by a

'

'

ACQUISITIONS OF THILIP THE GOOD.

Countess of Holland with Jacqueline, marriao-e ^ '^
nault, united those states for a

297

and Hni.

moment.

The

disputes

^-

YIII.

chap.

and confusions which followed on her marriages and

divorces led to the annexation of her territories

by the

Duke

of Burgundy, a process Avhich

was

finally con-

cluded by the formal cession of her dominions by Jacqueline.

Meanwhile Philip had succeeded

to

Brabant
.

Brabant and LirabuiR.

and Limburo;, and the union of Flanders, Brabant, Hainault, Zealand,

made a dominion and Holland, together ^

all

which took

in

the greatest Netherland states, and

territory.

Holland and Haiu1^33.

formed a compact mass of

On

this presently

followed a great acquisition of territory which was more

strictly

French than the

fiefs

which Philip already held

of the French ci"Own in Flanders

and

Artois.

The

Treaty of Arras, by which Philip, hitherto the ally of

England against France, made peace with

lands on the

his

western

overlord, gave him, under the form of mortgage, the

Somme.

The

acquisition of these lands,

The towns
on
,

Ponthieii, Vermcmdois^

Amiens, and Boulogne, advanced

.

tlie

the

neip;hbourBurofundian frontier to a dans-erous c^ o

to Paris

Somme.
14:35-1 ) 83.

hood

on

this

side as well as

on the

other.

It liad the further

effect

of keeping the small contistill

nental possessions which England

kept at Calais

and Guisnes apart from the French

territory.

During

the reigns of Philip and Charles the Bold, the conti-

nental neighbour of England was not France but Bur-

gundy.
lasting.

But

this

great southern dominion

tlie

was not

The towns on

Somme, redeemed and again

of Charles the Bold once

recovered, passed on the

fall

more
were

into

French hands.

So did Artois

itself,

and.
rest

Recovered

by France.

though

Ai'tois

was won back, Amiens and the

if

not.

Yet,
the

the

towns on the
of the successive

Somme had
masters of

stayed under

rule

298
CHAP.
Vill.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

the

Low

Countries,

it

might by
to

this

time have seemed

it

as natural for

Amiens

be Belgian as

now seems

natural for

Fi-ancc retsi^^ns tlie

Cambray and Valenciennes to be French. The Treaty of Madrid drew a definite boundary. France gave up all claim to homage from Flanders and
Artois,

]iomafj;e of

and Charles the

Fifth, in

his

Burgundian, or
all

Flanders

aud Artois.
U>26.

rather in his Flemish, character, finally gave up

to the lands

claim

on the Somme.
;

The
tions.

south-western frontier was thus fixed

state

but

meanwhile the new

Philip's
last

had advanced

in other direc-

great acquisition was the duchy

Luxemburg.
1443.

of Luxemburg.

He now
;

possessed the greater part of

still

the Netherlands

but his dominions were

intersected

by
Geldern and Zutphen.
1472. Fuial annexation. 1543.

the bishoprics of Utrecht and Liittich and the

duchy

of Geldern.
plien

The duchy

of Geldern and county of Zut-

were added by Charles the Bold. But they formed

a precarious possession, lost and

won more

than once,

down
Fifth.

to

their

final

annexation under Charles the

ecclesiastical principalities

Of the two great

by

which the Burgundian possessions in the Netherlands

Bishopric
of Liittich

were cut asunder, the

history
is

bisliopric of Liittich,

though

its

never annexed.

much mixed up with

it

that of the

Burgundian

Dukes, and though

Annexation
of the bishopric of Utrecht, 1531 ; and
F'riesland,

came

largely under their influence,

was never formally annexed.

But the temporal

princi-

pality of the Bishop of Utrecht

Cliarles the Fifth.

was secularized under

Friesland, the Friesland immediately

1515.

east of the

Zuyder Zee, was already reincorporated with

the dominions of the prince

cient counts of Holland.
DominionK
of Charier, the Fifth.

who

represented the

an-

The whole Netherlands were

the far distant county of Burtlie

thus consolidated under the rule of Charles the Fifth.

They were united with

gundy, and with
in the
it

they formed

Burgundian. circle

new

division of the Empire.

The

bishopric of


DOMINIONS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH.
Luttich, whicli intersected the

299
chap.
VIII.
^-

whole southern part of

Seven-

the country, remained in the circle of Westfalia.

'^

teen piovinces, each keeping

much
fi'ce

of separate beino-, The

seven-

were united under a

treaty of Madrid,
sions

single prince,

and,

since

the

teen provinces.

they were

from any preten-

on the part of foreign powers.

The NetherEmperor who

But the
final Their
tiie

lands formed one of the most compact and important

parts of the scattered dominions of the

was

also lord of

Burgundy and

Castile.

sepa-

union of these lands under the direct dominion of an

Em-

Emperor
sessions

at

once led to their practical separation from

the Empire.

They

passed, with all the remaining posto Philip

ThepossesI'hiiip of

and claims of the Burgundian House,

of Spain, and they were reckoned

distant

among the crowd dependencies which had come under the rule
less as

of of

Spain. loos-

the crowns of Castile and Aragon.

In Spanish hands

they acted

a middle state than as a

sides.

power which

helped to

hem in France on both

ended

Had

the great

revolt of the Netherlands

in the final liberation

of the whole seventeen provinces, the middle state would

have been formed in

its full

strength.
_

As

it

was, the The War of

Indepen-

work

of the

War

of Independence was imperfect. i ^

The
re-

^J^nce.

l.OGa-1609.

northern provinces

won

tlieir

freedom in the form of

a federal commonwealth.

The southern provinces

to

mained dependencies of Spain,

fighting

become the

cliosen

ground of European

aa^mies, the

chosen plaything

of European diplomacy.

The end of
the

the long

war of independence waged by

northern provinces was the establishment of the

The Seven
Provinces.

famous federal commonwealth oixh^ Seven United Provinces,

Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, OverFriesland,

Yssel,

and

Groningen.

These answered

nearly to the dominions of the Counts of Holland and

300
CHAP.
VIII
Gelderlatid.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

Bishops
of Utreclit
in

earlier

times.

But besides

these, part of the

duchy of Geldern formed one of the

its

United Provinces, while

fate

southern part shared the

But,
besides

of the

southern

provinces.

the

United Seven, the Confederation also kept parts of

Brabant, Geldern, and Flanders
sions.

as

common

possesso long

The power thus formed, one which

had under Burfrimdian
*"
. .

held an European importance quite disproportioned to

Formal
of the
1648.
in-

its

gcograpliical cxtcut,
.

rule beit

dependence

Em-

comc

practically independent of the Empire, but

its

was

only by the Peace of Westfalia that

independence
strength of

was formally acknowledged.

the Confederation
It

The maritime

made it more than an European power.

in three parts of the world.

became a colonizing power

In the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth cencoioniesof the Netherlands.

turics,

tlic

Scvcu Proviiiccs extended their dominion

points on
tlie

Qver

many

continent of India and over

the neighbouring island of Ceylon^ over the great equatorial islands of

Java^ Sumatra^ and the Moluccas, over

many
New
Netherland
passes to
^

points in Guinea and southern Africa, and over

part of
Xortli
to

Guiana
_

in

South America.

g-reat But the "

>-

England.
i^*^"*-

Amcricau settlement of

New

Netherland passed
York.

England, and

New Amsterdam became New

Singularly enough, this great

No
real

power never had any

Countries and not the

strict
it

geographical name.
ill

Netherlands was too large, as

the county,

took

tlic

wliolc of the

Low

emancipated provinces only.

as

Holland was too small,

being the name of one province only, though the

greatest.
Use
of the

And, by one of the oddest cases of caprice

name
Dutch.

in of language, ^
.

common

English usage the

name

of the
.

whole Teutonic race settled

part of
it,

down on

this

one small
to

and the men of the Seven Provinces came

be exclusively spoken of as Dutch.

'

THE UNITED AND THE SPANISH NETHERLANDS.

Meanwhile the southern provinces, the
.

301
chap.
viii.
"

crreater part
''

of Brabant and Flanders, with Artois, Henneojau or

The Span-

Hainaidt,

Namur,
of

Limburi:^,

Luxembiirs;,
in

and

the
at

ishXetheriots-itog.

southern part

Geldern,

one end and Cambray

at the

taking Antwerp other remained under

their southern

the sovereignty of the representatives of the Burgun-

dian Dukes.

That

is,

they remained an outlying de-

pendency of the Spanish monarchy. But

France. Dunkirk indeed was for a
land, as Calais

frontier was open to constant aggressions on the part of

moment

held by Eng-

Dunkirk
En^dniid. lO;-; 8-1 662. cession of parts of Ar^"'^ '^^^^ of
(iravelines,
^^-''-^
'

and Bouloojne had been

1

By
"^

the Peace of the Pyrenees France obtained Arras

i=>

and the
Spain.

crreater part leavinor of Artois, i ' O

...
also

in earlier times.

Saint

Omer

to

France also began to work her way up along

the coast of Flanders, taking Gravelines

by

virtue of

Dunkirk,
'

the treaty, and presently adding Dunkirk

by purchase
to

from

England.

The

treaty

added

France

several points along the frontiers of Hainault, Liege,

and Luxemburg, including the detached

Philipj^eville

fortresses of
phiiippe-

and Marienhurg^ and Thionville famous

in far earlier days.

Durmg

the endless wars of Lewis'

enbuVi,""*

reign,

tlie

boundary fluctuated

with

each

treaty.

Acquisitions were

made by France

at the

Treaty of
i6G8.
ir,?;.

Aix-la-Chapelle,

some of which were surrendered, and others gained, by the Peace of Mmwegen. At last the
w^as finally fixed
^

boundary
the
last

by the Peace of Utrecht

in iixedbyThe
l*ti;^CG

of

days of Lewis.

Parts of Flanders and Hainault

utrecnt. 1713.

were
Lille,

finally

confirmed to France, which thus kept

Cambray, and Valenciennes. The provinces which

to

had hitherto been Spanish now passed

surviviug branch of the

the only TheSpa"heriands

House of Austria,

that which

reigned in the archduchy and supplied the hereditary

candidates
for

Austria.

the

Empire.

The

first

wars of the

302

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

French Eevolution added the Austrian Netherlands to
France, and witli them the bishopric of Liittich which
still

so oddly divided them.

later stage of the

days

of

confusion

changed the Seven United Provinces,

the

enlarged by
Kiiipdom
of Holland.

addition of East

Friesland, into a

Kingdom

of Holland^ one of the states which the

new

1806-1810.

conqueror carved out for the benefit of his kinsfolk.

Presently the

Holland annexed by
France. 1810-1813.

new kingdom was

it.

incorjDorated with the

new

'

Empire,' along with the

German

lands

to

the

north-east of

The Corsican had

at last carried out

the schemes of the Valois kings, and the whole Burgun-

dian heritage formed for a

moment

part of France.

At
as a

the general settlement of Europe, after the long

wars with France, the restoration of the IjOw Countries

Kinffdom
of the

middle

state

was a main

object.

This was brought

Netherlands.

about by the union of the whole Netherlands into a single

1814.

kingdom bearing

that name.

did not differ very greatly

The southern boundary from that fixed by the

Savoyard frontier,

Peace of Utrecht. As
The boundaries.

in the case of the

France kept a

little

more by the arrangements of 1814

than she finally kept by those of 1815.

To

the east,

East-Friesland. passed to Haimover, leaving the

boundary

of the

new kingdom not very

powers which

different
it

from that of

the two earlier

Incorporation of Liittich.

represented, gaining

only a small territory on the banks of the Maes.

But

the bishopric of Luttich was incorporated with the lands

which

it

had once parted asunder, and so ceased

alto-

gether to be German ground. The new king, as we have already seen, entered the German confederation in liis
Grand Duchy of

character of Grand

Dnke of Luxemburg, the duchy being

to the east in favour of Prussia.

Luxemburg.

somewhat shortened

Lastly, after fifteen years of union, the

new kingdom again

KINGDOMS OF THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM.

split

303
^.?,jjP'

asunder.

It

was now divided

into the

kingdom
to the

of the Netherlands, answering to the old United Provinces,

,^::

and the kingdom of Belgium, answering

to the northern kingdom,

"sS-i^ssh"
|;"^''''"V
^^'^'=='^-

old Spanish or Austrian Netherlands. But part of Lim-

burg remained

and

its

sovereign

also kept part of

Luxemburg,

as a distt ict state, forming

part of the

German

confederation.

of the duchy formed part of the

The western part kingdom of Belgium.

they
the
i867.

Later events, as has been already recorded, have severed

the

last tie

between Germany and the Netherlands

last survival

have wiped out the

of the days

when

Counts of Holland and of Luxemburg were ahke princes

of the

German kinsdom. o
pass as a sketch of the fluctuations
Effects of Burt^uii-

The above may

along the borderland

their

European

aspect.

It is dianruie.

needless to go through every small shifting of frontier,

or to recount in detail the history of small border principalities like

Saint Pol and Bouillon.

is

The main

his-

torical aspect of these countries

all ages, to

their tendency, in

form somewhat of

middle system between

two greater powers on

trality of

either side of them.

The gua-

ranteed neutrality of Belgium and the guaranteed neuSwitzerland are alike survivals or revivals

it is

hard to say which they should be called

of

the instinctive feeling which, in the ninth century, called the Lotharingian

kingdom

into being.

The modern

form of

this

thousand-year old idea was made possible

through the growth of the power of the Burgundian

Dukes of

tlie

House of

Valois.

The
done

real historical

in those parts

work of those dukes was thus of their dominions from which

they did not take their name, but which took their

304
CHAP,
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

name from them.
nions

The

history of their other domi;

may

be told in a few words

indeed a great part

of Charles

Schemes of
Bold.

of

it

has been told already.

The schemes
for

the Bold for uniting his scattered dominions

by the conroyal Bur-

quest of the duchy of Lorraine,

extending the
tlie

])ower thus formed to the sea-board of

gundy, for forming in short a middle kingdom stretching from the Ocean to the Mediterranean, acting as a
barrier alike between France

and Germany and between

France and

Italy,

remained mere schemes.

They

are

important only as showing

how

deeply the idea or the

fixed in men's minds.
purcliases

memory of a middle
The conquests
in Elsass,

state

was

still

of Charles in Lorraine, his

were momentary possessions which hardly

touch geography.

But the

fall

of Charles, by causing

the break-up of the southern dominion of his house,

helped to give greater importance

dominion.

to

its

northern

While the Netherlands grew

split

together, the

Burgundies
fate of the fate

asunder.

After the

fall

of Charles the

two Burgundies was much and

;

the same as the

for a while
after-

of Flanders

Artois.

Both were

seized

by France

but the county, like Artois, was

wards recovered

for a season.
;

The duchy

of

Burgundy

was

lost for ever

the county, along with the out-

lying county of Charolois, remained to those

who by
Dukes,

female succession represented the Burgundian

that
is

to Charles the Fifth

and

his

Spanish son.

The
it

annexation of the Burgundian county, and with

the city of Besan^on, by Lewis the

of

Fourteenth has

been recorded in an

earlier section.


ORIGIN OF AUSTRIA.

'

305

9. The Dominions of Austria.

We

now come
has

to
off

one anions^ these German

.

states
-^

chap.
VIII.
>

which have parted

from the kingdom of Germany

widely different

whose conrse
rest,

been

from

the

and whose modern European importance stands

level.

on a widely different
Frisian

As

the Lotharingian
north-w^est of

and
the

lands parted off

on the

kingdom,
off

as a large part of the

Swabian lands parted

no

to the south-Avest of the

kingdom, so the Eastern

off'

Mark, the mark of Austria, parted

with

less,

but
Origin of
the

widely different consequences.

.

Austria, Oesterreich
it

Ostrich
-V

The name of
wrote
the
for

name

as our forefathers

Ovstendch,
Austria.

-,

is,

naturally

enough,

common name
;

eastern part of any kingdom.

of the Merwings had of the

.

its

Austria

The Frankish kingdom the Italian kingdom

other lands
so called.
.
.

Lombards had its Austria also. We are half mciinea to wonder that the name was never given m
-,

111

our

own

island either to Essex or to East-Anglia.

But,

while the other Austrias have passed away, the Oesterreich,

the Austria, the Eastern mark, of the

its

German

kingdom,
lived

defence against the

Magyar

invader, has

on

to

our

own

times.

It

has not only lived on,

but

it

has become one of the chief European powers.

has become so by a process to which
parallel.
it

And
plied
so
ter

it

would
sup-

Special
jjosition of

be hard to find a

The Austrian duchy

the

aus-

Germany with so many Kings, and Eome with many Emperors, that something of Imperial characcame
to cleave to the
first,

pt.wer.

duchy

itself.

Its

Dukes, in
all

resigning,

the crown of Germany, and then

connexion with Germany, have carried with them into

their

Caesars,

new position the titles and bearings of the German The power which began as a mark against X

306
the

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

Magyar came to have a common sovereign with and the Austrian duchy and the Magyar kingdom Magyar kingdom, each drawing with it a crowd of
;

smaller

states

of endless nationalities,

have figured

together in the face of

modern Europe

as the Austrian
It
is

Empire
'

or the A^isiro-Hung avian Monarchy.

not easy, in drawing a map, to find a place for the

The
socalled 'Empire of
'

Empire

'

of Austria.

The Archduchy

is

there,

and

its

sovereign has not dropped his archiducal

title.

A crowd

Austria.

of kingdoms, duchies, counties, and lordships.all acknow-

ledging the sovereignty of the same prince, are there

also.
'

But

it is
'

not easy to find the geographical place of

as distinct

an Empire of Austria,

from the Archduchy.

Nor
'

is

it

easy to

understand on what principle an

in all

Empire' of Austria can be understood as taking

the states

which happen

to

own

the Hungarian

King

and Austrian Archduke

is

as their sovereign.

The matter

when we remember that the title of Hereditary Emperor of Austria was first taken while its bearer was still King of Germany and Eoman made more
'

difficult

'

Emperor-elect.
Union
states

But, putting questions like these aside,

of

the gradual union of a great

number

of states,

German
call the

separate

and non-German, under the common

rule of the archi-

under the
Austrian House.

ducal house of Austria, by whatever name

we

power

so formed,

is

a great fact both of history and of

originally independent

geography.

number of states,

of one another, differing in origin and language and

everything that makes states differ from one another,

some of them members of the former Empire,. some not, have, as a matter of fact, come together to form a power
which
Lack
of

fills

a large space in

modern
power
is

history and on the

whicli
is

modern map.

But

it

is

altogether

national unity.

lacking in nationtd unity. It

a power which

is

not coex-

'

SPECIAL NATUEE OF THE AUSTRIAN PO\\^R.

tensive witli any nation, but
nations.
It

307
chap.
--

which takes

in parts of many
is

cannot even be said that there

a dominant

nation surrounded by subject nations. nation in

its

The Magyar
Italians,

German,
an^i<>ti'er

unity,
^

and a frasrment of the German

*-

races.

nation, stand side

by

side

on equal terms, while

Eoumans, and Slaves of almost every branch of the

Slavonic race, are grouped around those two.
is

There

1^11 the
can any

no federal
lederal

tie

it

is
^

a stretch of lauQ-uao-e to apply No

1

name

to the present relation

between

/ the

strictiv

federaltie.

two chief powers of

Hungary and

Austria.

Nor

strictly federal tie

be said to unite Bohemia,

Dalmatia, Croatia, and Galicia.

And

yet these other

members of the general body are not mere subject provinces, hke the dominions of Old Eome. The same prince is sovereign of a crowd of separate states, two
of which stand out prominently as centres
rest.

among

the

There

is

neither national unity, nor federation, nor

or nation to another.

mere subjection of one land

this has

All

many crowns upon

it,

come by the gradual union by various means of the same brow. The result is an anomalous power which has nothing else exactly like
past or present.

Anomalous
the Tus"'*^'"^'"'

But the very anomaly makes the

growth of such a power a more curious study.

The beginnings
found in the small

of the Austrian state are to be TheEaslying between

Mark on the Danube,

its

Bohemia, Moravia, and the Duchy of Karnthen or Carintliia.

It

appears in This

first

form as an appendage

to Bavaria.^

into a

mark Frederick Barbarossa raised duchy, under its first duke Henry the Second,
was enlarged
to

and

it

the westward at the expense of

Bavaria by the addition of the lands above the Eiins.

^

See Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte,

iv. 73.

X 2

308
CHAP.
VIII.
'

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

Thus was formed the
uot louff
itself at
orit2;iual

"

Duchii of Austria,
'

the

duchy of the Dukes of the House of Babenberg.

riscii to

It

had

Austria,

ducal rank before

it

be2:an to extend

the expense of states which had hitherto been

of greater

moment than

itself.

Itself primarily a

mark
of
it

against the Magyar, Austria

had

to

the south

Duchy

of

German Kingdom marched at once upon the Magyar, the Slave, and the Kingdom Here lay the great Duchy of Carinthia, a of Italy.
the

lands where the

Cariiitliia.

land where the population was mainly Slave, though

on

this

frontier

the

Slavonic

population

had been

brought into much earlier and more thoi-ough subjection to the

eastern

German Kings than the Slaves on the At the time of the foundation frontier.
pieces,

northof the
to

duchy of Austria, the Carinthian duchy had begun

split
DuoiiYof
Stvria,
n"8():
utiit*'(l

in

and
,

its

northern part, hitherto the

into the

Upper Carinthian Mark, grew ^

erniark or Styria. ^
_

Duchy
""

of Stey,
"^

Twelve years
''
_

later,

Leopold the
_

to

^"stiia,

Fifth of Austria inherited the

duchy of
its

Styria, a

duchy
but

greater than his own, by the will of

duke Ottokar.

Carinthia

itself

went on

as a separate

duchy
the

it

now

took

in

only a narrow

territory in

south-

western part of the old duchy, and that broken up by

outlying possessions of the

archbishops of Salzburg

and

otlier ecclesiastical lords.

To

the south grew up a

The county Considerable [)ower in the

hands of the counts of

Gorz

or Gorizia on the Italian border.

The

possessions of

these counts stretched, though not continuously, from

Tyrol to

Istria,

and

their influence

was further enlarged

by their position as advocates of the bishoprics of Trent

Eociesiasii-

'i^^^

Jjri.i'eiL

aud of the more famous patriarchate of

oa^position
^^^^j,-/^,^-^^

These are the lands, the marchlands of

its

Germany towards

eastern and soudi-eastern neigh-

EARLY HISTORY OF AUSTRIA.

hours, which

309
form
tlie

came by
.

ojradual annexations to
.

chap.
^~

German
duchy

possessions of the Austrian power.

But the
till

VIII.

-^

further grow^th of that

itself

power did not begin

to the

the

had passed away

hands of a wholly

new line of princes. The first change was one which brought about for a moment from one side an union which was afterwards
"

Momentary
union of Austria and

'^

Bohemia.

to be brought about in a

more

lasting shape

from the

other side.

This was the annexation of Austria by the

kingdom of Bohemia.

That duchy had been raised

to

the rank of a kingdom, though of course without ceasing

to be a fief of the Empire, a

few

3^ears after the

mark

of

Austria had become a duchy.

The death of the

last Bohemia a
iiJ8.

duke of Austria of the Babenberg

Bavaria, Bohemia, and

line led to a disputed

succession and a series of wars, in which the princes of

Hungary

all

had
the
1

their share.

In the end, between marriage, conquest, and royal grant,

Ottokar king of Bohemia

Austria and

,.

-,,.

obtained
n

duchies

fetyria,
^

and a tew years

its
,

later

of i^T he
further

ottokarof
Biihfmia annex.s Austria

added Carinthia by the bequest of ^

Duke.

Thus a

and styria,
12.V>-l-2(i-2.

new power was formed, by which several German states came into the power of a Slavonic king. The power of that king for a moment reached the Baltic as
well as the Hadriatic
into Prussia,
;

carintiua,

for Ottokar carried his

arms

Great
])(iW(r

of

and became the founder of Konigsberg.

ottokar.

But

this great

power was but momentary.

Bohemia
lands,

and Austria were again separated, and Austria, with

its

indefinite mission of extension over so

itself,

many

including Bohemia

passed to a house sprung from

a distant part of Germany.

We

have now come to the European beginnings of

House of
'""
"'"

the second

House of

Austria, the house

whose name

310
CFIAP.
VIII.

THE IMPKEIAL KINGDOMS.

seems to have become inseparably connected with the

name
drew

of Austria, though
its

tlie

spot from which that house

name
This
this

has long ceased to be an Austrian posis

session.

the house of the Counts of Habsburg.

They took
Aargau,

name from

their castle

on the lower

course of the Aar, in the north-west corner of the

in that

southern Swabian land where the Old

to arise,

League of High Germany was presently

Habsburg.

and

so greatly to extend itself at the cost of the

Union of Habsburg, Kyburg, aud Lenzburg.

power of

By

an union of the lands of Habsburg

with those of the Counts of Kyburg and Lenzburg, a

considerable, though straggling, dominion
It stretched in

was formed.
lakes,

and out among the mountains and

taking in Luzern, and forming a dangerous neighbour

to the free city of Zurich.
Their
|)os-

Besides these lands, the same

title

house also held Upper Elsass with the

of Land-

ses^iion in

Elsass.

grave, a dominion separated from the other Swabian

lands of the
Basel.
Kudolf
king, 1273.

House by the

territory of the free city of

The

lord of this great Swabian dominion, the

to the

famous Rudolf, being chosen

German crown,

His victories over

and having broken the power of Ottokar, bestowed the

duchies of Austria and Styria on his son Albert, after-

Ottokar, 1276-1 278. Albert of

wards King.
grant
;

Carinthia at

first

formed part of the same

to

Habsburg

Duke
and
1282.

of

but

it

was presently granted

Gorz passed
Counts.

Meinhard Count

Austria
Styria.

of Gorz and Tyrol.

to another branch of

Meinhard

Duke

the house of

its

of

own

Three powers were thus

Carinthia and Count

of Tj-rol, 1286.

formed

in these

regions, the duchies of Austria

and

Styria, the

duchy of Carinthia with the county of

Tyrol, and the county of Glirz.

Scattered
territories

Thus under Albert the possessions of the House of

of the

Habsburg were

large,

but widely scattered.

The two
its

House of Habsburg.

newly acquired eastern duchies not only gave

their highest titles, but

princes
ter-

they formed a compact

THE IIABSBURG DUKES.

ritory, well

311

suited for extension

.

northward and southterritories,

ward.

But among the outlying Swabian

to the

...
;

chap.
VIH.
'

-'

though some parts remained

Austrian House
Fdiing
off

down
was

to the

end of the German Kingdom, the tendency

to diminish

and gradually
In
t]ie

to part off altogether Swabian

from Germany.

lands south of the Ehine this

in the

happened through union with the Confederates

Alsatian lands
it

happened

at

a later stage through

French annexation.
It is to

that be hoped '

it

is

needful no longer '^

to Connexion
of Austria

explain that the hereditary lands of the

House of

Ilabs-

with the

burg or Austria had no inherent connexion with the

German Kingdom and Eoman Empire

were
fiefs.

of which they
its

liefs,

beyond the

fact

that they

were among
it

They were further connected with

only by the
princes of

accident that, from Eudolf onwards,

many
tlie

that house were chosen Kings, and that, from the middle

of the fifteenth century, onwards,

all

Kings were

chosen from that house and from the house into which
it

merged by female
is

succession.

It is to

be hoped that
every

there
j)eror

no longer any need

to explain that

Emof

was not

Duke

of Austria, and that every

Duke

Austria was not Emperor.

explain that every

But

it

may

be needful to

Duke

of Austria

was not master of

the whole dominions of the

House

of Austria.

The

di-

Divisions

visions, the reunions, the joint reigns,

which are

common

House of Austria with other German princely houses, become at once more important and more puzto the

Austrin dominions.

zling in the case of a house

which gradually came

to

stand above
caution
is

all

the others in European rank.

The
be

specially needful in the case of the

is

Swabian

lands, as the history of the Confederates

liable to

greatly misunderstood,

if

every

Duke

of Austria

who

91 9

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

appears there
is

CHAP.
VIII.

taken for the sole sovereign of the

It is needless to

Austrian dominions.
all

go here through

these shiftings
all

between princes of the same house.

its

Through
sessions

changes the unity of the house and

pos-

was maintained, even while they were parted out

or held in

common by
who

different

But

it is

important to bear in

members of the mind that some

house.

of the

Dukes

of Austria

figure in the history of Switzer-

land were rather Landgraves

of Elsass or Counts of

Tyrol than Dukes of Austria in any practical sense.

The fourteenth and

fifteenth

centuries

may

be

defined as a time during which the Austrian

House on
its

the whole steadily advanced in the Eastern part of

dominions and steadily

Acquisition of

fell

back

in the Western.

But

in the course of the fourteenth century

an acquisition

Carinthia

was made which, without making them absolutely continuous, brouglit

and Tviol,
'

1335.

them

into something

more

like geo-

graphical connexion with one another.

acquisition of the

This was the

Duchy

of Carinthia and County of

Tyrol, the
Extent of the Austrian territory.

latter

of which

lands

lay

conveniently

between the Eastern and Western dominions of the house.

These now stretched continuously from the Bohemian

frontier to Istria,

and they threw

out, in the

form of

Tyrol and the Swabian lands, a scattered, but nearly

continuous, territory stretching to the borders of Lorraine

and the county of Burgundy.

The Austrian
the

possessions
atic

now touched
into

the eastern gulf of the Hadri-

and came

the neighbourhood of
later

Dal-

matian Archipelago.
Commendation of
Trieste, 1382.

the

Somewhat main Hadriatic itself, when

they reached
of Trieste,

the city

hitherto disputed between the

commonwealth of Venice
itself to
is

and the patriarchs of Aquileia, commended

the Austrian

Duke Leopold

as

its

lord.

This

the

ACQUISITIONS

AND

DIVISIONS.
later fell at

313
Sempach.
chap.
Vlll.

same Leopold who four years

By this

time the Swabian possessions had been increased

north of the Ehine, while south of the Ehine the

Austrian dominion was steadily giving way.
federates

The Conin every

and

their several cantons

advanced

way, by purchase and conquest,

till,

after the loss of

Loss of

Thurgau, the House of Austria kept nothing south

of the Ehine except
stddte.
tlie

towns known

as the

Wald- u&C

By

this

time the division of the estates of the house

lasting shape.

had taken a more

Tyrol and

One branch reigned

and
Styria, a third in
this

in Austria, another in Carinthia

the other western lands.

At

time begins

the unbroken series of Austrian elections to the

German
Albert the

and Imperial crowns.

Duke

of Austria.

The lirst was Albert the Second, Then Frederick the Third, the lirst

kini 1437JIIO. i; ''"'*'' the lliinl.

Emperor i

of the House, united the Austrian and Cariu-

thian duchies, and raised Austria to the unique rank of

kin-,M40;

an Archduchy.

Meanwhile, Siegmund Count of Tyrol

'vn'ilduke

held the western lands, and appears as

in

Duke

of Austria

^.4""*"'''

Confederate and Burgundian history.

He

there

of,^'?""/'
1429-1490.

figures as the prince

rates

who

lost

Thurgau

to the Confede-

and who mortgaged

his Alsatian lands to Charles

the Bold.

In Maximilian the whole possessions of the

house of Austria were united.

'-

But by

this

... trnie
T
1

Maxiiiiilian,

the Kingofthe
Romans,

affairs of tlie purely German lands which had hitherto formed the possessions of the Austrian house had begun
"^

1-11

mho

Archduke,
1493^^
^^
'|^^'g;.J,^_^^'

to be

mixed up with the succession

to lands

and king^Jjl;,^'?^'^-

doms beyond the Empire, and with lands which, though technically within the Empire, had a distinct being of
their

'^.-^'m
a^.'jl^ife.'^^

own.

In the course of the fifteenth century the

house of Austria, hitherto

simply one of the chief

German

princely houses, put on two special characters.

314
It
Succession of

THE IMPEEIAL KINGDOMS.

became, as

we have

already seen, the house which

exchisively supphed kinsjs and "^

Emperors
,

to
.

Germany
,
-,.

Austrian

and the Empire. ^

And it became, by
its

virtue of

Kings and
hmperors.

tary possessions rather than of ./J.

position, Im])erial i i

...
its

heredi'

one of the chief European powers.

greatest of

For a while the

European powers,
to our

it

has remained a great

time.

European power down

own

The
nexion

special feature in the history of the house of

is its

Austria from the fifteenth century onwards

concon-

a connexion more or
till

less
it

broken, but

still

stantly recurring
Unionwith
and Hungary.

in the

end

becomes

fully

perma-

ucut

witli the

kiugdoui of Bohemia within the Empire

its
'"^

and with the kingdom of Hungary beyond

.

bounds.
its

These possessions have given the Austrian power

special character, that of a

power formed by the union

distinct
tie

under one prince of several wholly

or
parts of nations

nations

which have no

beyond that

union.

The Austrian
in their

princes, originally purely Ger-

man, equally
possessions,

Swabian and

in their Austrian

had already, by the extension of

as a power, they

their

power

to the south, obtained

some Slavonic and some

were
period which begins in

Italian-speaking subjects.

Still,

purely German.
tlie fifteenth

But

in the

and goes on

into the nineteenth century,

we
Various acof Austria,

shall see

them gradually gathering

together, some-

times gaining, sometimes losing

gaining and losing

by

Gvcry proccss. Warlike and peaceful, by which territory

cau bc gained or

lost

crowd of kingdoms, duchies,

Europe from But
the acquisition of

and

counties, scattered over all parts of

it is

Flanders to Transsilvania.

the two crowns of Bohemia and

all

Hungary which, above

its

others, gave the House of Austria

special position

as a

middle po^ver, a power belonging at once to the

ACQUISITION OF FOREIGN KINGDOMS.

system of Western and to the system of Eastern Europe,

315
chap.
VIII.

Among

-,

the endless shiftings of the states which have

tosrether

-'

been massed

under the rule of the House of

at the
neigli-

Habsburg, that house has more than once been

same moment the neighbour of the Gaul and the

bour of the Turk
;

and

it

has sometimes found Gaul and

it.

Turk arrayed together against

Add

to all this that,

though the connexion between the house of Austria

and the Empire was a purely personal one, renewed

each generation by a special election,
so
still

in

the fact that

of Austria

many

kings of

Hungary and archdukes

after another,

were chosen Emperors one

house
itself,

caused the
to look

after the

Empire was abolished,

in the eyes of

many
to

like a continuation of the power

which had come

an end.

The

peculiar position of

the Austrian house could hardly have been obtained

by a mere union
rank.

of Hungary, Austria, and the other states

under princes none of

whom

were raised

to

Imperial
series of

Nor could

it

have been obtained by a

tliey

mere dukes of Austria, even though

had been chosen was through

Emperors from generation

to generation. It

the accidental union under one sovereign of a crowd of

states

which had no natural connexion with each other,

through
the further
to

and
itself

accident

that

the

Empire

seemed

become a

possession of the House,

its

that the

House of Habsburg, and

representative the
position

House of Lorraine, have won

their unique

among European powers. The first hints, so to

speak, of a

coming union

between the Hungarian and Bohemian kingdoms and

the Austrian duchy began, as
of Ottokar.

we have

seen, in the days

^

A Bohemian king had then held the Austrian

moment
occu-

duchy, while a Hungarian king had for a

316
CHAP.
V^III.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

pied part of Styria.

But the

later

form which the union

was
Kelations

to take

was not that of the Boliemian or the Hunga-

with Hungary and Bohemia.

rian reionino; over Austria, but that of the Austrian

reigning over

Hungary and Bohemia.

The duchy was

;

not to be added to either of the kingdoms

but both

kinijdoms were in course of time to be added to the

ducliy.

The growth
will

of both

Hungary and Bohemia

as

kingdoms

be spoken of elsewhere.

We

have now
House.

to deal only with their relations to the Austrian

Eiidolf, sou of Albert, Kiiij;' of

For a moment, early

in

the fourteenth century,

first

an

Austrian prince, son of the

Austrian King of Geras

Bohemia,
1S06.

many, was actually acknowledged

King of Bohemia.

But

this

connexion was only momentary.

The
later.

first

beginnings of anything like a more permanent con-

nexion begin a hundred and thirty years

Albert the
tSecoiid,
Kijiij;

The
the
his

second Austrian King

of

Germany wore both

of

Hungarian and the Bohemian crowns by virtue of

Siegmund.

Huiifiary

and Bcihemia,
14ci8.

marriage with the daughter of the Emperor and King

The

steps towards the union of the various

Siegniund,

crowns are now beginning.

Siegmund was the

third

King
lb86;

of

Ilungavv,

King

of

Bohemia who had worn the crown of Germany,

King of the Romans,

1414;

the second

who had worn

moment

the crown of the Empire.

Under
were

his son-in-law,

Hungary, Bohemia, and Austria

united with the

King
1419;

of

Bohemia,
Emperor,
14S3.

for a

German crown
lasting

in the next reign, as

we have

seen, begins the

connexion between Austria and the Empire.

But the

Hungarian and Bohemian kingdoms parted

Wladislaus

again.

One

Austrian King, the son of Albert, reigned at least nominally over both kingdoms, as well as over the special

rostumus

Duke

of

Austria,

1440-1457

Austrian duchy.

But the

King of Hungary
and Bohemia,
14.53-1457.

another eighty years.

final union did not come for The Turk was now threatening

and conquering.
kingdoms,
fell

At Mohacz Lewis, king of the two His Bohemian before the invaders.
to

kingdom passed

Ferdinand of Austria, and from that

'

UNION WITH HUNGARY.

day to
^

317
chap.
VIII.
~

tliis,

unless
.

we

except the momentary choice of

.

the Winter King, the Palatine Frederick, the Bohemian

crown has always stayed ^

^
. ,

in the

House of

Austria.
*^

And

Archduke'
uf Austria.

for

o-enerations it has been worn by the actual i.^is; Kin?: ofHuneary ^^.<^ Boiie-the Austrian sovereign of archduchy. ^ ^ mia, 152/ The acquisition of the crown of Hungary was of |^^"4*^'^^
'
_ .

many

greater importance.
into a wholly

It at

once put the Austrian House

;

Emp^ror-

new

position

it

gave

it

its

new

later permanwft
BohTmla.
Effects of

character of a middle state between Eastern and Western Europe.

The duchy had begun

as a

mark
Ions;

against

the Turanian and heathen invaders of earlier times,

witiin'uu-

Those Turanian and heathen invaders had

settled

before
lat-

down

into a Christian

kingdom

they had

terly

become the foremost champions of Christendom against the Turanian and Mahometan invaders who had
seized
tlie

throne of the Eastern Csesars.

With

tlie

crown of Hungary, the main duty of the Hungarian

crown, the defence of Christendom against the Ottoman,
passed to the Archdukes and Emperors of the Austrian
Mission

Turk.

House.
imperfect

But

for

a long time

Hungary was a most

its

and precarious possession of and

Austrian

The Austrian kings '" ^^"-

Kings.

For more than a century and

a lialf after the

election of Ferdinand, his rule

that of his successors

was disputed and

greater part of the

partial.

They had from

rival

the very

i526-i699.

beginning to strive against

kings,

Avhile

the

kingdom and of the lands attached to the crown was either held by the Turk himself or by princes who acknowledged the Turk as their
superior lord.
as the

These

strictly

Hungarian

affairs, as

well

changes on the frontier towards the Turk, will

It

be spoken of elsewhere.

was not

till

the eighteenth
full

century that the Austrian Kings were in

sion

possesall
its

Peace of

of the whole

Hungarian kingdom and

wUzfms.

dependencies.

THE
CHAP.
VIII.
Acquisition
of (iijrz, 1500.

rjVIPERIAL KINGOMS,

Meanwhile the Austrian power had been making

advances in other quarters.

At the end

of the fifteenth

century the Austrian possessions at the north-east of

the Hadriatic were greatly enlarged by the addition of
the county of Gorz, which carried with
city of Aquileia.
it

the fallen

A more

direct path towards Italian

dominion was thus opened.

New
tion
posito-

of

The wars of Cambray made no permanent addition

in this quarter
;

the League
to

Austrian

wards
Italy.

dominion
Aquileia,

but the master of Trieste and

whose

territory cut off Venice

from her Istrian

possessions,
Dominions
of Charles the Fifth.

might already almost pass for an Italian

sovereig^n.

Under Charles the

Fifth

the

House of

Austria became, as
Italian dominion.

we have
But
after

seen, possessed of a vast

him

it

passed

away

alike

from the Empire and the German branch of the house,

to

become part of the heritage of the Austrian Kings of Spain. It was not, as we have already seen, till the beginning of the eighteenth century that either an

Austrian
rule in Italy.

Empefluctu-

ror or a reigning archduke again obtained any territory

within the acknowledged bounds of Italy.

ations of Austrian rule in Italy,

The

from the acquisition of

the

Duchy

of Milan

down

to our

own

day, have been

already told in the Italian section.

Lombardy and
still still

Venetia are

now

again Italian

but Austria

keeps keeps

the north-eost corner of the great gulf.

She

Gorz and Aquileia, Trieste and

on Italian ground
Burgundian
possessions.

all Istria,

lo say nothing
still

of the dangerous way which her

in the land of

frontier

stretches

Trent and Eoveredo.

al)ide as traces of the
its

These

last

named

possessions

still

Maximilian and Philip.

Austrian advance in these regions, and

fluctuations
facts

there have been among the most important

of

modern

history.

Another
of

series of

Austrian acquisi-

tions in the

West

Europe have altogether passed

"

BURGUXDIAX, ITALIAN, AND POLISH POSSESSIONS.

away.

319
chap.
'

The great

Biirgiindiaii

inheritance passed to
for a short time,
it

the House of Austria.

in the persons of

But

it

was only

Maxiraihan and Phihp, that

was in any
After

way

united to the actual Austrian Archduchy.

Charles the Fifth the Burgundian possessions passed, like

those in Italy, to the Spanish branch of the House, and,
just as in Italy,
it

was not

till

the eighteenth century that

The ausxJtherLoss^of
^^*^^-

actual

Emperors or archdukes again reigned over a part

Before this time the Alsatian dotlie

of the Netherlands.

minion of Austria had passed away to France, and

remnant of her Swabian possessions passed away, as we

have seen, in the days of general confusion.
have been already spoken of Her acquisitions
Tlie

changes of her territory in Germany during that period

in

Eastern

Europe will come more

be given to them here.

fully elsewhere

but a word must

Looking

at

the

House of Austria

simply as a power, without reference to the

or non-German character of
Silesia
its

German
by the
Loss of
'

dominions, the loss of

may be looked on

as counterbalanced

territory gained from Poland at the first and third par- nlo! Find piirti/ mi 1 A TT titions. ihe nrst partition gave the Austrian House t'on<.f

I'olaiiil,

a territory of which the greater part was originally

i^"-^-

Eussian rather than Polish, and

in

which the old Eussian

names of Halicz and Vladimir were strangely softened

Kinqdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. The third partition added Cracow and a considerable amount of
into a

Gaiida and
Third
parti-

strictly Polish territory.

mi

These

tioM, 179f).

last

passed away,

first

to NewGalicia.

the

Duchy

of Warsaw, and then to the restored King-

dom

of Poland.

But Galicia has been kept, and

in

it

has
AnnexaCracow,

been increased
blic of

our day by the seizure of the repu-

Cracow.

These lands

lie

to the north

of the

Hungarian kingdom.

Parted from them by the whole

extent of that kingdom, and adjoining that

kingdom

at

320
CKAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

its

south-west corner

lie

the coast lands of Austria on

the Hadriatic.
Daimatia,
1797.

By

the Peace of Campoformio, Austria

took Diilmatia

strictly so called,

and the other Venetian

These lands,
lost in

Kecovered,
1814.

posscssious as far soutli as Budua.

the wars with France, were

Ragusa,
18il.

won
and

again at the Peace,

its

with the addition of

Bagum

territory.

This account of the gains and losses of a power

which has gained and

end
it

lost

in

so
It

necessary somewhat piecemeal.

to
at
tliis

many quarters is may be well then

power

section with a picture of the Austrian

stood at several points of the history of the last

a half, leaving
tlie

century and

fluctuating frontier

towards the Turk to be dealt with in our survey of the

more
Reign of Maria
Theresa, 1740-1780.

strictly

Eastern lands.

We

will

begin at a date
is

when we come

across a

sovereign whose position

stood, the

often strangely misunder-

Empress-Queen Maria Theresa

Queen

in her

own
Her
here-

right of

election of
ditarj'

Hungary and Bohemia, Empress by the The her husband to the Imperial Crown.

Pragmatic Sanction of her father Charles the Sixth

dumiuions.

made her heiress of all his hereditary dominions. That is, it made her heiress, within the Empire, of the kingdom of Bohemia with its dependencies of Moravia and
Silesia

of the

Archduchy of Austria with the duchies,

Stjnia, Carinthia, Carniola,

counties,

and lordships of

Tyrol, Gorz, and Trieste

of Constanz and a few

as also of Milan,
it

other

outlying Swabian points

Mantua, and
needs some
look

the Austrian Netherlands, lands which

stretch,

whether of memory or of legal

fiction, to

on

as being then in

any sense lands of the Empire.

it

Altogether beyond the Empire,

gave her the King-

dom

of

Hungary with

its

dependent lands of Croatia,

EXTENT OF AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS.

Slavonia,

321
These
Silesia,

and Transsilvania or

Siebenblirgeii.

chap.

hereditary dominions, lessened by the loss of

increased

by the addition of

Galicia, she

handed on

to

their later Kino's

and Archdukes.

Her
it

marrias-e transindirectly trans-

ferred those hereditary dominions,

ferring the

House The husband of Maria Theresa, Francis, who had exchanged his duchy of Lorraine for that of Tuscany, was in truth the first Lotharingian Emperor.
itself,

Empire

to a

new

family, the

of Lorraine.

After
the

him came
came
to

three

Emperors of

his house,

under

third of

whom

the succession of Augustus and

Charles

an end.
another view of the Austrian territory AuMnau
inTisii"

We may take
at the
its

moment when the French power in Germany was The Eoman Empire and the German kingat dom had now come to an end but their last sovereign
height.
;

still,

with whatever meaning, called himself Emperor of

his archduchy,

though without dropping

his

proper

title

From this time the word Austria but inaccurately, to take in all commonly used, And, as all possessions of the House of Austria.
of Archduke.
possessions of the

Avas xe,v

use

the the

Justria!'

phically

House of Austria were now geogracontinuous, it became more natural to speak of

it

them by a single name than

ions of that house in Italy

had been when the domin-

and the Netherlands lay apart

territory.

from the great mass of Austrian

And

at this

moment, when the Empire had come

the
there was no distinction between

to

an end and when

German Confederation had not

lands.
it

yet been formed,

German and non-

German

The 'Empire' of Francis the Second

or First, as

stood at the time of Buonaparte's greatest

power, had, as compared with the hereditary dominions

of Maria Theresa, gone through these changes.

Tyrol

99
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPERIAL

IvINGDOMS.
to other

and the Swabian lands had passed

princes
;

German
In
lost,

Salzbnrg had been

won and

lost again.

Italy the Venetian possessions

had been won and

and they, together with the older Itahan possessions of

Austria,

had passed
her

to the

French kingdom of

Italy.

France

in

own name had encroached on

two
ends.

the Aus-

trian dominions at

She had absorbed the

the newly

Austrian Netherlands at one corner,

territory of Dalmatia at another.

won

This

last territory,

with parts of Carinthia and Carniola, and with the

Hungarian kingdom
ing to France, the
Illyrian

of

Croatia, received,

on pass-

name
the

of the Illyrian Provinces.

they were in

widest

and most purely

geographical sense of that

the
Illyrian

name.

But

this

use of

name was

confusing and misleading, as

tending to put out of sight that the true representatives

of the old Illyrian race dwell to the south, not only of

Carinthia and Carniola, but of Dalmatia

itself.

The

loss of the Austrian possessions in this quarter brought

back the new Austrian 'Empire'

original Austrian duchy.
It

to the condition of the

became
sea- coast

a wholly inland

dominion, without an inch of

Austria at
the peace. 1814-5.

anywhere.

We
her
lost

have already seen

how

Austria

lost Italian

and Dalmatian

territory,

won back her and so much of

German

territory as

was geographically conon both

sides of the

tinuous.
a<xain
i;a2;iisar.ud

Eeleased from her inland prison, provided

sea-board

with a great

Hadriatic, she

now

refused to Eagusa the restoration

of her freedom, and filched from Montenegro her hard-

won haven of Cattaro. The recovered lands formed, in the new nomenclature of the Austrian possessions, the kingdoms of Lombardy and Venice, of Illyria,
and of Dalmatia.

The

last

was an ancient

title

of the

'

AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.

Hungarian crown.

523
was a
"
'

The King-dom

of Illyria

chap.

continuation of the affected nomenclature which had

been bestowed on the lands which formed

French occupation.

it

under their

We

have already traced the driving

out of the Austrian power from

its

Lombardy and

Venetia,

momentary joint

possession in Sleswick, Holstein, and

actual change of frontier
Cracow,

Lauenburg.

The only other

has been the annexation of the inland commonwealth

of Cracow, to

match the annexation of the

sea-faring

commonwealth of Ragusa.
separated

The movement of 1848

the Austrian
partly
separation
gary, i848.

Hungary

for a

moment from
by Eussian

power.

Won

back, partly

hel]),

by

the arms of her

own

Slavonic subjects, the

till

Magyar king-

Recoveiyof
18^9^

dom remained

crushed

Austria was shut out alike

from Germany and from

Italy.

Then

arose the present

system, the so called dualism, the

is

theory of which
'

that the 'Austro-Hungarian

states

Monarchy
sovereign.

consists

of

Austro-

two

under a

common

By

an odd

Monarchy,

turning about of meanings,

Austria, once really the

Oesterreich, the Eastern land, of

Germany, has become

Neustria,
of the

in

truth

the Western

land,

the

new

arrangement.

With

the Hungarian

kingdom are
state is

grouped the principality of Transsilvania and the king-

doms of Slavonia and

Croatia.

The Austrian

made up

of Austria itself

addition of Salzburg

the

the archduchy with the duchy of Styria, the county

of Tyrol, the kingdoms of Bohemia, Galicia and Lodo-

meria, Illyria, and Dalmatia with

Ragusa and

Cattaro.
states Modom
Austria.

These

last

lands are not continuous.

Thus two

are formed.

In one the dominant

it,

German duchy has

Italian fringre

Slavonic lands on each side of

and an

on

its

coast.

In the other

state,

the ruling

Magyar
Slave,

Moriem
'^"^*''^-

holds also

among

the subjects of his

crown the

3^4
CHAP.
VIII.

THE IMPEEIAL KINGDOMS.

the

Eoiiman, and

the

outlying

Saxon of Siebenarrangements of

biirgen.
all

Add

to this that the latest

have added to the Austrian dominions, under the

phrase
of
'

diplomatic
Herzegovi-

administration,'

the

Slavonic

lauds of Herzegoimia and Bosnia, while the

of Dalmatla
is

kingdom
basis,

andSpizza,

increased by the harbour of Spizza.

power

like this,

which

rests

on no national

but

which has

been simply patched together during a

space of six hundred years by this and that grant, this

and that marriage,

this

and that

treaty,

is

surely an

anachronism on the face of modern Europe.

Germany
Austria,

and

Italy are

nations

as well

as powers.

changed
Neustria

from

the

Austria
is

of Hungary,

Germany into the simply a name without a

of

We
states

have thus gone

through

the

geographical

changes of the three Imperial kingdoms, and of the

and powers which were formed by parts of those

falling

kingdoms

away, and in some cases uniting them-

selves with lands

beyond the Empire.

They have

all

to

some extent kept a common history down

time.
off

to our

own

We have now

to turn to another laijd

which

parted

from the Empire in like manner, but which

parted off so early as to become a wholly separate and

rival land,

with an altogether independent history of

its

own.

325

CHAPTEE

IX.

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

The

process

by which a great power grew up

to the

origin and
France.

west of the Western Empire has something in

common

with the process by which the powers spoken of in the

later sections of the
last

Chapter

split

off

from the

Western Empire.

As

in the case of Switzerland

and

the United Provinces, so in the case of France, a land

which had formed part of the dominions of Charles the

Great became independent of his successors.

As

in the
sou with
-Austria.

case of Austria to the east, so in the case of France to Compad

the west,

-a

duchy of the old Empire grew

and

into

power
to

distinct

from the Empire, and tried to attach

titles

itself
is

the old Imperial

traditions.

But
^'prent
nature
of

more than one point of difference between the i two cases. As a matter of geography, the power of the
there

5riarf "nd
Jer*rUoriel!^

Austrian house has for some centuries largely rested

on the possession of dominions beyond the boundaries

of the Carolingian Empire, while
a
it

has been only for

moment, and

that

cliiefly
itself,

by the annexation of
that

territory

from Austria

France has ever

held any European possessions beyond the Carolingian

frontier.^

But the true difference

lies

in the date

and

P'ffence
in the pro-

circumstances of the separation.

ingian, Frisian,
^

The Swabian,

Lotliar-

^eplrltion.

and Austrian lands which gradually

and
in the Ionian Islands,

Namely
p.

in the Illyrian Provinces

See above,

322.

326

THE KINGDOM OF FEANCE.

split off
'

CHAP,

from the Empire

to

form

distinct states split off

after the

Empire had been

after
,

finally

annexed

to the

crown
can

The other
powers split
oft'

of

Germany, indeed
to

Germany and
same thmg.
t
split
a^

the Empire had

i3ut in\ance t r
first

after the

comc

mean

nearly
to

tlie

Empire has become German.

hardlv be ^

said

liave

off

from the German

kingdom or from the Empire

of the Western Francia

itself.

The

prince

who

bore the kingly

title

was

indeed the

man

of the

King of the East-Franks.^ But no

lasting relation, such as afterwards

bound the princes

of the Empire to

its

head, sprang out of his homage.

Again from 887

finally

to

9G3 the Imperial dignity was not

any one kingdom.
Italy
;

attached to

It

fluctuated

between Germany and

it

might have passed to

as
it

Burgundy
The Empire divided into four

it

might have passed to Karolingia,

in the

had once already done

Bald.

person of Charles the

is

The

truer

way

of putting the matter

split

to say

that in 887 the

Empire
shape.

up

into four
.

kingdoms, of
the

kingdoms, of which
three are
^s'}j|^^^

again, and formed which three came together ^ "

Empire
Separate
^i^g

in a
;

new

The

fourth

kingdom remained
split off

reraainT
distmct.

it

can hardly be said to have

its

from

Empire, but

separation liindered the full reconIt

it

struction of the Empire.

has had a distinct

the
special
rival

liistory,

history

which
This

made

of

the

Empire.

was Karolingia, the kingdom of the

which, through
the results
of the
gi'a-

West-Franks, to
Karolingia
ri'ceivesthe name of
.

cliangc of dynasty in 987, the n m i t i dually canic to be appned.

name

of France

But there
France a
well' as "a^

is

yet another

distinction

of

greater

practical importance.

France was so early detached

Frankish dominions that
it

from the

rest of the elder

power.

was able
power.

to

form from

tlie first

a nation as well as a
at the time

Its separation
^

happened
p.

when

tlie

See above,

139.


ORIGIN OF FRANCE.

327
chap.
^
>

European nations were forming.

did

The other powers

those
nations were
sense form
strict

not spht off

till

long after
in

"

formed, and they did not

nations.
Its

any

But France
is

is

a nation in the fullest sense.

different

history

therefore

from the history of

from the

Austria, of Burgundy, of Switzerland, or even of Italy.

As a

state

which had become wholly

distinct

Empire, which was commonly

the Empire, wliich largely

the rival and

at the

enemy

of

grew

expense of the
for itself a

Empire, above

all,

as a state

which won

most

distinct national being,

France fully deserves a

Still

chapter, and not a

in

mere

section.

that chapter

is

some

sort

an appendage

to that

which deals with the

It

Imperial kingdoms of the West.

naturally follows

on our survey of those kingdoms, before we go on further to deal with the European powers which arose
out of the dismemberment of the Empire of the East.

We
'

left

Karolinfifia

or the Western
state

Kingdom ^
.

at Extont-.f
the royal at the accesParisian
Jj""'^<^*

that point
beginninof o O

where the modern French

took

its

real domain

of the house of under the kings C;

its

Paris, siono/the

Their duchy of France had since

cut short

foundation been
l:)y

by the great grant of Normandy, and

tlie

practical independence

which had been won by the

counts of Anjou^ Maine, and CJiartres.

to the
their

By their election
to

kingdom the Dukes of the French added

territory

duchy the small

which up

to that time

had

still

been in the immediate possession of the Westat

Frankish Kings

Laon.

And,-witli the

crown and the

immediate territory of those kings, the French kings

at Paris also inherited their claim to superiority over
all

the states which had arisen within the bounds of the

Western Kingdom.

But the name France,

as

it

was

Dcfiniti.-n

328
used

THE kingdo:m of France.

in the times

with which

we

are dealing,

means
use of

only the immediate territory of the King.

the

The

name
fief

spreads with every increase of that territory,

whether that increase was made by the incorporation

of a or by the annexation of territory wholly foreign

to the

kingdom.

These two processes must be careBoth went on side by side for some

fully distinguished.

centuries

but the incorporation of the vassal states

naturally began before the annexation of altogether

foreign territory.
Jj^^^^l^^

Among
r^

the

fiefs

which were gradually annexed

gradations,

distiuction uiust

bc drawn between the great princes

chiefs

who were
homage
ginal
ao;ain

really national

owing an external
lesser counts
ori-

to the

French crown, and the

whose dominions

had been

cut

off

from the

duchy of France.

And
its

a distinction must be

drawn between these

last

and the

inniiediate

tenants of the
The
i^reat

Crown within

own

domains, vassals

of the

vassaLs.

Dukc

as wcll as of the KiniT. ~

To

the

first class

belong the Dukes and Counts of Burgundy^ Aquitaine,

Toulouse,

and Flanders

to the second the Counts of

Historically, Nor^^y'^^^5 Chartres, and Champagne. ruSi^o?^' Normandy. 'jjiandi/ bclono's to tlic sccoud class, as the original

grant to Eolf was undoubtedly cut off from the French

duchy.

But the whole circumstances of the Norman

it

duchy made
isritanuy.

truly national
uiercst external

state,

owing

to the

Frcucli

crowu

tlic

homage.

Britanny.,
its

yet
puer^*^^^^

more

distinct in

every way, was held to owe

immediate homage
so-called

to the

Duke

of the Normans.
to

The

Twelve Peers of France seem

but the selection sliows

have been

devised by Philip Augustus

out of the romances of

Charlemagne
on

who were looked

in his day.

as the greatest vassals of the

crown

The

'

THE GREAT
six lay peers

FIEFS.

329
chap.
"

were the Dukes of Burgundy, Normandy,

and Aquitaine, the Counts of Flanders, Toulouse, and

Champagne.

This

last

was the only one of the

in a sense in

six

who
His

Cham-

could not be looked upon as a national sovereign.

dominions were French

which Normandy

or Aquitaine could not be called

ecclesiastical

French.
contrast

The
to

six

peers

offer

marked

the
iMflrerent

ecclesiastical electors

of the Empire.

The German

position of

bishops became princes, holding directly of the Empn^e.

the Bishops
111

LUG

ijtiSt"

But the bishops within the dominions of the great

vassals

and
ff,"

stern

of the French

crown were the subjects of

lom. '''"s^^

their

immediate sovereigns.

The Archbishop
in

of

Eouen

or the Arclibishop of
to the

Bourdeaux stood

no relation
peerage

King of the French.

The

ecclesiastical

of France consisted only of certain bishops

who were
King,

immediate vassals of the King

in his character of

among whom was only one prelate of the first rank, the Archbishop and Duke of RJieims. The others were
the Bishops and Dukes of Langres and Laon, and the

Bishops and Counts of Beauvais^ Noyon^ and Chalons.

As

the bishops within the dominions of the great feuda-

tories

had no claim

to

rank as peers of the kingdom,

neither had those prelates

who were

actually within

the King's immediate territory, vassals therefore of the

Duke

of the French as well as of the Kino;.

Thus the

Bishop of Paris and his metropolitan the Archbishop

of Sens had no place

among

the twelve peers.

1.

Incorjioration of

tJie

Vassal States.

At the accession of the Parisian dynasty, the royal domain took in the greater part of the later Isle of
France, the territory to which the old

name

specially

330
CHAP.
IX.

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

clung, the greater part of the later government of Orleans^ besides

some outlying
Within
this

fiefs

holding immediately

Chief vassals wiMiin

the royril

of the King.

territory the counties of

domain.

Clermont^ Dreux^ Moulins,

Valois,

and Gatinois, are

of the greatest historical importance.

rivers of Gaul, the Seine

Two

of the great

and the Loire, flowed througli

the royal dominions

but the King was wholly cut off

from the sea by the great feudatories

States on the Channel

who commanded
coast of
tlie

the lower course of the rivers.

nel

The

chan-

and

was held by the princes of Britanny, Normandy,

and Flanders, and the smaller county of Ponfhieu,

which lay between Normandy and Flanders and
on the

fluc-

tuated in
coast

Ocean

homage between the tAvo. The ocean was held by the rulers of Britanny, of Poitou
its

and Aquiiaine united under a

on the Mediterranean coast.

single sovereign,

and

of Gascony to the south of them.

That small part of

the Mediterranean coast

to the

which nominally belonged

Western Kingdom was held by the counts of

Neighbours
of the royal

Toulouse and Barcelona.

Of

these great feudatories, the

domain.

princes of Flanders, Burgundy,

Normandy, and Chamtlie

pagne, were

all

immediate neighbours of

King.

To

the west of the royal domain lay several states of the

second rank which played a great part in the history

Chartres

of
ties

France and Normandy.

These were the coun-

and

Biois.

1125-1162.

of Chartres and Blois, which were for a while

united with Champagne.

Anjou and
Touraine
united
1044.

Beyond these, besides some smaller counties, were Anjou and Touraine., and Maine., Thus the great borderland of Normandy and France.
surrounded by their

Maine.

own

vassals, tlie early

less

Kings of

the house of Paris had

ftu'

dealings with powers

their
to

beyond
selves

their

own kingdom than

Karolingian

predecessors.

They were thus able

make them-

the

great

power of Gaul before they stood

EARLY ADVANCES OF FRANCE.

forth on a wider field as one of the great po^Yers of

331
chap.
'

Europe.

extent of territory, the Kings o of Jhe (Jqjjj small. the French at the beginning of the eleventh century ^[^^Jj^y^!]*'

As regards O

theii^

king-

had

altogether

position

away from the commanding which had been held by the Dukes of the
fallen

French
loss

in the

middle of the tenth.

fully

But

this

seeming
fact

of

power was

outweighed by the

that

there were

now Kings and not merely Dukes, lords and no longer vassals. As feudal principles grew.
.

Advantage
of the kindly
position.

were constantly found for opportunities ^

^
"^

annexmg

the

lands of the vassal to the lands of his lord.

the end of the eleventh century the royal

Towards
First a-lvances ot
tiie

domain had

already begun to increase by the acquisition of the

Gatinois and of the viscounty of Bourges, a small part

Kings.

Gatinois.

only of the later province of Berry, but an addition

viscounty
iioo.

which made France and Aquitaine more

bours than before.

clearly neigh-

Towards the end of the twelfth

century began a more important advance to the northeast.

The

first

aggrandizement of France at the ex-

pense of Flanders was the beginiung of an important

chain of events in European history.
years of Phihp Augustus the counties of i D
'

In the early

Amiens and
was the
was
).

Amiens
and Ver"Igg"'"'*'

Vermandois were united

to

the crown, as

county of Valois two years

the
ot
c
^

later.

So

for a while

vaiois.

more important land of Artois. Later in the reign the same prince came an annexation on a lar
.

Artois.

1180-1187.

greater scale, which did not happen

till

the

first

years

of the thirteenth century, but which was the result of

causes

which

had

been going

on

ever since the

eleventh.

In the course of the

^rew

twelfth century a power up within the bounds of the Western Kingdom

SieHm.se

^^J""-

832
CHAP.
IX.

TOE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

wliicli

in extent of territory

threw the dominions of

Tlie

the French

King

into insignificance.

two great

powders of northern

and southern Gaul, Normandy and

it

Aquitaine, each carrying with

states,

a crowd of smaller

were united

in the

hands of a single prince, and

also the king of a

that a prince

who was

powerful

foreign kingdom. besides

The Aquitanian duchy contained,

fiefs,

the

county of Poitou, a number of

of

which the most important were those of Perigueux,

Limoges, the dauphiny of Auvergne, and the county of

Marche which gave kings

Union
of

to Jerusalem

and Cyprus.

Aquitaine and Gascony.

1062.

To

these, in the eleventh century, the duchy ofGascony,

its

with

subordinate

fiefs,

was added, and the dominions

of the lord of Poitiers stretched to the Pyrenees.

Mean-

Conquests of
VV'^illiam of

while

Duke William

of

Normandy, before

his conquest

Normandy. of
Ponthieu.
1056.

England, had increased his continental dominions,

by acquiring the superiority of Ponthieu and the immediate dominion, first of the small district of

Domfront

Domfront.
104S.

and then of the whole of Maine.

lost

Maine was presently

in

Maine.
1063.

by

his successor,

and passed

the end to the

lines in

TTnion of

house of Anjou.

But the union of several

Maine and
Anjou.
1110.

descent in the same person united England,

Normandy,
of the

Anjou, and Maine in the person of Henry the Second.

Dominions
of

For a moment
the

it

seemed

as

if,

instead
in

Henry

the Second.

northern and southern powers being united

sition

oppoitself

to

crown,

one of them was to be

Momentary
union of France and
Aquitaine.
1137.

incorporated with the crown.

the Seventh with

The marriage

of Lewis

Eleanor of

Aquitaine united his

kingdom and her duchy.

first

king of Paris for the

time reigned on the Garonne

Pyrenees.

and
of

at

the

foot

Their
separation. 1152.

of the

But the

divorce

Lewis and

Eleanor and her immediate re-marriage with the Duke

of

Union

of

Normandy and Count

of Anjou again severed the

'

THE ANGEVIX POWER.

southern ducliy from the

333
chap.

kingdom, and united the

great powers of northern and southern Gaul.

their

common

lord

won

a crown beyond

111

Then
sea

>

tlie

and

Aquitaine.

Normandy, and Anjim.

1152-1154.

became the

first

Angevin king of England.

practical

Another
fief

marriage brought Britanny, long the nominal

of

^[,5^"^'-

Normandy, under the

dominion of

its

Duke.

The on Gauhsh
the

House of Anjou thus suddenly rose to a dominion

soil

equal to that of the French king and

his other vassals

put together, a dominion which held

rivers,

mouths of the three great

But a favourable

and which was

further strengthened

kingdom.

by the possession of the English moment soon came which

enabled the King to add to his

greater

own dominions

the

part

of the estates of his dangerous vassal.

first

On
of

the death of Eichard,

of England and fourth

to his
claims of

Normandy, Normandy and England passed

brother John, while in the other continental dominions

of the Angevin princes the claims of his
the heir of Britanny, were asserted.
Arthiu:
.

Arthur of

nephew Arthur, The

.

Britanny.

success of
altoPossible
effects of

would have given the geography of Gaul

gether a

new

shape.

The Angevin possessions on the

by a king of England,

his success.

continent, instead of being held

would have been held by a Duke of Britanny, the

prince of a state which, though not geographically cut
off like

England, was even more foreign to France.

fall

On
all

the

of Arthur, Philip,

by the help of a

juris-

prudence devised for the purpose, was able to declare

the
fiefs

which John held of the French crown to

of his mother
Philip

be forfeited to that crown, a sentence which did not

apply to
'^

"^

the

fiefs

Eleanor.
to

In

the Annexation of

space of two
sentence
into

years
effect

was able

carry

that Normandy,
1202-1205.

everywhere on the mainland.

Continental Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraiue,

334
CHAP.
IX.

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

were joined
to the

dominions of the French crown, and

by a

later treaty they

were formally surrendered by'

John's son Henry.

these lands
Character

Poitou went with them,

this

and

all

may from

time be looked on as forming

the

part of France.

Thus

far

process of annexation

and

effects

of the an-

was
of

little

more than the

For
all

restoration of an earlier state

lands,

nexation.

things.

these

except Poitou, had

Territories
l-cept

formed part of the old French duchy.

The Kings of

by the

Enji'lish

England

still

kept the duchy of Aquitaine with Gascony.

also the insular

kings.

The Nor-

They kept
islands

Normandy, the Norman

distinct states

man

Is-

lands.

which have ever since remained

Aquitaine.

attached to the English crown.

Aquitaine was

now no

longer part of the continental dominions of a prince

who was equally at home on both sides of the Channel. It was now a remote dependency of the insular kingdom, a dependency whose great
English connexion, while
the feelings of
its

cities

clave to the

its

geographical position and

feudal nobility

tended to draw

it

towards France.
Sudden
greatness of France.

The
territory

result of this great

and sudden acquisition of

was

to

make

the

King of the French incom-

parably greater on Gaulish ground than any of his

own now

vassals.

France had now a large sea-board on

the Channel and a small sea-board on the Ocean.

And
terri-

another chain of events incorporated a large

tory with which the crown had hitherto stood in no

practical relation,

and which gave the kingdom a third

sea-board on the Mediterranean.

Fiefs of

While north-western and south-western Gaul were

in
,
,

Aragou
Gaul.

Southern

uuitcd
a

ill

tlic liaiids
_

kinor of of an insular kin";, G' the o

^

peninsular

kingdom became only

less

powerful in

south-eastern Gaul.

Hitherto the greatest princes in

'

THE AEAGOXESE POWER.

this

335

recrion
.

had been the counts of Toulouse, who,

fiefs

besides their
sions in the
Eiit

of the French crown, had also posses-

IX
^-^

chap.

Burgundian kingdom beyond the Ehone.

xourouse.

during the latter part of the eleventh century and

the beginning of the twelfth, the Counts of Barcelona,

and the kings of Aragon who succeeded them, acquired by various means a

number of Tolosan

fiefs,

both French and Imperial.

Carcassonne, Albi, and

Nunes were
crown.
to lead to
fort

all

under the lordship of the Aragonese

at first

The Albigensian war seemed

_

likely TheAiwfrensian

the establishment of the house of Mont- War.

1207-1229.

as

the chief

power

of Southern Gaid.
tlie

But the

simonof
Montfort at
Toulouse.

struggle ended in a Vast increase of

power of the

French crown,

at

the expense alike of the house of

Toulouse and of the house of Aragon.

of the Count of Toulouse were divided.
fiefs,

The dominions

number

of

Settlement

Beziers, Narhonne, Nimes, Albi,

and some other

Annexa^^'

districts,

were

at

once annexed to the crown.

its

The
fifty

b,mn*e/

capital

itself

and

county passed to the crown

ofxouiouse
^"^'^"

years later.

By

a settlement with Aragon, the domains

of the French king were increased, while the FrcDcli

kingdom
lona, '

itself
fiefs,

was nominally cut

short.

Two

of the

Roussiiion

Aragonese

the counties of Eoussillon and Barce-

lona released from

ii"'"age.

were relieved from even nominal homafxe. ^

of Toulouse, except as the

The
^

1258.

name of the city itself, now passed away, and the new acquisitions of France came in the end to be known by the name of the tongue which was common to them with Aquitaine and Imperial Under the name of LanqueBursundy. ^ o o
>/

name

Province of Languedoc.

doG they became one of the greatest and most valuable

provinces of the French kingdom.

The great growth of the crown during the reign of

Saint Lewis

was thus

in the south

but he also ex-

336

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

tended his borders nearer home.
of the
old

He won back
to

part

French dnchy when he purchased the

superiority of Blois

and Chartres,

which Perche was

off,

afterwards added by escheat.

Further

he added

Macon
passed

to the

crown, a possession whicli afterwards

away

to the

House of Burgundy.

sonthern
the

Thus, duriug the reigns of Phihp Augustus and his

graudsou, the royal possessions had been enlarged by
the annexations of two of the chief vassal states, two of

Crown

the lay peerages, annexations which gave the French

King a sea-board on two

ish peninsula.

seas

and which brought him

affairs

into immediate connexion with the

of the Span-

Later in the thirteenth century, the

marriage of Philip the Fair with the heiress of Cham-

pagne not only extinguished another peerage,

but

made
Marriage of
Fair, 1284,

the

French kings

for

awliile

actually Spanish

sovereigns,

and made France an immediate neighbour

of the

Gcrmau kingdom.
mi
i

had
p

with the
heiress of

of Navarre.

XT

Champagne and Natlicir

varre.

...
for
_

The county of Champagne two generations been united with the kingdom

These dominions were held

'-'

right oi ""

wlvcs by three kind's of France. ^

it

Then Navarre,

Separation
1328.
'
'

tliougli

passcd to

Freuch prince, was wholly

annexation gave
"^ '

separated

from France, while Champagne was incorThis

last

Unionof
pagne, lo35 in;

porated with the kingdom.

Fraucc a considerable frontier towards Germany, and

especially

tknTs'ei

brought the kingdom into the immediate

neighbourhood of the Lotharingian bishoprics.

acquisitions,

These

of

Normandy and

the

states

connected

with

it,

of Toulouse and the rest of Languedoc, and

now
Appanages,

of

Champagne, were the chief

cases of

incor-

poration of vassal states with the royal domain up to

the middle of the fourteenth century.

The mere

grants

'

EFFECTS OF THE

WARS WITH ENGLAND.

337
chap.
'

and recoveries of appanages hardly concern geography, We now turn to two great struggles which, in the
course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the

Kings of France had

vassals

to

wage with two

of their chief

who were

also

powerful foreign princes.

lu

both cases, events which seemed likely to bring about

the utter humiliation of France did in the end bring
to
it

a large increase of territory.

The former of

these struggles

was the great war

.

TheHuadred Years'

and France, called by French writers War with between Enoiand ^ England. This war might be called the Hundred Years War.
,
.

either a

war

for the annexation of

France to England

or a

war
the
'

for the annexation of Aquitaine to France.

By -

peace between Henry the Tliird and Saint

^
-^

*'

Lewis, Aquitaine became a land

held

by the

of England as a vassal of the French crown.

that time
to
it

JO
this

.the French
Aquitaine.

Desii,ms of

kinjr kings on

From
great

was one main object of the French kings

superiority

change their feudal

into

over

duchy

an actual possession.

This object had been

once obtained for a moment

Eleanor and Lewis the Seventh.
for a

by the
It

marriage

of

was again obtained

moment by
and

the negotiations between

Fair.

Edward

the Momentary
occupation

First

Pliilip the '

The Hundred Years' war

Then
title

PhiUp V the
I'air.

began through the attempts of Philip of Valois on the

Aquitanian dominions of Edward the Third.
the

i-^*-

1337.

King of England found

it

politic to

assume the

of King of France.
troversy was

But the

real nature of the con-

laso.

shown by the
in

first

great settlement.
all

At
Peace of
i^^''^-

the

Peace of Bretigny Edward gave up

claim

to the

crown of France,

exchange for the indepen-

dent sovereignty of his old fiefs and of some of his recent

conquests.

Aquitaine and Gascony, including Poitou

z

338

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

but not including Auvergne, together with the
districts

"^

CHAP,

'

on the Channel, Calais with Guines and the county of

Pimthieu, were

made over

to the

King of England withsuperiority of

out the reservation of any

kind.

homage or

any

These lands became a territory as foreign to

the French
Eenewai
of

kingdom

as the territory of her

German

aud

Spauisli ncighbours.

the war. 1370-1374.

was broken on the French

sions of

...

But

in a

few years the treaty

side,

and the actual possesto

Losses of

theEnglish.

beyond the sea were cut down England

Calais

and Guines, with some small parts of Aquitaine

adjoining the cities of Bourdeaux andBayonne.

Conquests
the Fifth.

tlic tide

tumcd

at the invasion of

Henry the

Fifth.

Then The

Treaty of Troyes united the crowns of England and

France.
Paris

TrovS.^
j^3j*

Aquitaine and JSTormandy were

won back

saw the crowning of an English

king, and only

the central part of the country obeyed the heir of

the Parisian kingdom, no longer king
of Paris
the

but

only of Bourges.
Conquest of
Aquitaine. 1451-1453.

But the

final

result of
all

war

was the driving out of the English from and France, except the
geographical aspect of the change

Aquitaine

single district of Calais.

is

The

that Aquitaine,

which had been wholly cut

the kingdom.
result of

off

from the kingdom by

the Peace of Bretigny, was finally incorporated with

The French conquest of Aquitaine, the Hundred Years' War, was in form the the
Practically
it its

conquest of a land which had ceased to stand in any

Final union
"aiite'wi'th

ftili'tion

to thc Freucli crown.

was the
greatest

incorporation w^ith
fief,

the French crown of

balanced by

the loss of a small territory the value

all

of which w^as certainly out of

graphical extent.

proportion to

its

geo-

In

its

historical aspect the

annexation
first fore-

of Aquitaine was something yet more.

The

shadowing of

the modern French kingdom was made


THE BURGUNDIAN POWER.
by
to

339
chap.
IX.
-^

the addition of Aquitaine to JSTeustria, of southern

northern

GauL^

Now,

after so

many

strivings,

^^^

the two were united for ever.

in France.

Aquitaine was merged

The grant
in

to Charles the

Bald took

effect
Beginnin;,^

after six

hundred years.
from

France, in the sense which

use,

the

word bears

modern

may
of

date

its

complete
to

modeni

Kingdom of

existence

the

addition

Bourdeaux

the

France.

dominions of Charles the Seventh.

Thus, in the course of somewhat
less

than four

hundred

years, the conquest of

England by a vassal of
sovereign ^ of England O
all

France, followed by the union of a crowd of other French

fiefs

in the hands of a
^

common

the
'^

Growth of Dukes
^l^''-

and Normandy, had led to the union with France of

the
continental
possessions of

gundy.

the prince

who

thus

reigned on both sides of the

sea.

Meanwhile, on the

eastern side of the kingdom, the holder of a great French

fief

swelled into an European power, the special rival of

his

French overlord.

The duchy

of Burgundy, granted

Esohe.nt of
ot

to a branch of the royal house in the earliest days of

buT-'^

the Parisian kingdom, escheated to the crown in the

isei."'

fourteenth century, and was again granted out to a son

of the reigning king.

Phn'ip^he
1.364.^'

series of marriages,

pur-

chases, conquests, transactions of every kind, gathered

^.^

y"|^,^"'

together, in the

hands of the Burgundian dukes, a

^"''^'*"

crowd of

fiefs

both of France and of the Empire,the county of Charolois,

The duchy of Burgundy with

under a

and the counties of Flanders and Artois, were joined

common ruler with endless Imperial fiefs in the Low Countries and with the Imperial County of Burgundy. More than this, under Philip the Good
^

the^Somme^.

See above,

p.

135

See above,

p.

292.

)40

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

and Charles the Bold, the Burgundian
frontier

was

more than once advanced

to the

was separated from the crown.

the Bold laid his dominions
ation both
frontier.

Somme, and Amiens The fall of Charles

open to French annex-

on the Bnrgundian and on the Flemish

first

In the

moments of
fiefs

his success,

Lewis

the Eleventh possessed himself of a large part of the

Imperial as well as the French

of the fallen Duke.

But
Treaty of
Arras.
1435.

in the

end Flanders and Artois remained French

fiefs

held by the House of Burgundy, which also kept

the county of
Charolois.

Burgundy and the

isolated county of

But France not only

finally

recovered the

Incorporation of the (luehy of

towns on the Somme, but incorporated the Burgundian duchy, one of the greatest
fiefs

of the

crown.

lUirgundy.
1479.

This was the addition of a territory which the kings of

French advance to
the east.

France had never before ruled, and

portant stage in
the

it

marks an im-

advance of the French power

its

towards the Imperial lands on

the marriage of
Austria, the

eastern border.

By

Mary

of

Burgundy and Maximilian of

remains of the Burgundian dominions

passed to the House of Austria, and thereby in the

end to Spain.
for a
Flanders ;ind Artois
relieved

The

result

was that a French king had

for his vassal in his character

moment an Emperor

of Count of Flanders and Artois.

But by the treaty of

all

Madrid Flanders and Artois were relieved from

from homage.
1525.

homage

to France, exactly as Aquitaine

had been by
lands wholly

the Peace of Bretigny.

They now became

foreign to France, and, as foreign lands, large parts of

them were afterwards conquered by France, just as But the history of their acquisition Aquitaine was.
belongs to the story of the advance of France at the

expense of the Empire.

Thus, by the end of the reign of Lewis the Eleventh,


ANNEXATION OF BPJTANNY.
all

'

341

the

fiefs

of the French

crowu which could make

any claim

to

the character of separate sovereignties

IX.
^

chap

had, with a single exception, been added to the dominions of the crown.

that

The one which had escaped was one which, more than any other, represented a
t^

"^" ^}^^ ,. great nets

"xcept^'^

nationahty altogether distinct from

that
its

of

France.

^"f^^'-

Britanny

still

remained
of
its

distinct

under

own Dukes.
1491-1499;
incorpoted 15S2.
_

The marriaws ^
sive

Duchess Anne

with two succes-

and Lewis the Charles the Eig-hth Twelfth, added Britanny to France, and so completed
French
kincfs, '

the

work.

The

Avhole

of

the

Western Kingdom,

except those parts which had become foreign ground

that
is

to

say, insular

lona, Flanders,

Normandy and GalaiSj Barceand Artois was now united under the

kings of Paris,

Their duchy of France had spread

its

power and
have now
w^hich

its

name over

the whole kingdom.

We

to see

how

it

also spread itself

over lands

had never formed part of that kingdom..

2.

Foreign Annexations of France.

finally parted off

Wlien the Western Kingdom

the

from

Foreign
of Karor"^*

body of the Empire,

to the south.

its

only immediate neighbours

to the east,

were the Imperial kingdoms

and the Spanish

imped^i
Spanish
"*^'^'
"!"^'''

kingdoms
England ^

in

some

sort

The union of Normandy and made England and France immeo

the long retention of Aquitaine

England.

diate neighbours.

And
yea,rs

by England,

the English possession of Calais for

more

than two hundred

and of the insular Normandy

all

down
so.

to our

own

day, have

tended to keep them

Smaii aoquisitions of France
_

But the acquisitions of France from England, and ^

in its character as Spain, ^

from Spain, ^
_

have been com_

from Eng^"jIIj;''"'^

paratively small.

Indeed the separation of the Spanish

342
CHAP.
'
'

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

'

March and the

to turn

insular

the balance the

Normandy may be thought From England other way.

Calais, territories

France has won Aquitaine and

which

had once been under the homage of the French King.

Eniriish

So

in

the

sixteenth

century Boulogne was

a<]^ain
;

lost

to

conquest of
iv.uiosne.

1544-1550

England and won back

. .

so in the seventeenth

century Dunkirk, which had become an English posses1663.

sion,

was made over

to France.

Since the final loss

of Aquitaine, the wars between England and France

have made most important changes in the English and

French possessions
they have had no

in distant parts of

the world, but

effect

on the geography of England,

and very

little

on that of France.

Nearly the same

j-Jcimdary of the

may be
^

said
J-

of the geographical

rclatlons

bctwccn France and

Si:ain.

The
Spain

long^

wars

Tyrenees.

bctweeu thosc couutrics havc added

P^^^ ^^
^^^*^

to

France a large
;

Srshift""'
*g^-

outlying dominions of

but they

have not greatly affected the boundaries of the two

countries themselves.
is

The only important exception

the land which

the county of Roussillon,

Aragon
United

kept on the north side of the mountain range.

i.'inaiiy

to

Fraucc by Lewis the Eleventh, given

it

back
to

by

iSr'''

Charles the Eiglith,

was

finally

annexed

France

by the Peace of the Pyrenees.

territory has
Navnrro
north of the Pyrenees,

Towards the other end

of the mountain frontier, a small portion of Spanish

been annexed to France, perhaps quite

Tlic old kiuf^dom of
-

uuconsciouslv.
.

Navarre.

tlioui>;h

it lay cliiefly soutli

.
,
.

of the Pyrenees, contained a small

territory to the north.

The

accidents of female suc-

cession
Union
of

had given Navarre

France, and in

more than one King of the person of Henry the Fourth the
to
_

1 ranee and

Xnvaire.

crowu of Fraucc passed

held

to a his

Kins of Navarre who

only the part of

kingdom north of the

'

DEALINGS ^^TH ENGLAND AND SPAIN.

Pyrenees.
This
little

343

piece of Spain within the borders

of Gaul was thus united with France.

On

the other

chap.

hand, the Kings of France, as successors of the Counts

of Foix, and the other rulers of France after them,

have held, not any dominion but certain rights as

advocates or protectors, over the small commonwealth
oi Andorra on the Spanish side of the mountains.
Protector-

Andorra.

Of

far greater

importance
at the
,

is

the steady acquisition Advance

of the

at

of territory

by France
the

expense of the Imperial

.

Imperial

kmgdoms, and of

modern

states

by which those

kingdoms.

kingdoms are represented.

In the case of Burgundy,

Burgundy.

French annexation has taken the form of a gTadual

swallowing up of nearly the whole kingdom, a process

which has been spread over more than

years,

five

hundred
isio-isoo.

from the annexation of Lyons by Philip the Fair

to the last annexation of

Savoy

in our

own

day.
<-'

The
Annexitions from

advance at the expense of the German kingdom did *

not begin
till

the greater part

of

the Burgundian

^^^/^-r'li

kingdom was
little

already

swallowed

up.

The

northLate beginning of annexations from

eastern frontier of the

Western Kingdom changed but

. .

from the accession of the Parisian house

till

in the

tenth century

the growth

of the

Dukes of Burfinally

Germany,

gundy

in

the

fifteenth.

After Lotharingia

became a part of the Eastern Kingdom, there was no

doubt that the homage of Flanders was due to France,

no doubt that the homage of the

states

which had

formed the Lower Lotharingia was due to the Empire.

The

frontier

towards the Upper Lotharingia and the

also

Burgundian county

remained untouched.
after
this

The
the
latter

Saone remained a boundary stream long

Rhone had ceased

river

to

be one.

It

was on

that

the

great

Burgundian

annexations

of

344
CHAP.

THE KINGDOM OF FEANCE.

France began, annexations which gave France a wholly

new European

position.^

The

acquisition of the

Dau-

phiny of Viennois made France the immediate neigh-

bour of Italy the acquisition of Provence

;

at

once streng-

thened

this last position

and more than doubled her

to this that,

Mediterranean coast.

Add

though France

and the Confederate

territory did not yet actually touch,

yet the Burgundian wars and

many

other events in the

latter half of the fifteenth century enabled France to

establish

close

connexion with the power which

had grown up north of Lake Leman.

France had

thus become a great Mediterranean and Alpine power,

ready to threaten Italy in the next generation.

acquisitions within the old border of the
Annexations at the expense of

Later

Burgundian

kingdom had a somewhat

different

character.

Angeo-

nexations at the expense of Savoy, even

when

Savoy

graphically Burgundian, were annexations at the cost

of a
of the

power which was beginning

to

be Italian rather
of the County of

Connty of Eurgundy.

than Burgundian.

The annexation

Burgundy goes rather with the Alsatian annexations. It was territory won at the cost of the Empire and of
the

House of Austria.

But the lands between the

sea, still kept, negatively at

Ehone, the Alps, and the

Middle character of

least, their

middle character.

They were

lands which
Italian.

the Burj^undian
lands.

at least

were neither German, French, nor

fifteenth

The events of the fourteenth and

ruled
that
this

centmies

They
become
French.

intermediate

region

should become

French.

And none

of the acquisitions of France ever

helped more towards the real growth of her power.

It

was while the

later stages of this process

were

going on that the French kings added to their domi*

See above,

p.

264.


ACQUISITIONS

'

FEOM THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY.

345
chap.
-^

nions the Aquitanian lands on one side and the Bur-

gundian duchy on
Aquitaine has,

the

other.
its

The

acquisition

of

besides

other characters,
it

third

aspect which closely connects

with the annexations

between the Ehone and the Alps.

Korthern and Southern
of of oil and the tongue O

The

strife

between
tongue

Effect of

between Gaul, '

oc, '

the
to

French annexations

on the

now came
settled

an end.
_

Langue
doc.

Had

the chief

'

power

in

Gaul

somewhere

in

Burgundy or Aquitaine, the tongue

pass for a patois of the

of oil might
oc.

tongue of
as

now Had French

and

dominion in Italy begun

manently
as

soon and lasted as perin

French

dominion
si,

Burgundy

Aquitaine, the tongue of

as well as the tongue of oc,

might now pass

for a patois of the

tongue of

oil.

But
to

now

it

was

settled that French, not Provencal,

was

be the

ruling

speech of Gaul.

The lands of the

other powers.
state

Southern speech which escaped were almost wholly

portions

of the dominions of

There

was no longer

any separate
little

wholly of that

speech, except the

principality of Orange.

The

work which
to
little

the French kings had

now ended amounted

European
the
nation.
Extinction
ven^ai speech and
nation.

short of the extinction of an

tongue, once of at least equal dignity with the tongue

Tours, has sunk

of Paris and

from

rank of a

national language to the rank of a provincial dialect.

The next
Italian soil,

great conquests of France were

made on
itah'an
,

but they are conquests which do not greatly

This distinguishes the relations

concern geography.
of

conquests of France.

France towards Italy from her relations towards

France has constantly interfered in Italian
has
at

Burgundy.
affairs
;

she

various

times
all

held

large

Ita-

lian territories,

and brought

Italy

under French

346
CHAP,
'
'

THE KINGDOM OF FEANCE.

'

influence.

But France has never permanently kept any

Italian territory.

large

amount of
had been

The French

posses-

sion of Naples
if it

and Milan was only temporary.

And,

lasting, the possession of these isolated

./

Not

strictly

territories

by
*^

extensions of France,

the French kins; o could hardly have been

looked
frontier.

ou

as

an

extension

of

the

actual French

Those lands could never have been incor-

porated with France in the same

way

in

which other
France quite

French conquests had been.

in truth

Their retention would

have given the

later history of

a different character, a character

actually belonged to Spain.

more

like that

which
of
if

The long occupation

Alps ^ would,

Savoyard
it

territory

on both

sides of the

had

lasted,

have been a real extension of the French

to our

kingdom.

But down

own

day, while the lands

won by France from

acquisitions

the Burgundian

kingdom form

large proportion of the whole French territory, French

from Italy hardly go beyond the island

insio-nificant district of

of Corsica

and the

Mentone.

Anne
expense of

thc

Thc great annexations of France at the expense of German kingdom and the lands more closely conit

Germany.

nected with
century.
Annexation of

bei^in in
first

the middle of the sixteenth

The
,

great advance

was the

practical

annexation of the three Lotharingian bishoprics, though

,

Metz.Toui, their and Ver<in-

separation ^
.

from the Empire was not ^

the Peace of Westfalia.

1552.

acknowledged ^
of conquest
quests.

till

...
other

formally

This kind
con-

can

hardly

fail

to

lead

to

Effect of

France now

held certain patches of territory

conquests,

which lay detached from one another and from the

main body of the kingdom.

of the frontier

Yet the rounding

off

was not the next

1

step taken in this

See above, pp. 284, 285.

'

ACQUISITIONS FROM ITALY

direction.

AND GERMANY.
likely the close con"

347
^^^^

The cause was most

nexion which for somewhile existed between the ruling

houses of France and Lorraine. Before the next French advance on
the frontier

German ground,
other directions.

had been extended

in

Almost
J-

at the

same time

as the acquisition of the

Three

Bishoprics,

Calais was

won

back from Encrland *-

the

Recovery
of Calais,

short English possession of Boulogne

to an end.

had already come

i^.^^^
logne.isso.

The

first

year of the sixteenth century

in

saw the surrender of Saluzzo, and Gex. Buqey. '^

"^

exchange for
.

Bres.se, Surrender
of Saluzzo
an.i

of Italian territory at Pinerolo and other occupation ^

''

Thirty years later

.
.

came the renewed

nearly the end of
'

annex-

ationof
Bresse, Bugej',
^}^^-

and
,.

points in Piedmont, which lasted 1

'

till

Occupation

the seventeenth century.

lesSS"

The next great advance was the work of the Thirty Years' War and of the war with Spain which went on
for eleven years lonorer.

Now came

the

leg^al

cession The

bi-

of the Bishoprics and the further acquisition of the

snrrendered
^'^P're.

Alsatian dominions and rights of the

House of
tenfold.

Austria.

The
to

irregularities of the frontier,

off its angles, *-'

and the temptation

France
French acquisitions
J^^g^'"'^^^'

round

were increased

received another and larger isolated territory lying to

the east both of her earlier conquests and of the in-

dependent lands which surrounded them.

her dominion,
districts
itself

part of

sprinkled with isolated towns and

to her dominion, stretched

which did not belong

out without any connexion

into

the

middle of the

Empire.

The Duchy

of Lorraine, dotted over

by

the

French lands of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, lay between

the old French laud of Champagne and the

new French
Breisach.

land of Elsass or Alsace.

And while France was allowed,

territory

by the

possession of Breisach, to establish herself at one

point on the right

bank of the Ehine, her new

348

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

on the
'

'

CHAP,

left

bank was broken up by the continued

which were
"^

in-

dependence of Strassburg and the other Alsatian towns

and
France
reaches the Rhine.

districts

still left

to the Empire.
;

Such

a frontier could hardly be lasting; ^

ly^^ rcachcd

now

that France

and even crossed the Ehine, the annexation

of the outlying Imperial lands to the west of that river

was sure

to follow.

But, even after this further advance into the heart

of
Annexation of Bar. 1659.

Germany, the gap was not

filled

up

at the
''

next

stage ^ of anucxation.

At

the Peace of the Pyrenees,

France obtained the scattered lands of the duchy of

Bar,

which made

the

greater

part

of

the

Three

Ear

re-

Bislioprlcs coutinuous with her older possessions.

J3ar

But

stored.

1G61.

was presently

restored, and,

though Lorraine was

armies,
it

constantly occupied

by French

was not

in-

corporated with France for another century.

this
last

Up

to

change the Three Bishoprics

still

remained

isolated

French possessions surrounded by lands of

the Empire.

But France advanced

at the

expense of

the outlying possessions of Spain, lands only nominally

Imperial, as well as of the Spanish lands on her
Annexation of
_

own

southcm

frontier.

RoussiUun.

Jloussillon finally

At the Peace of the Pyrenees became French. No Spanish kingThe same Treaty
gave

dom any
bariier
AnnexaNether1659."
^

longer stretched north of the great natural

the
first

of

peninsula.

Fraucc her
siucc they
as

acquisitions in Flanders

and Arfois
as well

had become wholly foreign ground,

acquisitions

her

first

from Hainault,

Li('ge,

and

Luxemburg^ lands which had never owed her homage.

Here again
Isolated

the frontier

was of

tlie

same kind

as the

frontier towards

Germany.

Isolated points

hke Phi-

byeach
power.

UppevUle nud Marieiiburg WQYC held by France within

Spanish or Imperial territory, and isolated points Hke

'

ACQUISITIONS IN THE NETHERLANDS.

Aire and
St.

349

Onier were

still

held by Spain in what

had now

become French
1

territory.

The
1
1

furthest

"-

chap.

Further annexation^.

French advance that was recognized

by any treaty

was made by the

Oudenarde, and

earlier

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle,
Lille,

when, amongst other places, Douay, Tournay,

Courtray became French.
the frontier

By
back

the

changes

at

Peace of

Mmwegen
But
in

again

fell

in Nimwe-en.

eastern Flanders, and Courtray and Oudenarde were

restored.

the

districts

more

to

the

south

France again advanced, gaining the outlying Spanish

towns in Artois, Camhray and

ciennes in Hainault.
frontier as
it

its

district,

and Valeni697.

The Peace

of Eyswick left the

had been fixed by the Peace of Nimwegen.

and the Barrier Treaty
part of ^
,

Finally, the Treaty of Utrecht

left

France

possession of ^

a considerable

Treaty of Utrecht and Barrier

Treaty.
1713-171.5.

Flanders, and of

much

land which had been Imperial.

The Netherlands,

forinerly Spanish

and now Austrian,

The Barrier

kept a frontier protected by the barrier towns of Furnes^

Ypres, Menin, Tournai, Mons, Charleroi,

Namur. The
its

French frontier on the other side had

barrier towns stretching from St.

series

of

on the Maes.
with

Omer to Charlemont The arrangements now made have,

changes, lasted ever since, except

very slight

during the French annexation of the whole of the

Netherlands during the revolutionary wars.

The reign of Lewis

her more
strictly

the Fourteenth

was

also a time

of at least equal advance on the part of France on

German

frontier.

The time was now

scattered

come

for serious attempts to consolidate the

possessions

of France between
Conite, as the
called,

Champagne and

the
Franche
conquered, Conf^ucred

Ehine.

Franche

county of Burgundy was

now more commonly

was twice
seized

with the city of Besanqon,

seizure

by Lewis, and the second

350
CHAP,

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

'^
1674.

^^

'

was confirmed by the peace of Nimwegen.

right
in

By

that

peace also France kept Freiburg-im-Breisgmi on the

bank of the Ehine.

were annexed

number of small
the

places

Elsass

after

peace

of

Nimlast in

wegen by the process known

Seizure of

as Reunion.

At

btrassburg
16^1-

1681 Strtisshurq ^
and
its

itself

was seized
finally

in time of ' peace,

possession

was

secured to France by

the peace of Eyswick.

Eestoration ofFreibiirg

But Freiburg and Breisach

wcrc
uot

rcstorcd,
p

and Lorraine, held by France, though

ceded,

andBrei-

formally

^^

was

given
of

back

to

its

own
same
to

Duke.
Peace of
1714.

The arrangements

Eyswick were again

In the

Confirmed
year
the

by

the

peace of Eastadt.
of

principality

Orange

was annexed
of
-

Annexation of

Fraucc,
-,

leaving
. .

the Papal

possessions

Avignon
the

Orange.

and Venaissm surrounded

last relic

by French

territory,

of the Burgundian realm between the

Ehone
a

Effects of

and the Alps.

,
.

France had thus

obtained
Italy,

good
and a

the reign of

Lewis the

physical

boundary towards Spain and

boundary clearly marked on the map towards the

now
still

Austrian Netherlands.

Her

eastern frontier

was

broken
districts

in
in

upon by the duchy of Lorraine, by

Elsass

the

which

liad

still

escaped, by
ter-

the county of Montbeliard^ and

ritories of the

by the detached
of

commonwealth of Geneva.
a certain
It

But France
call
tliat

could

now

in

part

her territory

the Ehine her frontier.

was an easy inference

the Ehine ought to be her frontier through the whole

of
its

course.

The
in

next

reign,

that

of
the

Lewis

the

Fifteenth,

manner completed

work of

Henry

the

Second and Lewis the Fourteenth.

The gap which

Elsass

had

so long

yawned between Champagne and

FRENCH CONQUESTS REALLY INCORPORATED.

was now
filled

351

up.

France obtained a reversionary

>

right to the duchy of Lorraine, which was incorporated The lands of Metz, Toul, and thii'ty-one years later.

chap,
IX
^r-^

;^entsfs"to
]^^sl^^^^'

Verdun were no longer

of acquisition ^

isolated.

Elsass, which,
to

by the
'

Franche Comte, had ceased

even peninsular.
soil

be insular,

itsincorporation. ^'^^

now

ceased to be

Leaving out of

sight a

few spots of Imperial

which were now

wholly surrounded by France, the French territory

now
all

stretched as a solid and unbroken mass from the

Ocean to the Ehine.

And
its

it

must be remembered that

*^

Thorough
incorpora-

the lands wdiich the

monarchy of
power were

Paris

had ^ erastrict-

tionof French
Conquests.

dually brought under

est sense incorporated

in the

with the kingdom.

There were

no dependencies, no separate kingdoms or duchies.

The geographical
1 1

enabled r ranee really to mcorporate

in a

-r-

continuity of the n

French
1

territory

Effect of

her conquests

geographicaiconcontrast

way

in

which Spain and Austria never coidd.

And

the process was further helped by the fact that

itself

"

Tnd Aus-

each annexation by

was small compared with the

Except
in the
its

general bulk of the French monarchy.

case of the fragment of Navarre which

was held by

Bourbon
kings.

king, France never

annexed a kingdom or

made any permanent

The same
or
c

addition to the roj^al style of her

reign saw

another acquisition altogeItalian island

Purchase of
Corsica.
-t

ther unlike the rest in the form of the

Corsica.
/^

T-ir-iIn itself the mcorporation

kingdom seems
been
as
result has

of this island

i768

with

the

French

unnatural as
Sarits effects,

the Spanish or Austrian dominion in Sicily or

dinia.

But the
far

different.

Corsica has

been

more thoroughly incorporated with France

than such outlying possessions

truth
is

commonly

are.

The

that the strong continuity of the continental

352
CHAP.
IX.

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

dominions of France made the incorporation of the
island easier.

There were no traditions or precedents

it

which could suggest the holding of

Birth of

as a

dependency

or as a separate state in any form.

Corsica again was

Buonaparte.

more

easily attached to France,

because the

man who

1769.

did .most to

extend the dominion of France was a

far as Corsicans

Frenchman only so
men.

had become Frenchin a sense in

Corsica has thus

Sicily

become French

which Sardinia and

partly

never became Spanish, partly

because France had no other possession of the kind,

because Napoleone Buonaparte was born
at

Ajaccio.
3.

Early French colonization.

The Colonial Dominion of France.

all

France, hke

the European powers which have

an oceanic

coast, entered early

on the

field of coloniit

zation and distant dominion.

At one time indeed

and
in

seemed
French
colonies in

as if

France was destined to become the chief

in India

European power both

French attempts
North America.
1506.

North America.
country

at colonization in the latter

began
Breton

early
at

in

the sixteenth century.

Thus Cape

the

mouth

of the

Saint

Lawrence was

reached early in the sixteenth century, the colonization

1540.
1603.

of

Canada began

a generation later, and French do-

minion in America was confirmed by the foundation of

Quebec.
fi-om this

Acadia
ceded to

The peninsula of Acadie or Nova

till

Scotia

was

Enolaud.
1713.

time a subject of dispute between France and

it

Great Britain,
at the
Canada and
Louisiana.

was

finally

surrendered by France
the

Peace of Utrecht.

France now, under

names of Canada and Louisiana^ or of

the

New

France,

held or claimed a vast inland region stretching from

mouth

of the Saint

Lawrence

to the

mouth

of the

Mississippi, while the eastern

coast was colonized

by

'

THE FRENCH COLONIES.

other powers.
the
first

353

At

the end of the seventeenth century

besjan
at

colonization
;

the

mouth

of

the

--^

chap.

Mississippi

and the

city of

New

Orleans was founded

tlius

tionTu'he
the Missis1099."

eighteen years later.

France and England

be-

came

distinctly rival

powers in America as well

settlers

as in

Europe.

The Eughsh

were pressing westward

^^"
of

New

from the coast to the Ocean.

fix the

The French
eastern,

strove to

1717!"^'

Alleghany range as the

boundary of

of

English

English advance.

In every European war between

seuiements.
coiwiiel^in

the two powers the American colonies played an im-

portant part.

Canada was wrested

of Paris
all

fi:om

France

and

wars^^"
f^^^^l^^l^ ^f

by the Treaty

the French possessions north

of the present United States were finally surrendered

to England, except a few small islands kept for fishing

r^Hi^^'
^"*^'^-

purposes.

The

Mississippi

was now made the boundits

The Hilbuundarj'.

ary of Louisiana, leaving nothing to France on

left

bank except the

ruled
for

city of

New Orleans.

These cessions

ever that

men

of Englisli blood, whether

remaining subjects of the mother^country or forming

independent
states,

should be the dominant, power in

the North American continent.

Among

the

West India

islands,

France in the seven-

The Wcst
lands,

teenth century colonized several of the Antilles, some

of wliich were afterwards
lost

to

England.

Later
st.

in the centiu-y she acquired part

of the great island

Do-

called variously Hispaniola, Saint

Domingo, and Hayti.

"^

^^^''

On

the coast of South America lay the French settletheir capital.

French
Guiana.
'^^'^'^

ments in Guiana, with Cayenne as

Canada.

This

colony grew into more importance after the war of

Cayenne.

Nearly the same course of things took place in the

eastern world as in the western.

The French

In

India

neither

English nor French colonized in any

strict sense.

But

A A

354
CHAP.
IX.

THE KINGDOM OF FKANCE.

commercial settlements grew into dominion, or wliat

seemed
in

likely to

become dominion

and

in India, as

America, the temporary greatness of France came

before the
1664.

more

lasting greatness of England.

later than the

The

French East India Company began

but
its

Enghsh

steps towards

dominion were

for a long time

faster.
Boinboii.
lf,57.

Before

this

the French had occupied the Isle

Factory
at Siirat.

of Bourbon, an important point on the road to India. The first French factory on the mainland was at Surat.

1668.

During the

later years of the

century various attempts

at settlement were
Pondicherry. 1672.

made

but no important or lasting

that of Pondicherry. This

acquisition

was made, except

has ever since remained a French possession, often lost

in the course of warfare, but always restored at the next

Chandernagore. 1676

peace.

little

later

France obtained Chandernagore

in Bengal.
Isle of

In the next century the island of Mauritius,

a

abandoned by the Dutch, became

under the name of the
Isle

French colony

Frince.
1720.

of France.

Under La-

bourdonnais and Dupleix France gained for a

Taking of
Madras.
1746.

moment
in

a real

Indian dominion.

Madras was taken, and a large

But
hope of French
later years

dominion was obtained on the eastern coast of India

the Carnatic and the Circars.
all

Restored. 1748. Effects of the Peace

of Paris.

supremacy in India came

of the Seven Years'

to

an end in the

War.

France was confined to a few

points which have not seriously theatened the eastern

1763.

dominion of England.

4.

Acquisitions of France duriiig the Revolutionary

Wars.

Thus the French monarchy grew from the original Parisian duchy into a kingdom which spread north,
south, east,

and west, taking

in all the fiefs of the

West-

AXNEXATIOXS UNDER THE FIRST REPUBLIC.

FrankisTi kinors, too^ether with
.

355
be^-

much which had

chap.

longed to the other kingdoms of the Empire.

n
1 1

With

IX.

-"

trie

a series of acquisigreat Irench revolution beo-an ^ ^

Acquisition..

ia ihe

Revolu-

tions of territory

on the part of France which are

First

alto- tionaiy
Different

gether unparalleled.
.

of

all,

there

were those

small annexations of territory surrounded or nearly so

annexations.

by French
if

territory,

whose annexation was necessary

to

French

territory

was

be continuous.

Such were
Avignon,

xVvignon, Venaissin, the county of Montbeliard, the few

points in Elsass which had escaped the reunions, with

the Confederate city of M'dlhaiisen.

uaissin,

Avignon and Ve-

Mtahausen.

and the surviving Alsatian fragments, were anFrance before the time of warfare and conquest
Mlilhausen, as Confederate ground, was

nexed

to

had begun.

respected as long as Confederate ground was respected.

Montbehard had been annexed already.

these

And

with

^''^^^

we might be

inclined to place the annexations of

Geneva and
Bisrhof^"'''

Geneva and of the Bishopric of Basel., lands whicli lay hardly less temptingly when the w^ork of annexation had
once begun.

And beyond

these roundings off of the

Seccr.d

home

estate lay a

zone of territory which might easily '~

beiiioj French soil wrono-fully lost, Francia had made such fjreat strides
.

zone
traditions of Gaul and
^'^^

as be looked upon ^

When the Western

ference was easily

Rhine

*-'

frontier.

towards the dimensions of the Gaul of Cassar, the

in-

made
in.

that

it

ought to take

in all that

The conquest and incorporation of the Austrian Netherlands, of all Germany on the left bank of the Pihine, of Savoy and Mzza, thus became a matter of course. That the Gaul of Ciesar
Gaul had once taken

Buonaparte's ftel-

was not

fully

completed by the complete incorporation

ingt^wards
^'^^'i-

of Switzerland, seems to have been owing to a personal tenderness for the Confederation on the part of

Napoleon Buonaparte, who never incorporated with

his

156

THE KINGDOM OF FEANCE.

dominions any part of the territory of the Thirteen
Cantons. Otherwise, France under the Consulate miglit
pass for a revival of the Transalpine Gaul of

CHAP.
IX.

Eoman

geography.

And

there were other lands beyond the

borders of Transalpine Gaul, which had formed part

of Gaul in the earlier sense of the name, and whose
annexation,

when annexation had once begun, was

wonderful than that of the lands within the

hardly
Piedmont,
&c.

less

Ehine and the Alps.

The incorporation

of

Piedmont

and Genoa was not wonderful

Distinction

after the incorporation of

Savoy.

In short, the annexations of republican France

between
<onr|uests

are at least intelligible.

They have
and

meaning

under the Kepublic and under the Em'^

we

can follow their

distinct

purpose

object.

They stand

pire.'

from the wild schemes of universal conquest

'

which mark the period of the

Example of
Carsica.

Empire.'

Still

the example of such schemes was given during

the days of the old monarchy.

There was nothing to

suggest a French annexation of Corsica, any

more than

a French annexation of Cerigo.

Both were works of

Burgundy,

exactly the kind, works quite different from incorporaCharacter

of Buonaparte's

ting isolated scraps of Elsass or of the old

from rounding

off the frontier

by Montbehard, or even

conquests.

from advancing
shiftings of the

to the left

bank of the Ehine.

divisions

The

map which

took place during the ten

years of the

first

French Empire, the

and the

unions, the different relations of the conquered states,

seem

like

the old
Dependent and incorpornted
landi.

onward march of Eoman commonwealth crowded into a single

several centuries of the

day.

In both cases

we mark

the distinction between

lands which are merely dependent and lands which are

fully incorporated.

And

in

both cases the dependent

relation

is

commonly

a step towards full incorporation.

all

All past history and tradition,

national feelings, all

CONQUESTS OF BUONAPARTE.
distinctions of race

357
in

and language, were despised

chap.
^-^

building up the vast fabric of French dominion.

a power was sure
to

Such

-^

break in pieces, even without

its
it

any foreign

attack, before

parts could ]X)ssibly have

been fused together.

As

was, Buonaparte

never

professed to incorporate either Spain or the whole of

Italy
fied

and Germany with

his

Empire.

He was

satis-

with leaving large parts either in the formally

relation, in

dependent

the hands of puppet princes,

or even in the hands of powers which he

deemed

much weakened part of Germany was

too
large part

for further resistance.

large

Buonatreatment

incorporated with France, another

was under French protection or dependence,

still

many

but a large part

remained

in

the hands of the

native princes of Austria and Prussia.

Much
title,

of Italy
ofitaiy.

was incorporated, and the

a prince of his
Spain.
'_

rest

was held, partly by

partly

the conqueror himself under another

by
Division of
be-

own housa
^

This
1

last
T-

was the case with

Till the final

breach with Eussia, the idea of

p Europe
1-

tween ranee and

Russia,

Buonaparte's dominion

seems to have been that of

a twofold division of Europe between Russia and himself,

a kind of revival on a vaster scale of the Eastern

and Western Empires.

The western potentate was

dominant influence within

careful to keep everywhere a

his
;

own world but whether the territory should be incorporated, made dependent, or granted out to his
kinsfolk

and

favourites,

depended

in each case

on the
Europe
in

conqueror's will.

glance at the

map

of Europe, as

it

stood at the

beginning of 1811, will show

how

nearly this scheme

was carried was France

out. as
it

The kernel

of the French

Empire

stood at the beginning of the Ee-

volution, together with those conquests of the Eepublic

358

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

which gave

'

'

IX.

CHAP,

it

the Eliine frontier from Basel to

Nimas

wegen.

Beyond

these limits the former United Pro-

vinces, with the

far as the Elbe,

whole oceanic coast of Germany

and the

cities

of Bremen,

Hamburg,
France

and Lubeck, were incorporated with France.

now
a

stretched to the Baltic, and, as Holstein

was now

incorporated with Denmark, France and

Denmark had

common

frontier.
state,

was a protected

The Confederation of the Ehine and the Kingdom of Prussia and

practically

the self-styled 'Empire' of Austria could

hardly claim a higher place.

possessions, those parts

Of the former Austrian

which had passed to Bavaria

Italy formally stood in the deIllyrian provinces

and

to the

kingdom of

pendent

relation,

and the so-called

were actually incorporated with France.

Ionian
islands

So were the

yet further on.

In Italy, the whole

western side of the ancient kingdom, with

Eome

itself,

was incorporated with France.

formed
France.
a
separate

North-eastern Italy
ruler

kingdom held by the

of

Naples, like Spain, was a dependent kingdom.

In northern Europe, Denmark and Sweden, like Prussia

and Austria, could practically claim no higher

place.

And

the

new duchy

of

Warsaw and

the

new

republic

of Danzig carried French influence beyond the ancient

borders of Germany.
ArrangementS

of,
the
all

Sucli

was
oi

tlic

cxtcut of

tlic

Frcncli domiuiou

___

1814-1815.

power

Buonaparte was at
j.

.,.,

when

its

highest.

At

n ^^

his fall

The

first

class of an-

nexations

retamed by
thTrest
restored,

the ^ great and distant conquests were o given up. But tliosc anucxations which were necessary for the com>'

pletion of France as she then stood

rpj^^

were respected.
Trier,

^^^^

Gcrmanic body took back Koln,

and
the

Mainz,

Worms and
Elsass.

Speyer,' but not Montbeliard or

any part of

The new Swiss body received

chap.
'

'

LATER ANNEXATIONS AND

LOSSES.

359

Bishopric of Basel, Neiifchatel, Geneva, and Wallis.

Savoy and Nizza went back to their own prince.

here a different frontier was
the second fall of
left

But

drawn after the first and Buonaparte. The earlier arrangement

France.

Boxindary of Savoy,

Chambery

to

The Pope again

I'eceived

Rome and
Burgundian

his Itahan dominions,

city of

but not his outlying

Avignon and county of Yenaissin.

The

frontier of the

new kingdom

of the ^Netherlands,

though traced

at shghtly different points

by the two
from the

arrangements, differed in either case but

frontier of the

little

Banier Treaty. In short the France of the

restored Bourbons

was the France of the old Bourbons,

enlarged

by

those small isolated scraps of foreign soil

to

which were needed

make

it

continuous.

The geographical

results of the rule of the

second

Buonaparte consist of the completion of the work which

began under Philip the

Fair, balanced

by the

utter un-

doing of the work of Eichelieu, the partial undoing of

the

work of Henry the Second and Lewis the FourSavoy, Nizza, and Mentone were added
all
;

teenth.

but

Annexation of
I'-'^^-^'jol

Germany recovered nearly The Ehine now Lorraine.

. .

Elsass and a part of

neither crosses nor waters

Loss of
Lorraine.
1871.

a single rood of French ground.

As
.

it

was

in the first
it is

beginnings of Northern Em'opean history, so

now

Germany

lies

on both

sides of the

German

river.

The time of the greatest power of France in Europe was by no means equally favourable to her advance in
other parts of the world.
of

The

greatest

West India colony

as

France,

Saint

Domingo, now known

state

Hayti,

indepeniiaj'-tijisoi

became an independent negro

tated

whose

chiefs imi-

home example by taking the title of Emperor. About the same time the last remnant of French

360
CHAP,

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.

dominion on the North American continent was voluntarily given up.

il^ili^
Spldn,*" llSv'ered,
sold
t..

Louisiana, ceded to Spain by the

Peace of Paris and recovered under the Consulate,

^as sold

to the United States.

All the smaller French

;

West India
all

islands

were conquered by England

but

stetet,

were restored

at the peace, except

Tobago and Saint

Mauritius

Lucia.

The

isles

of Bourbon and Mauritius were also

SSi.
dmryiost
and
re-

taken by England, and Bourbon alone was restored at

the Peace.
.

In India Powc^zcAt^rry was twice taken and

-,

stored.

twicc icstored.

But

since

France was thus wholly beaten back

in distant parts

from her great schemes of dominion

of the world, she has led the
Frenchcon-

way

in a kind of con-

quest uud colonizatiou which has no exact parallel in

^lll^^^'

modern
in

times.

In the French occupation of Algeria

we

tiuei37?'

^^^ something different alike

from

political conquests

Europe and from

It is

isolated conquests in distant parts

of the world.

conquest, not actually in Europe,

sea,

but in a land on the shores of the great European

in
character of African
conquests,

a land which formed part of the Empire of Con-

stautinc, Justiuiau, '

and Heraclius.

It is the

winning

back from

Islfim of a land

which once was part of

between continental
could be wholly
;

Latin-speaking Christendom, a conquest which, except

in the necessary points of difference

and insular conquests, may be best paralleled with the

Norman Conquest

of Sicily.

Sicily

recovered for Europe and Christendom

settlement in Algeria can never be
fringe of

but the French

a

more than

mere

Europe and
It is

its

civilization

on the edge of
colony of the

barbaric Africa.
kind.

strictly the first

Portugal, Spain, England, had occupied this or

that point

on the northern coast of Africa

to spread her

France was

the

first

European power

dominion over a

'

ALGERIA.
lonof

361
chap.

ran^e of the southern Mediterranean shore, a land

in

which

some

sort

answers ahke to India and to Aiis-

traha, but lying within

two days'

sail

of her

own

coast.

We

have thus finished our survey of the

states

which were formed out of the break-up of the

later

Western Empire.

The

rest of

Western Europe must

British,

be postponed, as neither the Spanish, the

nor

the Scandinavian kingdoms rose out of the break-up

of the Empire

of Charles the

Great.

In our next

Chapter we must
states

trace the historical geography of the

which arose out of the gradual dismemberment

of the dominion of the Eastern

will lead us to the

Eome,
day.

a survey

which

most

stirring events

and

to the latest

geographical changes of our

own

362

CHAPTER

X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

CHAP.
X.
Contrast between the Eastern and

The

geographical, like the

is

pohtical,

history of the

Eastern Empire

wholly unlike that of the Western.

Western
Empires.

The Western Empire, in the strictest sense, fell asunder. Some of its parts fell away formally, others practically.
The
tie

The
Western Empire fell
to pieces.

that held the rest snapped at the

first

touch of

a vigorous invaden

But that invader was an European

had once formed part of the
the invasions of nations

power whose Empire

itself.

territories

Erom

beyond

the European pale the Western Empire, as such, suffered but

little.

The Western Empire

so far as
it

again, long

before

its

fall,

had become,

was a power
of
the

at all, a national
Position of the

power, the
Its fall

Roman Empire

German

nation.

was the half voluntary

part-

Western Emperors

ing asunder of a nation as well as of an Empire.

The

Western Emperors

again* had, as

Emperors, practically

ceased to be territorial princes.

No
the

lands of any ac-

count directly obeyed the Emperor, as such, as their

immediate

sovereign.

When

Empire

fell,

tlie

Emperor withdrew
Imperial
different.
title

to his hereditary states, taking the

with him.

In the Eastern Empire

fall

all is

It
its

did to some extent

asunder from
its

within, but
of the

overthrow was mainty owing to

being
its

broken

in

pieces from without.

But, throughout

Eastern.

history, the

Emperor remained

the immediate sovereign

'

CONTEAST BETWEEN THE TWO EMPIRES.

of
all

363
the
chap.
Jr~;r

that
fell,

still

clave to the Empire, and,

when

Empire
'

the

Emperor ^
It

fell

with

it.

The overthrow

^^'^

The Eastern
J^j'^^'"?

of the

Empire

w^as

mainly owing to foreign invasion

in the strictest sense.

was weakened and dismemlast

fj"^^
^'i^''**''*"-

bered by the Christian powers of Europe, and at

swallowed up by the barbarians of Asia.

At

the same

Tendencies
to separatiou.

time the tendency to break in pieces after the Western

fashion did exist and must always be borne in mind.

But

it

existed only in particular parts

It is

and under special

conditions.

found mainly in possessions of the

Empire which had become isolated, in lands wliich had been lost and won again, and in lands which came
under the influence of Western
of these tendencies
is

ideas.

The importance
fiict

shown by the

that three

powers which had been cut

off in various

ways from
But the

the body of the Empire, Bulgaria, Venice, and Sicily,

became three of

its

most dangerous enemies..

actual destruction of the

Empire came from those bar-

barian attacks from which the

West

suffered but httle.

fell

Speaking generally then, the Western Empire

asunder from within

pieces from without.

the Eastern

Empire was broken

in

Of the many causes

'

of this dif-

ference, perhaps only one

1

concerns geography.
r
1
{->
'

At

closer con-

the time oi the separation or the Empires, the Western

ttt

nexion of the East

Empire was ^
_

really only another

./ ./

name

for the

dominions Koman
political

of the

King of the Franks, whether within or without

traditions.

the elder Empire.

The Eastern Empire, on the other

geograpliical or national

hand, kept the political tradition of the elder Empire

unbroken.

took in the three

their inhabitants.

,.

Xo common
i-

11-T Imperial kingdoms

^
all

of the

name West and

-vxr
-I

Disuse of *^^ Roman

name

in

the West.
its reten-

But

the inhabitants of the Eastern

tion in the

Empire, down to the end, knew themselves by no

national

^^'*^-

name but

that of

Romans, and the land gradu-

364
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

ally received the geographical

name

of Romania.

But
its

the Western Empire was not Romania., nor were

people Romans.
Italian land

so

The only Romania in the West, the called, took its name from its long

adhesion to the Eastern Empire.

Importance
of distinctions of race in the East.

In the East again differences of race are far more

important than they ever were in the West.

In the

West
apart.

nations have been formed

;

by a

certain

com-

mingling of elements

in the East the elements

remain

All the nations of the south-eastern peninsula,

whether older than the

later times, are there
The
orifjinal

Eoman

conquest or

settlers

of

still

as distinct nations.

First

among them come

is

three nations

whose

settle-

nations.

ment
quest.

in the peninsula

older than the

Eoman

con-

guage.
its

for
Albanians.

One of these has kept its name and its lanOne has kept its language, but has taken up name afresh only in modern times. The third has The most a2;es lost both its name and its lanf:^uacfe.
in the peninsula

unchanged people
nians., called

must be the Alba-

by themselves

Skipetar., the representa-

Greeks.

tives of the old Illyrians.

Next come the Greeks, who

went out
Lastly

keep
Vlachs.

their language, but whose imuie oiJIeUSnes

till its

of ordinary use

revival in

modern

times.

there are the Vla-chs, representing those inhabitants of

Thrace, Moesia, and other parts of the peninsula, who, like

the Western nations, exchanged their
Latin.
Use of the
its

own speech

for

They must mainly

represent the Thracian race in

widest sense.

Both Greeks and Vlachs kept on the

and the Vlachs, the
day, keep

Roman
name.

Eoman name
races, the

in different forms,

Roumans of our own

Slavonic
settlers.

it still.

Of

the invading

Goths passed through the Empire .without

lasting settlements in
it.

making any

The

last

Aryan
were

settlers, setting aside

mere

colonists in later times,

EACES ^ITHIX THE EMPIRE.

the Slaves.

865

Turl^ish, or
gariatis,

Then came the Turanian settlers, Finnish, other. Of these the first wave, the Buiwere presently assimilated by the Slaves, and
any

"^

X.
-^

chap.

settlers.

the Bulgarian power must be looked at historically as

Slavonic.
inaks,

of the

Then come Avars, Chazars, Magyars, PatzCumans, all settling on or near the borders Empire. Of these the Magyars alone grew into

Turanian

The

a lasting European state, and alone estabhshed a lasting

power over lands which had formed part of the Empire.

All these invaders came by the
the Euxine.

way of

the lands north of

Lastly, there are the

non-Aryan invaders
The conquests ^

who came by way of Asia Minor

sea.

or of the Mediterranean
first
Saracens.

The Semitic

Saracens, after their

in Syria, Egypt,

and Africa, made no lasting conquests.

for a while several of the great islands
;

They occupied
Asiatic, they

but on the mainland of the Empire, European and

were mere plunderers.

terrible

In their wake
the Turks,
first

The
ottomau

came the most

enemies of

all,

the Seljuk, then

the

Ottoman.

Ethnologically

they
in

must be grouped with the nations which

came
as

by the north

of the Euxine.
in

Historically,

Ma-

hometans, coming

by the southern

route, they rank

with the Saracens, and they did the work which the
Saracens tried to do. Most of these invading races have

passed away from history

different stages.

three

still

remain in three

The Bulgarian

is lost

people

who have

taken his name.

among the Aryan The Magyar abides,

_

Comparison of
Huifrarians,
^"''

keeping his non- Aryan language, but adopted into the

European commonwealth by
*
./

of Chrishis acceptance L
still

^tto-

mans.

tianity.
soil,

The Ottoman Turk

and
all

abides on European
still

unchanged because Mahometan,

to the tonofues of
'-'

an alien alike
The Eastern Empire
J^"''s

to the creed

Europe.
'^

Among

these nations one holds a special place

366
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

in the history of the Eastern

Empire.

The

loss of the

Oriental and Latin provinces of the

into practical

Empire brought

working, though not into any formal

the Western

notice, the fact that, as

Empire was

fast
fast

becoming German, so the Eastern Empire was

Loss of the
Oriental provinces,

becoming Greek.

To

a state which had both a

Eoman

and a Greek
neither

side the loss of provinces

which were

of the

of

Eoman nor Greek was strength. And if the loss

strength,
it

not a loss but a somxe

of the Latin provinces
at least did

Latin provinces.

was not a source of

nance.

much

to

bring the Greek element in the Empire into predomiDying out

of Roman ideas.

Meanwhile, within the lands which were

first

left to

the Empire,
ideas

the Latin language, and then

generally,

Eoman
out.

and

traditions

gradually

died

Before the end of the eleventh century, the Empire

more Greek than anything else. Before the end of the twelfth century, it had become nearly conterminous with the Greek nation, as defined by the
was
far

combined use of the Greek language and profession of

The name Roman, in its Greek form, was coming to mean Greek. And, about the
the Orthodox faith.

same time, the other primitive nations of the peninsula, hitherto

merged
to

in the

common mass

of

Eoman

subjects,
Appearance of Albanians and Vlachs.

began

show themselves more

distinctly

alongside

of the Greeks.

We now

first

hear of Al-

banians and Vlachs by those names, and the importance of the nations which have thus

come again

to

The Latin
Conquest,
1204.

light increases as

we go

on.

Then

the Greek remnant

of the

Empire was broken

in pieces

by the great Latin

invasion, and, instead of a single power,

Eoman

or

Greek,
Frank.

we

see a

crowd of separate
of

states,

Greek and
But

The reunion

some of these frao:ments

at

formed the revived Empire of the Palaiologoi.

'

STATES FOR^rED OUT OF THE EMPIRE.

no moment since the twelfth century has the whole

367
chap.
"

Greek nation been united under a single power, native

The revived

And from the Ottoman conquest of Trebior foreign. ^ zond to the beginning of the 'Greek War of Indepen_

Byzantine Empire.

dence, the whole of the Greek nation

masters.^

was under foreign

i46i-i82i.

We

have now

first

to trace out the steps

by which
which

the Empire was broken in pieces, and then to trace out

severally the geographical history of the states

rose out of

its

fragments.

And

with these
strictly

last

we may

class certain

powers which do not

come mider

that definition, but

which come within the same geograthe West, the territory which
still

phical range and which absorbed parts of the Imperial

territory.

Beginning

in

the Empire at the final separation

Hadriatic,

held west of the

first

was gradually

lost

through the attacks,

of the Saracens, then of the Normans.

These lands
its

grew

into the

kingdom of

Sicily,

which has

proper

siciiy.

place here as an ofTshoot from the Eastern Empire.

At
Venice

the other end of the Italian peninsula, Venice gradually

detached
its

itself
:

from the Empire,

to

become foremost

in

partition

here then comes the place of Venice as a

maritime power.

Then come

the powers which arose

Slavonic

on the north and north-west of the Empire, powers

chiefly Slavonic, reckoning as Slavonic the great BuiBulgaria.

garian kingdom.

Here too
as a

Hungary, which,
Europe, has
Bulgaria.

come the kingdom of non- Aryan power in the heart of

will

Hungary.

much both

of likeness and of contrast with

itself lay

The kingdom of Hungary

beyond
its

the bounds of the Empire, but a large part of

^

Unless we except the momentary existence of the

firrit

Sept-

insular Republic, to be spoken of below.

368
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTEKN EMPIRE.

dependent territory had been Imperial
soil.

Here

also

Albanians.

we must speak of the states which arose out of the new developement of the Albanian and Eouman
races,

Koumans.

and of the and

states,

Greek and Frank, which arose

of the Latin Conquest.

just before
Asiatic

at the time

Then
Asia.

there are the powers, both Christian and

Maho-

powers.

metan, which arose within the Imperial dominions in

Here we have

to

speak alike of the states

founded by the Crusaders and of the growth of the

Ottoman Turks.

Lastly,

we come

to the

work

of our

own

days, to the

new European

states

which have been

formed by the deliverance of old Imperial lands from

Ottoman bondage.

We
800-1204.

will

therefore

first

trace

the

geograpliical

changes

in the frontier of the

Empire

itself

down

to

the Latin Conquest.

1204-1453.

The Latin Empire

of Romania^

the

Greek Empire of Nikaia^ the revived Greek Em-

pire of Constantinople, will follow, as continuing, at least

geographically, the true Eastern

will

Eoman Empire. Then

come the powers which have fallen off from the Empire or grown up within the Empire, from Sicily to
free Bulgaria.

But

it

must be remembered that

it is

not always easy to mark, either chronologically or on

the map,

when

this or that territory

is

was

finally lost to

the Empire.
Distinction

This

true both on the Slavonic border

and
it is

also in southern Italy.

On

the former above

all

between
conquest
BJid setttlemeiit.

often

hard to distinguish between conquest

at the

cost of the

Empire and settlement within

tlie

Empire.

In either case the frontier within which the Emperors

exercised direct authority was always falling back and

advancing again.

Beyond

this there

was a zone Avhich

could not be said to be under the Emperor's direct

rule,

but in which his overlordship was more or

less

REVIVALS OF IMPERIAL POWER.

fully

369
chap.
X.
^

accordinoto the relative stren<Ttli acknowledged, "^ ^ of the Empire and of its real or nominal vassals.
.

1.

Changes in
tlie

the Frontier

of the Empire.

In tracing

fluctuations of the frontier of the

Eastern Empire from the beginning of the ninth cen-

by the wonderful power of revival and reconquest which is shown throughout the whole
tury,

we

are struck

Power

of

the Empire

history.
first

Except the lands which were won by the

till it

Saracens, hardly a province was finally lost

had been once or twice won back.

cut short

No
to a

one could

have dreamed that the Empire of the seventh century,

by the Slavonic settlements

coasts,

mere fringe
tlie

on

its

European

could ever have become

Empire of the eleventh century, holding a solid mass of

territory

from Tainaros to the Danube.

But before

this great revival, the

borders of the Empire had both

in the farther

advanced and

fallen

back

West

At

the

time of the separation of the Empires, the

still

New Rome
Sardinia,
sITuthlrH

held Sardinia,

Sicily,

and a small part of southern

still

Italy,

The heel of the boot

formed the theme of

Lombardy,^ while the toe took the name of Calabria

which had once belonged

to the heel,

Naples., Gaeta.,

and Amalji were outlying

so

Italian cities of the

Empire

was

Venice.,

which can hardly be called an Itahan

city.

In the course of the ninth century the

power of
utterly

Lossofti)f>

the

Empire was cut

but

short in the islands, but advanced AUvanco

on

on the mainland.
obscure
The
;

The

history of Sardinia

is

tinent.

it

seems to have passed away from the

Sardinia.

'

longer form Aoyyiftapcia clave to this theme, while the

to

Greeks learned

apply

the contracted form Aai-nrafjCoi to the

Lombards

of

Northern

Italy.

B B

370

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Empire by the beginning of the mnth century.
was now conquered
bit

Sicily

by

bit

by the Saracens of Africa

Palermo,

Loss of
Sicilv,

during a struggle of one hundred and forty years. Agri-

27-965.

Loss of Agricentum,
8-27

gentum, opposite to the African coast,

fell first

once the seat of Phoenician rule, became four years later

the

of Palermo,

new
;

Semitic capital.

Messina on the

strait
its

soon

831

Messina, 842;

followed

but the eastern side of the island,

side,

most

thoroughly Greek

held out

much

longer.

Before

Malta, 869
Syracuse,

the conquest of this region, 3/a/ta, the natural appendage

to
Sicily,

passed into Saracen hands.

fall
till

Syracuse, the
years after the

Christian capital, did not

first

fifty

invasion,

and

in the

north-western corner of the

island a
Tauromenion, 902963.

remnant

still

held out for nearly ninety years.

its

Tauromenion or Taormina, on

height,

had

to

be

twice taken in the course of the tenth century, and the

single fort of Rametta, the last stronghold of Eastern

Rametta,
965.

Christendom in the 'West, held out longer

this

still.

By

time Eastern Christendom was

;

fast

advancing on

Islam in Asia
islands passed to Africa,

but

the

greatest

of Mediterranean

from Christendom

to Islam,

from Europe
off

and a Greek-speaking people was cut

fast

from the Empire which was

Partial

becoming Greek. But

the complete and uninterrupted Mussulman dominion

in Sicily

recovery

and

final

loss of Sicilv,

was
and

short.

The Imperial claims were never

were again

1038-1042.

forgotten,

in the eleventh century they

enforced.

By

the arms of George Maniakes, Messina

and Syracuse, with a part of the island which at the least took in the whole of its eastern side, was, if only
for a
.Advance of the Empire
in Italy.

few years, restored

Sicily w^as

to the Imperial rule.

While

thus lost bit

in the

by

bit,

the power of

the Empire was advancing

neighbouring mainfor

Taking of
Bari, 871.

land of Italy.

Bari

w^as

won back

Christendom

from the Saracen by the combined powers of both


FLUCTUATIONS IN ITALY AND SICILY.
Empires
;

371
fell

but the lasting possession of the prize

to
-

chap.
-^

the Csesar of the East.

tury, the Eastern

At

the end of the ninth ceneither the direct posItaly

Empire claimed

session or the superiority of all southern

from
Fluctuations ofttie

Gaeta

downwards.
^

The

extent

of

tlie

Imperial

dominion was always

fluctuating:; *-

there was perhaps r r

Imperial

no moment when the power of the Emperors was really

extended over
this
it

p^^e^ i^

whole region

but there was perhaps

no spot within
admit

which did not

at

some time or other

Tlie eastern
in a

at least the

Imperial overlordship.

coast, with the heel

and the toe

wider sense than

before,

became a

real

and steady possession, while the

allegiance oi Beneventum, Capua, sind Salerno was always

very precarious,

^ut Naples, Gaeta, mid Amalji, how-

ever nominal their allegiance might be, never formally

cast
it

Naples, Gaeta, and Amaiii.

aside.

Thus, at the beginning of the ninth century, the

Eastern Emperors held
territory
all Sicily,

with some patches of

on the neighbouring mainland.

At

the begin-

ning of the eleventh century, the island had been wholly

lost,

while the dominion on the mainland had been

greatly enlarged.

In the course of the eleventh cen

new power, the Normans of Apulia, conquered the n Italian possessions of the Empire, won Sicily from the Mussulman, and even made conquests from the Empire
tury a
X T

TheNormans in
^^]y
i"'i

east of the Hadriatic.

Thus arose the SiciUan kingwill best

dom, the growth of which

be traced when we

come

to the

powers which arose out of the breaking-up

of the Empire.

The
Crete

great islands of the Eastern Mediterranean also

fluctuated between Byzantine and Saracen dominion.

was won by a band of Mussulman adventurers from

B B 2

[^"^L" 823

372
CHAP.
X.
Its re-

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Spain nearly at the time began.
It

when

the conquest of

Sicily-

was won back

but

in the great revival of the

Im-

covery, 963.

perial

power one hundred and

sooner
;

forty years later.

Cyprus
fluctua-

Cyprus

lost,

708 ; recovered and lost again

c.

was
tions
its

lost

it

went through many

and

divisions, a

recovery and a second

loss,

before

881-888

recovered
again, 965.

final

recovery at the same time as the recovery of

Sicily.

Loss and gain

Crete and the complete loss of

Looking

at the

among
great
lands.

the

Empire simply

as a

power, there can be no doubt that

is-

the loss of Sicily was altogether overbalanced

by the

recovery of Crete and Cyprus.

Geographically Sicily
;

was an outlying Greek

close to the

island

Crete and Cyprus lay

essential parts of a

body of the Empire,

Greek
been

state.

But Crete and Cyprus,

as lands

which had

lost

and won back, were among the lands where

fall

the tendency to
earliest.
Separation of Cvprus,

away from within showed

itself

Crete never actually separated from the

Empire.

1182-1185.

Conquered

by

Richai-d of Poi'tou, 1191.

away under a rebel Emperor, to be presently conquered by Eichard, Count of Poitou and King of England, and to pass away from the
Cyprus
fell

Empire

for ever.

Fluctuations in the possession

We may

thus

sum up

the

fluctuations

in

the

possession of the great islands.

of the great
islands,

the ninth century, the

Sardinia, Sicily,

At the beginning of Eastern Empire still took in

;

801.

and Crete

Cyprus was in the hands

901.

of the

Saracens.

At the beginning of the tenth

in

century, the
1001.

Empire held nothing

any of the four

except the north-eastern corner of

Sicily.

At

the begin-

ing of the eleventh, Crete and Cyprus had been

1101.

won

back

Sicily

twelfth,
sions; a
1201.

At the beginning of the Crete and Cyprus were still Imperial posseswas wholly
lost.

great part of Sicily had been

won and
;

lost

again.

At the beginning of the thirteenth, Cyprus,

had passed
to a

like Sicily,

Western master

Crete was

'

FLUCTUATIONS IN CRETE AND CYPRUS.

Still

373
tie.

held by the Empire, but only by a very feeble

at the fall of the old

ch.vp.

Thus they stood

of the East
;

Eoman Empire

of the revived Empire of the Palaiologoi

none of them ever formed a part.

the islands the enemies with
strive were, first the

Ill

whom

the

Empire ^

i^eiations of

the Lnipire
g^^'^'^J^^^^^^'

had

to

Saracens, and then the

Latins or Franks, the nations of Western Europe.

On
by

p^^'^'^^"-

the mainland the part of the Saracen was taken

the Sla\e.

During the four hundred years between

the division of the Empires and the Frank conquest

of the East, the geographical history of the Eastern

Empire has mainly

to deal

with the shiftings of

its
Three
Slavonic groups.
croItia!'

frontier towards the Slavonic powers.

These

fall

into

three

main groups.

First, in the

north-western corner

of the Empire, are the Croatian and Servian settlements,

whose history

is

closely

connected with that of the

kingdom of Hungary and the commonwealth of Venice.

Secondly, there are the Slaves of Thrace, Macedonia,
^Jj^jj^").^

and Greece.

Thirdly, the great Bulgarian

kingdom

Bulgaria,

comes between the two.

ally

These two
first

last

ranges gradu-

merge

into one

the

remains distinct throughwill

out.

Servia,

Croatia,

and Dalmatia,

be best
amidst

treated of in another section,

all

remembering

that,

fluctuations, the claims of the

Empire over them

to
^

were never denied or forgotten, and were from time

enforced.
It

was towards the Bulo;arian kinodom that

the greatest fluctuations of the Imperial frontier took

place.

Finnish Bulfjarians were the vanoruard o O of Turanian invasion in the lands with which we have
orio;inal
^

The

The
Bulgarian kingdom.

to do.

Earher,

it

would seem,

in their

coming than

374

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

the Avars, they were slower to settle
'

"

CHAP,

down

into actual
-^

Sottlement
s.uith of
tlie
^'^''-

occupation of European ^
.

territory.
"^
,

But when they

.

did

settle, it

Danube,

was not on the

its

outskirts of the

Empire,
"

but in one of

acknowledged provinces.
first

Late in the

seventh century, the

lished

Bulgarian kingdom was estabIt

between Danube and Hsemus.

that another

must be

re-

membered
direction

migration

in

quite another

founded another Bulgarian power on the

This settlement, Great or White

Sl!f,Mo

Volg;a

and the Kama.

Bulgaria, remained Turanian and became Mahometan

Black Bulgaria on the Danube became Christian and

Use of the
Bulgarian name.

Slavouic.

The modcm
in the

Bulsfariaus bear the Bulgarian ^

"-^
_

way in which the Eomanized Celts of Gaul bear the name of their Frankish masters from Germany, in which the Slaves of Kief and Moscow bear the name of their Eussian masters from Scanname only
dinavia.
luiion

In

all

three cases, the

power formed by the

of conquerors

and conquered has taken the

name

of the conquerors

and has kept the speech of the

took quite another character

conquered.

But though the Bulgarian power became

it

essentially Slavonic,

from

the

less

fully

organized
it.

Slavonic

settlements

The Empire to the west and south of and the Macedonian Thrace, Maccdouia, and
blaves.
'
'

Towards the Slaves of

'

Greece,

it

cannot be

said

that the

Empire had any

definite frontier.
its

Settled
its

within

the Empire, they were

tributaries or

enemies, according to the strength of the Empire at

any particular moment.

Bulgarians,

Up

to

the coming of the

points of view,

we

might, from

different

place the Imperial border either at the

Danube or

at

no great distance from the ^Egtean.

The Empire
and the
Bulgarian kingdom.

But from the

onwards, there was on the Bulconquest Bulgarian " garian side a real frontier, a frontier which often o

'

SLAVONIC SETTLEMENTS.
shifted,

375
chap.
'

but which was often fixed by treaty, and which,

it

wherever
.

was

fixed,

the time, wholly lost

marked off lands which were, for to the Empire. With the first

Loss of the

Bulgarian settlement, the

-IP imperial iroutier

dennitely

-I

nanubiaa
frontier.

withdrew
to the

for three

hundred years from the lower Danube

line of

Hsemus or Balkan.
to the south

As

the Bulgarian

Bulgarians

power pushed
the

and west, the two

fields of Uxmus.

warfare, against the Bulgarians to the north and against

half-independent

Slaves to

the

west,

gradually.

melted into one.

reigned, the

But
fields

as long. as the Isaurian

Emperors

two
.

were kept

distinct.
'

They kept
whose
,

to dom, stretchinfj the north-w^est over lands which are ^

the Balkan ran";e at^ainst the Bulffixrians, ^

kino--

Extent of Bulgaria in
t'le

eighth centuiy.

now Servian, had

not, at the

end of the eighth century,

passed the mountain barrier of the Empire.

Meanwhile, as a wholly distinct work, the Im^ penal power was restored over the Slaves of Thrace,
Macedonia,, and Greece*

Recovery
Slavonic
scttU'jnent.s

In the middle of the eidith

'-'

inMacedonia and
Greece,

century the inland parts of Greece w^ere chiefly occupied

by Slavonic immigrants, while the

remained Greek.

coast

and the

cities
'75-761.

Before the end of the century, the

Slaves of Macedonia were reduced to tribute, and early

in the

ninth, those of
"^

Greece wholly

failed to recover
./

807.

their independence.

The

land-

afresh

by Greek

coloniats,

was gradually, settled o and by the middle of the

Melings and Ezerites

Recovery of
Greece <roni
^'^^
^'*''^^*^'*-

tenth, only

two Slavonic

tribes,

slaves on
*^*''^"^"

[Melinci and Jezerci), remained, distinct,

butary, on the range of Taj'getos or

though

tri-

Pentedaktylos.

Erom
land,

this

time to the Frankish conquest, Greece, as a

But, as a recovered
in

whole, was held by the Empire.

it

was one of those parts of the Empire

changes,

which
In the
as

a tendency to separate began to show

course of these
the

itself.

name

Hellenes,

uQ
national name,

THE EASTERN
quite

EjVIPIRE.

died out.

It

had long meant

pagan, and

it

was confined
till

to the people of

Maina, who

remained pagan

near the end of the ninth century.

The Greeks now knew no name but that of Romans. The local, perhaps contemptuous, name of the inhabitants of Hellas

was Helladikoi.

Thus, at the division of the Empires, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece

had been more or

less

thoroughly re-

covered by the Eastern Empire, while the lands between

Hgemus and Danube were wholly

Romania,
Dalmatia, Servia, and
Croatia.

lost.

The Imperial

dominion from the Hadriatic to the Euxine formed,

together with the Asiatic provinces, Romania, the land
of the

Eomans

of the East.

The Emperors

also kept

the cities on the Dalmatian coast, and the precarious

allegiance

of the Servian

and Croatian

principalities.

These lands were bound to the Empire by a

Greatness of the first Hulgaiian

common
cen-

dread of the encroaching Bulgarian.

The ninth

tury and the early years of the tenth

was a great
to
to

kingdom.

Attempt on
Pannonia,
818-829.

time of Bulgarian advance.

The Bulgarians seem

any
^
;

have
tlie

failed

in

establishing
in

lasting

dominion

north-west

Pannonia

at the

expense of the
the end of the

Empire they were more

Advance
.'ii^ainst

successful.

At

eighth

century Anchialos

and

Sardica
border

the

afterwards
cities

Empire.

called Triaditza

and Sofia

were

of the

Empire.

The conquest
the

of Sardica early in the ninth

marks a stage of Bulgarian advance.

the century, after
Christianity,
Conquests of Simeon, 923-934.

At the end of
nation
to

conversion

of the
first

comes the great era of the

Bulgarian

kingdom, the kingdom of Peristhlava. The Tzar Simeon

'

Annals, 827, 828.

temporary Bulgarian occupation seems clear from Einhard, But on the supposed existence of a Bulgarian
present

duchy
201.

in the

Hungary

see Roesler,

Romanische Studten,

THE BULGARIAN KINGDOM.

established the Bulgarian supremacy over Servia, and
carried his conquests deep into the lands of the Empire.

377
chap.
^-

-"

In Macedonia and Epeiros the Empire kept only the

sea-coast,
lis,

^gasan and Hadriatic;

all

Sardica, Philippopo-

Ochrida, were

cities

of the Bulgarian realm.

Hadrianople, a frontier city of the Empire, passed more

than once into Bulgarian hands.

I^owhere in Europe,

save in old Hellas, did the Imperial dominion stretch

from sea to

sea.

So stood matters
tury.

in the

middle of the tenth cenall

Then came

that greatest of

revivals of the

Re\'ivaiof the Im penal po^^r.

Imperial power which

won back

Crete and Cyprus, and

which was

no less successful on the mainland of Europe

Buljyaria ^

and

Asia.

was conquered and

-

lost

and con-

Conquest of
Bulgaria,

quered again.

But the

first

time

it

was conquered,

ThoRusbut from the Eussian. The sians not from the Bulgarian O iiuu Russians, long dangerous to Constantinople, now sud- JJjyfyfi""^'

denly appear as a land power.

toslaf

Their prince Svia-

overthrew the

first

Bulgarian

kingdom, and

Philippopolis

became

for a

moment

a Paissian outpost.
tlie Empire Danube was The

But John Tzimiskes restored the power of

over the whole Bulgarian dominions.

once more the frontier of the Eastern Eome.

It

remained so

for

more than two hundred years

its

during the lower part of

regions the Imperial

course.
fell

But

in the inland
at once, to

power

back almost

advance again further than ever.

'

large part of the

Thesecomi
Bulgarian kingdom,

conquered land soon revolted, and a second Bulgarian '^ ^

kingdom, Macedonian rather than Moesian,

arose.

The

kingdom of Ochiida, the kingdom of Samuel,

tween Danube and Haemus, together with
all

left to

the Empire the eastern part of the old Bulgaria be-

Thrace
all

and the Macedonian

coast.

But

it

took in

the

378

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

inland region of Macedonia;
'

CHAP,

it

stretched
it

down

into

Thessaly and Epeiros

and, while
it

nowhere touched

the Euxine or the ^:Egsean,

had a small seaboard on

years of the

the Hadriatic.

Now came

the great struggle between

last

Eomania and Bulgaria which. fills the

Second conquest
loX"^"^"'''
Croatia.

tenth century and the opening years of the eleventh;

j^t last all

Bulo'aria, ' ^

and with
Empire.

it

for a while Servia, '

its

^"^^ restored to

the

Croatia continued

vassalagc, and

its

princes were presently raised to royal

rank by Imperial authority.

Thus the Eastern Empire again took

south-eastern
Venice.

in the

whole

peninsula.
Italy

Of
to

its

outlying

European

posscssious,

southcm

was

still

untouched.

At

what moment Venice ceased

Empire,
it

be a dependency of the
Its

would be hard

to say.

dukes

still

received

the Imperial investiture, and Venetian ships often joined

the Imperial
to

fleet.

This state of things seems never

have been formally abolished, but rather to have

dropped out of sight as Venice and Constantinople be-

came

practically hostile.

In the other outlying city

north of the Euxine the ninth

and tenth centuries

change
cherson annexed,
takeni? ' Vladimir
988,

places.

Through
of Cherson,

all

changes the Empire kept

its

maritime province in the Tauric Chersonesos. There ^

^^^^ allied city

more formally annexed

was
taken-

to the

Empire

in the ninth century,

by the Eussian

Vladimir in the interval between the two great Bul-

The Empire

In Asia
little

tlic

Imperial frontier had

first

changed but

since

the

Saracen conquests.

The

solid

peninsula of Asia Minor was often plundered by the

Mussulmans, but
as in

it

was never conquered.

Now,
its

in

Asia

Europe, came a time of advance.

For eighty years,

eastern

with some fluctuations, the Empire grew on

'

FLUCTUATIONS IN ASIA.
side.

379
up, and
chap.
^-

The Bagdad

caliphate was

now broken
'

the smaller emirates were

J-

more

easily

overcome.

The
re-

wars of Nikephoros Phokas and John Tzimiskes

Stored KiJikia

Asiatic conof ^^if^^ Aikepnoro.s

and Syria to the

list

of

Eoman
list

provinces, ggyjyj?'

Tarsos^ Antioch, and Edessa to the

cities.

of Christian
of Basil the

powder Basil the Second extended the Imperial ^

_

Second,
991-102.?.

over the Iberian and Abasgian lands east of the Euxine,

and began a

-It

series

01 transactions
-11

by wnicn, in the
T T
1

ii

Beginning
of the annexation

space of forty years,

,

all

Armenia was added

to the

of

Armenia

on the very eve of the downfall of the Imperial Empire ^ ^

,

Ani. 104.5 of Kars,

i*^*^^-

power

in Asia.

For the ^ i^reat extension of the Empire

*

laid
it

it

Xew open ^

enemies.

to

new enemies

in both continents.

In Asia

became
Turks.

the neighbour of the Seljuk Turks, in Europe of the

Magyars or Hungarians, who bear the name of Turks

in the

Magyars,

Byzantine writers of the tenth century.

HunRevolt of
^^'^'^

gary had

now

settled

down

into a Christian

kingdom.

Servian revolt presently placed a

.

new independent
.

state

between Hungary and Eomania, but Belcrrade

,
.

.
till

remained an Imperial posssession

it

passed under

Loss of Belgrade, iog4.

Magyar rule twenty-four years later. By this time the Empire had begun to be cut short in a far more The Seljuk Turks now reached terrible way in Asia. Plunder ^ the new Eoman frontier. grew into conquest,
-'^

Advance

of

the Turks.

'

Loss of Ani, 1064.

and the
in the

first

Turkish conquest, that of Ani, happened

as the last Imperial acquisition of Kars.
tried to strengthen this

same year

The Emperors now

frontier

dangerous

by the erection of
of

vassal principalities.
its

The
The
.

very

name

Armenia now changes

place.

Le>^?er

... new or Lesser Armenia arose in the Kihkian mountains,

Armenia,
I'J^'J-

and was ruled by princes of the old Armenian dynasty,

whose allegiance

to

the

Empire gradually died

out.

380
But before
this

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

time the Turkish power was fully es-

tablished in the peninsula of Asia Minor,

The plunThrough-

derers

had become conquerors. The battle of Manzikert

and further advances.

led to formal cessions

out Asia Minor the Empire at most kept the coast

Tlie Sultans of Roum.

the mass of the inland country

became Turkish.
;

But

the
1081.

Eoman name
name

did not pass

the

of Sultans of

away the invaders took Roum. Their capital was at

Nikaia. a threatening position indeed for Constantinople.

Loss of Antioch,
1081.

But distant positions like Trebizond and Antioch

still

were

held as dependencies.
tlie

Antioch was before

long betrayed to

Turks.

By
Normans
in Corfu

this

time the Empire was attacked by a

new

enemy

in

its

European peninsula.
both

The Norman conand continen-

and
Epeiros.

querors of Apulia and Sicily crossed the Hadriatic, and

1081-1085.

occupied various
tal,

points,

insular

especially

Dyrrhachion or Durazzo and the island

called

of Korhyra^

now

by

new Greek name, Koits

rypho or Corfu.

At every

point of

frontier the

Empire had, towards the

tury, altogether fallen
Geographical aspect of the

end of the eleventh cen-

back from the splendid position

beginning.

which

it

held at

its

The geographical
and ninth
lie

aspect of the

Empire was now the exact opposite of

in the eighth

Empire.

what

it

had been

centuries.
Its

Then
and

its

main strength seemed to

but
Asiatic peninsula

in Asia.

European dominion had been cut down

islands
;

to the coasts

its

was firmly

held,

touched only by passing ravages.

Now
and

the Asiatic

dominion was cut down

to the coasts

islands, while

the great European peninsula was, in the greater part

of the
its

extent,

still

firmly held.

Never before had

Western eyes the

main power of the Empire been so thoroughly

European.

No wonder

that

in

THE KOMNENIAN EEIGNS.

Empire of Eomaiiia began
Greece.
to look like a

381

kingdom

of

chap.
"-

The

states

founded by the Crusaders

will
.

be dealt
Recovery of
Asiatic
territory,

with elsewhere.
as helpinu
^
'

The crusades concern

us here only
_^
_

towards the next revival of the Imperial

Alexios himself
cities

1097.

power under the house of Komnenos.

won back

Nikaia and the other great

of western

Asia Minor.

Some

of these, as Laodikeia, were re-

ceived rather as free cities of the Empire than as

subjects.
^

mere
neipnsof J"hn and
Manei.

The

conquerincf reicjns of

John and Manuel

.

again extended the Empire in both continents.

The

Turk

still

ruled in the inland regions of Asia, but his

to Ikonion.

capital

was driven back from Nikaia

The

^^^'

superiority of the

Empire was restored over Antioch and

at the
itself

1137.

Kilikian
other.

Armenia

one end, over Servia at the

to yield

Hungary
Dalmatia.

had

Zeugmin, Sirmium,

ii-*^.

and

all

For a moment the Empire again

western shore Aiicona became
Caesar.
F-iiiif? "f distant pcs'^^*=*'''"*'-

took in the whole eastern coast of the Hadriatic and

its

islands

even on
like a

its

ii63-iigs.

something

dependency of the Eastern

of

The conquests
at once.

Manuel were

(^learly ^

too o great for

fell

the real strength of the Empire.

Some

lands

away
away

Dalmatia was

left to

be struggled for between

the tendency to
fall

Venice and Hungary.

And

oaimatia, 1181

within the Empire became strengthened by increased

intercourse with the feudal ideas of the West.

Cyprus,

Trebizond, old Greece

rulers
nors.

itself,

came

into the hands of

who were

rather feudal vassals than

Eoman gover-

We have

seen

conqueror presently gave

Its Poitevin how Cyprus fell it to Guy of Lusignan. Thus,

away.

before the Latin conquest of Constantinople, a province

Latin king-

dom

(if

had been torn from the Eastern Empire

'^

to

become

< ypnis, 1192.

382
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Latin kingdom.

The Greek-speaking

lands were

now

beginning largely to pass under Latin rule.

the Frank might pass for a dehverer
;

In Sicily

in

Corfu and

Cyprus he was a mere foreign invader.

Meanwhile the Empire was again cut short

Tl> third

to the

north by a

new Bulgarian

revolt,

which established

Bulgarian

kingdom,
1187.

a third Bulgarian kingdom, but a kingdom which

seems to have been as

strictly Bulgarian.

much Vlach or Eouman as The new kingdom took in the old

it

Bulgcarian land

between Danube and Hasmus, and

presently spread both to the west and to the south.

The Bulgarian
Other
Slavonic
revolts.

revolt

was followed by other movements

amono; the Thracian and Macedonian Slaves, which did

not lead to the foundation of any

new states, but which

had
Increased

their share in the general break-up of the Imperial

power.

The work of
its

Basil

and Manuel was now uneffect

Greek
characterof
the Empire.

douc, but

uudoiug had the

of makino; the *^
It did
:

Empire more nearly a Greek

not wholly coincide with
the

state

than ever.

the Greek-speaking lands

Empire had

subjects

who were

not Greeks, and

there were Greeks

pire.

who were

not subjects of the

Em-

But the Greek speech and the new Greek

were dominant within the lands which were
Empire.
:

nationality
still left

to the

The Eoman name was now

the

merely a name
thing.

Eoman and Greek meant

in

same

Whatever was not Greek

European Eomania

The dominion of was mainly Albanian and Vlach. mainly confined to peninsula was the in the Empire
The
Slavonic
states.

the primitive races of the peninsula.

The great

ele-

ment of

later times, the Slavonic settlers,

had almost

wholly separated themselves from the Empire, establishing their independence, but not their unity.

They

formed a group of independent powers which had simply


THE LATIN COXQUEST.
fallen

'

383
chap.
'

away from

tlie

Empire

it

was by the powers of

the

West

that the

Empire

itself

was

to be

broken in

pieces.

The taking of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade was the work of an alliance between the now indepen^
dent commonwealth of Venice and a body of Western crusaders who, along with the states which they
founded,

Latin conquest of constantinople, 1204.

may be
r

indifferently called Latins or Franks. Act

regular act of partition was

to

drawn

-\

of Partition.

out,

by which the

Empire was

be divided into three

parts.

One was

to be assigned to a Latin

of the pilgrims as his

Emperor of Romajita, another feudatories, a third to the comBut the

partition

monwealth of Venice.
carried out.

was never

large part of the

Empire was never

partition

conquered

another large part was not assigned by the

act of partition.

In fact

tlie

scheme of
all.

is

hardly a geographical fact at

to

The

real partition

which the

Latin conquest led was one of quite

the

another kind, a partition of

Empire

among a

crowd of powers, Greek, Frank, and Venetian, more than one of which had some claim to represent the
Empire
itself.
Latin

These were the Latin Empire of Romania, and the

Em-

Greek Empire which maintained

which, after nearly sixty years

itself at

Nikaia, and

Romania.

of banishment,

won

back the Imperial

city.

In the crusading scheme the

Latin Emperor w^as to be the feudal superior of the

lesser princes

the

who were to Empire. For his own

establish themselves within

Imperial domain he was to

in Asia,

have the whole of the Imperial possessions

with

a Thracian dominion stretching as far north as Agathopolis.

Hadrianople, with a narrow strip of territory


384
CHAP,
^-^

THE EASTERN EMPIEE.

stretching
'

down

to the Propontis,

was

to

be Venetian.

The

actual result

was very

different.

The Latin Em-

perors never got any footing in Asia beyond parts of

the themes bordering on the Propontis, reaching from

Adramyttion

to the

mouth of the Sangarios. In Europe

they held the eastern part of Thrace, with a fluctuating

border towards Bulgaria on the north, and to the new

Latin and Greek states which arose to the west.

Their

dominion

also

took in Lhnnos^ Lesbos^ Chios, and some

others of the ^Egosan islands.

But the Latin Empire of Romania was not the only

Empire which arose out of the break-up of the old East-Eoman power. Two, for a time three, Greek
princes bore the Imperial
king.
It will
title
;

there was also a Latin

be convenient for a while to leave out of

sight both Asia

and southern Greece, and

to look to

the revolutions of Thrace, Macedonia, northern Greece,

and what we may now begin

to call Albania.

The im-

mediate result of the Latin conquest was to divide

these lands between three powers,

two Latin and one

Greek.
Kingdom
lonike.

Besides the Empire of Eomania, there was the

of

Latin kingdom of Thessalonike, and the Greek despotai^

1204-1222.

Despotatof
Jipeiros.

Of these the house of Angelos. bv o J the short-lived, was most kingdom Thcssaloniau i\^q ^ and there can be little doubt that its creation was the
held of Epeiros J
ruin of the Latin Empire.
his
It cut off the

Emperor from
soon

distant vassals in Greece,

It

whose

vassalage

became nominal.

gave him, in successive reigns, a

powerful neighbour

weak neighbour,
1

who knew his own power, and a who fell before the Greek advance

It

Byzantine
words

must be remembered that C(T7rdr>;c was and is a common title, with no worse meaning than domimts or any of the
translate
it.

which

'

thessalonik: and epeiros.

sooner than himself.
clom, nnder
its first

385
chap.

But the beginnings of the kingHis

king Boniface, were promising.

as

power stretched over Thessaly, now known

Vlachia, and he received the

Great

homage of

tlie

Frank

princes further to the south.

But within twenty years

from

its

foundation, Frank rule had ceased in Mace-

donia.
rial city,

Thessalonike was again a Greek and an Impe-

xLessaoreek.*"^'^"

and

its

recovery by the Greeks

split

the Latin

Empire asunder.
This blow came from the west.
It

was the Nicene

TheEpdrot
despotat.

Empire which did

city
;

in the

end win back the Imperial

but, for
if

some years

after the Latin conquest,

thmgs

looked as

the restoration of the

for Epeiros,

Greek power
first

in

Europe

was designed
paid a nominal

The

despot Michael

homage

to all the
;

neighbouring powers,

Greek and Frank,

in turn

but in truth he was the lord

of an independent and growing state.

in

His power began

the Epeirot land west of Pindos.

For a moment
Venice.
east.

1208-1210.

he held in Peloponnesos Corinth, Nauplia, and Argos.

Durazzo and Corfu were

Epeirot

won from
also

The
Thestitle
;

1215.

power advanced
;

to

the

salonike was taken

its

ruler took the Imperial

1222.
1225.

Hadrianople followed, and the new Empire stretched

across the peninsula from sea to sea, and took in Thessaly to the south.

But the Thessalonian Empire was

hardly more long-lived than the Thessalonian kingdom.

It

was

first

dismembered among the princes of the

rulincr house.

The

oriQ;inal

Epeirot despotat, alonf?

spparation

with Corfu, parted away from the

new Macedonian

andXhebsa^-^''

power, to survive

But by this by many years. time the championship of the Greek speech and faith
it

against the Latin lords of Constantinople

c c

had passed

; ;

3SG

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

to the foremost of the

Greek powers which had grown

up

ill

Asia, to the

Empire of Xikaia.
different processes

These Greek

powei-s were two, which arose at the

same time, but by

destinies.
The Empire timuitiou
zond. 1204-1461.

and with

different

The Empire of Xikaia was the truer conof the okl East-Eoman power; the Empire
n-r.

of Trapezous or Trebizond was the last independent

fragment of Eomaii dommiou and Greek culture,

1/^11

m ine

Trapezuutine Empire was not in strictness one of the

states

which

ai'ose

out of the Latin partition.

One of
a rival

the parts of the Empire which showed most disposition to fall

away was independently

the very

seized

by

Emperor,
Alexios

at

moment

of the Latin conquest.

Komnenos occupied Trebizond, an occupation largely wrought by Iberian help, as if the Empire, already dismembered by the Christians of the West,
was
Extent

to

be further dismembered by

the

Christians

of the further East.

The dominions of
.

Alexios, en-

Komnenian
dominion.

his brother David to the west, ax first took larged bv . c ^ in the whole south coast of the Emxme /rom the San-

garios eastward, broken

by the

city oi.Aniisos,

which
But
part

contrived to

make

itself virtually

independent, and by

the neighbouring Turkish SQitlement. 2it Samsoun.

this

dominion was only momentary.

The eastern

alone survived to form the later Empu'e of Trebizond

the western part, the government of David, soon passed

to the rising
Empire of
i206^i26i.

power of Xikaia.
that

The fouuder of
in

power was Theodore Laskaris,

whom

the succession of the Eastern

Empire was held

Con-

10 be continued.
1-214.

Ten years

after the taking of

stantinople, a treaty fixed his border towards the small

1220.

Latin donnnion in Asia.

Six years later the Latins

kept only the lands north of the gulf of Nikomedeia

'

EMPIRE OF yiKALl.
sixteen years later they held only the Asiatic coast of

387

the Bosporos.

Seven years later Chios, Lemnos, Samos,

^^

r^

chap.

Kos, and other islands were

won back by
this,

the groAving

1247.

Greek
pire

state.

But, long before

the Xicene

EmKal-

TheXiccne
Empire in
Eun.pe.

had become an European power.

first

The Thracian
at

Chersonesos was
lipolis.

won, the work beginning

Presently the Thessalonian

Emperor sank to the

;

1242. 1246.

rank of a despot under him of Xikaia

four years later

Thessalonike was incorporated with the Xicene dominions.

series of

Bulgarian campaigns earned the

to the

1245-1-2^.

Imperial frontier,
vonic Maritza

first

Hebros

and then

already the Slaof Hoemus.

to the foot

12^-1259.

series of Epeirot

campaigns won a Hadriatic seaboard,

for a while again a city of the Empire.
in these regions

and in?i^QDurazzo

The Xicene power

was confirmed by

1259.

the victory of Pelagonia,

won

over the combined forces

of Epeiros, Achaia, and Sicily.

The next year Selymbria

be guarded

12G0.

was won from the

cut

Latins,

and the Frauk Empire was

down

to so

much

territory as could

from the walls of Constantinople.

of Constantinople chanjred the
.
.

At last the recovery Empire of Nikaia into

.
.

Recoven-of
Constantinopie, 1261.

the revived Byzantine Empire of the Palaiologoi.

That Empire

stiU lasted a

hundred and ninety

its

years,

and we must carefully distinguish between

European
fell

and

its

Asiatic history.

The

Asiatic border

back

almost as soon as the seat of rule was restored to Europe.

In Europe the revived Empire kept the character of an

/.
-i

Advance

f^f

advancing power

till

just before the entrance 01 the

the Emiiire in Europe.

Ottoman
fall

into Europe, in

some

parts

till

just before the

of Constantinople.

Many

events helped to

weaken
its

the real power of the Empire, which did not afiect

geography.

Such were the

visit

earlier

Turkish inroads and

the destroying

of the Catalans.

The land

in

which

iso-i

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

advance was most steady was Peloponnesos, where, at
the time of the recovery of Constantinople, the Empire did not hold a foot of ground.
12G2.

Misithra, Monemhasia,

and Maina were the

fruits of the

day of Pelagonia.
stationary, but
it

For a while the Imperial

advanced.

frontier

was

from the beginning of the fom^teenth century

It

steadily
after

advanced perhaps

all

the

more

Peloponnesos became an Imperial dependency, or an

appanage for princes of the Imperial house, rather than

1404.

an immediate possession of the Empire.

Early in the

fifteenth century the greater part of the peninsula, inL430.

eluding Corinth, was again in Greek hands.

At

last,

twenty-three years only before the Turkish conquest of

Constantinople,
all

Peloponnesos, except the points held

by Venice, was under the superiority of the Empire.

Advance
in

111

morc uorthcm

parts the advance of the Empire,

Marednnia
andEpeiros.

though chcqucrcd by more reverses, went on steadily

till

the growth of the Servian

power

in the

middle of
towards

the fourteenth century.

Servia,
1308.

The

frontier varied

Bulgaria,

Epeiros,
itself

and the Angevin power

coast.

which established

on the Hadriatic

Even

under Andronikos the Second the Imperial dominion

was extended over the greater part of Tliessaly or Great

1318-1339.

Vlachia. Later

still, all

Epeiros, Joannina and Arta

once Amhrahia

were

won.

great Servian advance, the

At the moment of the Empire held the uninter-

rupted

seaboard from
its

the Euxine to the Pagasaian

Gulf, as well as

Hadriatic seaboard from the

Ambraits

kian
still

gulf northward.
cut off the main

But the Frank

principalities

body of the Empire from

another tale to
steadily

pos-

sessions in Peloponnesos.
Losses of the Empire in Asia.

In Asia there
frontier

is

tell.

There the

of the

Empire

went back from the

"

'

LOSSES AND GADvS.

recovery of Constantinople.
lost to

389

A
for

few points gained or

little.

European powers go
Genoa.

Smyrna

passed

'

-'-

chap.

for a wliile to

The Knights of

Saint John

won

^"j^^

Rhodes, Kos, and other islands, but they did not become
a

sJHu ",
^^*^^"^^^^-

power on the mainland of Asia

steadily
first

till

the Empii'e had

almost withdrawn from that continent.

The Imperial
The
of

Advance of

power

crumbled away before the advance of

the Seljuk and then the Ottoman.

the Tiu'k,

small Turkish

powers into which the Sultanate

split

Eoum had now

dominion
to Europe.
in

up began

to
its

encroach on the Greek

centre was transferred

Asia as soon as

By

the end of the tliirteenth century, the

Impeiial possessions in Asia had again shrunk up to a

narrow
Euxine,

strip

on the Propontis, from the .^Egsean to the

followed

Losses

more speedily when the

all lost

Tuikish power passed from the Seljuk to the Ottoman.

Brusa, Nikaia, Nikomedeia, were

years.

within twelve

i326-i338.

By

the middle of the fourteenth century, the

in Asia, save a strip of

Emperors kept nothing

PJdladeljjhia
subjects.

land of

just opposite Constantinople,

and the outlying

cities

and Plwkaia,

their allies rather than their

The Ottoman was now

rise

all

but ready to pass into

The Empire
towards Servia and
Bulgaria.

Europe, and the way was made easier for liim by the

and

fall

of an European
in its

power which again

cut

short the

Empire

western provinces.

While the

Imperial frontier was advancing in Epeiros and Thessaly,

it fell

1331,

back towards Servia, and advanced towards

fall

Bulgaria only to
often lost

back again.

Pldlijypopolis, so Lossof

and won, now passed away

the great

for ever.

And

poUs, 1344.

now came

momentary advance of Servia

conquest
buriiau

under Stephen Dushan, which wrested from the Empire

a large part of
its

Thracian, Macedonian, Albanian, and

390
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE,

Greek
possessions.

At
all

the middle of the fourteenth

century, the Empire,

Extent of the Empire.

but banished from Asia, kept no

Its other

unbroken European dominion out of Thrace.

possessions

were

isolated.

It

kept Thessalonike and

Chalkidike, with a small strip of Macedonia as far as

Berrhoia and Vodena.

ritory about

It

kept a small Thessalian

ter-

Lamia
Lesbos
liis

or Zeitouni.
fast

There was the Pelo-

ponnesian province,
there
1355.

growing into importance

islands.

was

and a few other

dominion broke
its

On

Stephen's death

in pieces,

but the

Empire did not win back

Ottoman was already
in

lost

lands.

For the was

Europe, ready, in the space of

the next hundred years, to swallow

up

all

that

left.

As

in the recovery of

Nikaia, so in the final

Eomania by the Greeks of conquest of Eomania by the

itself

Turks of Brusa, Constantinople

exception
1336.

was

of

the

Peloponnesian
to
fall.

appanage

with the
it

the
last

point of the

Empire
in

The Turk, like the Greek,

;

made
Eoss of
PLidriaTiople, 1361.

his

way
in the

by

Kallipolis

like the

Greek, he
fell

hemmed

Imperial city for years before

In seven years from his
first

into his hands.

landing,

Hadrianople had become the European capital of the

Turk
its
1366.

the

Empire was

his tributary, keeping, besides

outlying possessions, only the land just round the

The romantic expedition of Amadeo of Savoy gave back to the Empire its Euxine coast as far as
city.

Loss of
Philadelphia.

Mesembria.

Before the end of the century Philadel-

1374-1391,

phia was lost in Asia, and the Imperial dominion in

Europe hardly reached beyond the

Peloponnesian province.
salian province
Effects of
'J'imour's

city itself

and the

Thessalonike and the Theslost

were both

for a v/hile.

Bajazet

invasion, 1401.

was on the point of doing the work of Mahomet, when the Empire was saved for another half-century by ihe


END OF THE EMriRE.
invasion of Timour and
tlie

'

391
chap.

consequent break-up of the

civil

Ottoman power.
outlying points of

During the Ottoman

tlie

wars, the

-^

Empire were restored and seized

again more than once.

At

last

the boundaries of

tlie
1424.

Empire were
years before.

fixed

by treaty between Sultan Mahomet

as they

and the Emperor Manuel, much

had stood sixty

The

coast of the Propontis to Selymbria,

to-

the coast of the Euxine

Mesembria, Thessalonike and

smaller

Chalkidike, the

Peloponnesian province, the

Thessalian province, the overlordship of Lesbos, Ainos,

and Thasos, was

followed.

all-

that

was

left.

Further losses soon

hi'o.
1453.

Thessalonike passed from the Empire within

two

years.

At last,

as all the world knows, the Imperial

city itself fell,

and the name of the Eastern Eoman

Six
i4go.

Empire was blotted out of European geography.

years later

came the conquest of Peloponuesos, and the

whole of European Greece passed into the hands of

foreign masters..

Having thuB sketched the changes

the Eastern

in the extent of

Roman Empire
states

during a period of six hun-

dred and

fifty

years, w^e have

now

to trace the

geostates

graphy of the
within
its

which, within that time, grew up

its

borders or upon

frontiers.

These

fall

out of the

naturally into four groups.

states

First

come

the national ^^g

which were formed by throwing

of the Empire.

dominion ^tS"'^ These are mainly the Slavonic powers

off the

to the north, Bulgaria, Servia, Croatia,

states
tions.

and the

later

which arose out of their

divisions

and combina-

And

with these, different as was their origin,

we

Hungary,

must, for our purposes, place both the Hungarian king-

dom which annexed so many of the Slavonic lands, and the Rouman states, so closely connected with Hungarian

J^jJ^"*^

392
history,

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

which arose by migrations out of the Empire.
consists of the

Another group
off

Greek

states

which spht

from the Empire before or

at tlie Latin conquest,

and which were not recovered by the Greek Emperors

of Nikaia and Constantinople.
states
lic

Both these cksses of

Catho-

belong

strictly to

Eastern Christendom.

Latin states with the

Eiiniire.

Hungary ruUng over Orthodox Slaves forms a link between the East and the West so do those Slaves who themselves belong to the Latin Church. Another hnk is supplied by a third group of states, namel}^ those parts
;

of the
quest,
to the
Kingdom
Sicily.

Empire which,

eitlier at

or before the Latin con-

came under Latin rule.

This class

is

not confined

Frank powers in Eomania or

to the Eastern settle-

of

ments of Venice and Genoa.

it

From our
its

point of view

takes in

tlie

Norman kingdom

of Sicily and the crufiefs.

Kinjydom of
Jerusalem.

sading kingdom of Jerusalem with

In

all

these cases, territory which had formed part of the

Eastern Empire came under Latin rule.

And

in all

these cases, Latin masters bore rule over alien subjects,

Greek, Slave, Syrian, or any other.

None

of the Latin

powers were national

like the

states, like the

Slavonic or even

Greek powers.

But the foreign masters of these

lands were at least European and Christian.

class consists of
Turkish
dvnasties.

The

last

powers which he beyond the range of

civilization.

European and Christian

These are the

Turkish dynasties wdiich arose witliin the Empire.

The Ottomaus.

Of

these only the last and greatest, the dynasty of 0th-

man, became geographically European, and swallowed up nearly all the lands which had belonged to the

Empire
beyond

in
its

Europe, together
bounds.

with

much which

lay

Here we have, not only the

absence of national being, but the rule of the Asiatic

over the European, of the Mussulman over the Chris-


STATES FORMED OUT OF THE EMPIRE.
tian.

'

393
chap.
"-

Lastly,

we come
states ni

tx)

the partial redressing of this

wrons bv

the re-establishment of independent

Greek

and Slavonic

our

own

century.
it is

states.

These seem to make four natural groups, and

needful to bear in

mind
will

their nature

and

relations to

each other.

But

it

be more convenient to speak of

the several states thus formed in an order approaching

more nearly
Empire.
so early, and

to the order of their separation

first

from the
off

And

comes

power which parted

which became so thoroughly a part of

it

Western Europe, that

needs an

efTort to

grasp the

fact that its right place is

among

the powers which

had

their beginning in separation

from the Imperial throne

of Constantinople.

2.

The Kingdom of

Sicily.

This

is

the

power which, iu the course of the eleventh

by the Norman adventurers
in
Sicily.

century, was formed

The Norman in p^wtrin

^'<^''y-

southern

Italy
at

and

It

was not wholly

formed

the expense of the Eastern Empire.

But

all its insular,

and the greater part of

its

continental,

territory,
its

was

either

won

fi'om the Eastern

Empire and
that Empire.

vassals, or else

had once formed part of

Its

kings also more than once established their power,

a

for

longer or shorter time, in the Imperial lands

east of the Hadriatic.

With

the Western

Empire and
in its

the

Kingdom

of Italy the Sicilian

kingdom had
it

begiimings nothing to do, though

was afterwards

somewhat enlarged

at their expense.

When

the

Norman

conquests in Italy began, early

Possessions

in the eleventh century, the Eastern

Empire

still

kept

Empire

in

the coast of both seas from the further side of the pen-

394
CHAP,
-

THE EASTEEN EMPIRE.

insula of

Gargano

to the

head of the gulf of Policastro.

^-^

The Imperial duchies

of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalii,

lying to the north of this point, were cut off

by the

duchies of Benevento, Capua, and Salerno, over which

the
^

Empire had

at the

most a very precarious supeall

the Nor-^
nians.

riority.

Within a hundred years,

Sicily,

these

lands, to-

gethcF witli thc jslaud of

were brought under

Norman

rule.

TJius

grew up a new European power,

sometimes forming one kingdom, sometimes two, sometimes held alone, sometimes together w^ith other king-

doms.

This powder supplanted alike the Eastern

Em-

pire, the

Saracen powers of

Sicily,

and the Lombard

from two points,
later out-

princes of southern Italy.

It

started

two
County
of

distinct

Norman

settlements, of
earliest

which the

A versa,
1021.

sl;ione

thc earlier.

The

Norman

territorial settle-

nient

was the county of Aversa, held

in.

vassalage of the
its

Principality

Imperial duchy of Naples.

Forty years later

counts

1062-1068.

became possessed of the principality of Capua, of v/hich

they received a papal confirmation which implied a
denial of
lasting
all

de}>endence on either Empire.

later

The more
stage
is

duchy of Apulia began

under the advenfirst

Connty of
1042.
'

turcrs of thc house of Hauteville.

Their

marked by the
Melfi as
its

fo-undation of the county of Apulia, with

capital,

under William of-the-Iron-arm.

This took in the peninsula of Gargano and the lands

Investiture

immediately to the south of

it.

The next

stage

is

when

Leo, 1053.

Leo the Ninth invested Count Humfrey, or rather the

Normans
Robert

as a body, with

all

that they could conquer

in Apulia, Calabria,
*

and

Sicily.

The

fii^st

of several

Wiscard Duke, 1059.

Completion
of the

takings of Tarentum, and the assumption of the ducal

tltlc

bv Eobcrt Wiscard, mark another

''

stao;e.

Less

Apuiian
duchy,
lO'^-"

than
.

twenty years

later

the

Eastern
;

Empire kept

nothing but the duchy of Naples

Benevento had passed

; ;

KINGDOM OF
to the Popes.

SICILY.

395
chap.
'

The

rest of the hinds

both of the Empire

and of the Ijombard princes were now very unequally

divided between two

Xorman lords,

the

Duke

of Apulia

and the Prince of Capua.

Tlie Byzantine

power west of

the Hadriatic beins^ thus overthrown, Piobert Wiscard

for the first time

pushed the Norman arms into the

itself.

Eastern peninsula
life

For the

last

few years of

his Robert
^^^{^^'jg^

he held the islands of Corfu and Kephallenia, with

to the south,

Durazzo and the coast

far as Kastoria

and even inland

as

and Trikkala.
his son

His power was renewed

in the

for a

moment by

Bohemond, and
was again

middle

of the next century Corfu

for a short time lur-iiso.

held by King Eoger.

For by

that time the island of Sicily

was a kingdom
of Mussul1

of Western Christendom.

man

rule over the

ii'ii whole island

;

The second time

was

short,

Ti in the

Xorman
cotuiuest of

space of thirty years Count Eoger

won

the great island

1060-1093.

alike from Islam and from Eastern Christendom. Greek Kssma"^

Messina was
followed
;

first

won

after

a while Saracen Palermo

later
;

lOGl 1072

of Palermo, of Syracuse,
i"'j^;

Syracuse was

won much

the

last

Saracen post in the island to hold out was Noto in the

south-eastern corner.
Sicily,

Malta, the natural appendage of

1091
'''

was soon added.

The

first

Xorman

capital

was

loui.''

Messina.

Duke
own

Eobert, as overlord of his brother

dis-

Count Eoger, kept Palermo and the surrounding

trict in his

hands.

It

was not

till

the next cen-

tury that the Count of Sicily

city.

won
r c

full possession

of the
Palermo
capital of

Palermo then became again,

!

as

it

had been

under the Saracens, the head of

Sicily.

skiiy.

The

ruler of Sicily also

became a potentate on the

Italian mainland.

First the half, then the whole, of

Calabria formed

part of his dominions.

first

The

third

Ro-ertiu-

Great Count, the

King, of

Sicily,

Eoger the Second, hoj-um.

396
CHAP.
X.
King, 1130.
Capua,
1132-1136.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

gradually

won

the whole possessions of his family on

the mainland.

To these he

presently added the

Norman

principality of Capua, first as a dependent territory,

then as fully incorporated with his dominions.

He
still

next
Naples, 1138.

won

the last possession in the

West which was

held by the Eastern Empire, the city of Naples.

He

then pressed beyond the bounds both of the Eastern

Empire and of the early Norman conquests by the anThe

Abruzzi,
1140.

nexation of the Abruzzi.

He

then, as

we have

seen,

extended

his

power

for a

moment

east of the Hadriatic.

Meanwhile he was more

successful against the

common
As

enemies of Eastern and Western Christendom.

Sicily
Conquests
in Africa,

had twice been conquered from Africa, Africa

to

now began

be conquered from

Sicily.

Roger held

1135-1137.

a considerable dominion on the African coast including

Ilehadia, Bona, and other

1160.

points,

which were

lost

under

his son William.

Thus was founded a kingdom which

oftener than any other

has, perhaps

European

state,

been divided

and united and handed over from one dynasty of

strangers to another, but
called,

whose boundaries,
at
all.

strictly so

have hardly changed

For the only imme-

diate neighbour of the Sicilian king

tical overlord.

was

his ecclesias-

The question was whether

the king of

the mainland should be also king of the island.

But

the successive dynasties which reigned both over the

whole kingdom and over

Epirot
COlUlUPStS of William

its

divided parts were for a

first

long time eager to carry out the policy of their

founder,
the
fall

by conquests

east of the Hadriatic.

Before

the Good,
1185.

of the old Empire, William the

Good began

again to establish an Epeirot and insular dominion by

the

Kipffdom
of Marijarito,

conquest

of

Durazzo,

Corfu,

Kephallenia, and

1186.

Zakynthos.

But these outlying dominions were granted

'

SICILIAN CONQUESTS
in fief to the Sicilian
self

FROM THE EMPIRE.

397
chap.
'

Admiral Marsarito,^ who, himtitle

bearing the strange

of

King of

the Epeirots,

founded a dynasty which, with the

Palatine, held Kephallenia, ZaJcynthos^

title

of Count
into
^^^^

and Ithake
lands, like

the fourteenth

century.

Thus these
oif

Cy-

prus and Trebizond, were cut

just before
its
fall,

from the Empire

Sicily cut
Epeirot

and the revolutions of

Sicilian
.

dnminion

them

off equally

from the

kingdom. ^

more

of Manfred
l--'58.

lasting

power

in these regions

began under Manfred,

who

received with his Greek wife Corfu, Durazzo,

strip

and a
queror

of the Albanian coast, with

tlie

title

of

ofcharies
i26c-g9.'

Lord of Romania.
Charles
of

This dominion passed to his con-

Anjou,

who

further

estabhslied

a feudal superiority over the Epeirot despotat.

his

But

12:2-1270.
1282.

plans were cut short

by the revolution of the

and won more than once
to
;

Vespers.

Durazzo was

lost

History of
1322.

but

it

came back

to the

Angevin house,
till it fell

become

separate Angevin duchy,

the Albanian powers.

before the growth of

Durazzo,

Another branch held Lepanto

lasted longer.

loVs

once Naupalctos
Butrinto became
politan
at

which

Corfu

and
1373-1386.

immediate possessions of the Neathey found more lasting masters

crown

till

Venice
This .JEastern dominion of the two Sicilian crowns,

besides their influence of wliicli

we

shall

have presently

to speak in southern Greece, tends to keep

up the con-

nexion of the Sicilian kingdoms with the Empire out

of which they sprang.

But

it

can hardly be called a

geographical enlargement of the kingdoms themselves.

little state see our own 199) and Roger of Howden (iii. 161, 269), and the Ghibeline Annals of Placentia, Pertz, xix. 468. See also Hopf,
^

On

this
(ii.

very singular, but very obscure,

Benedict

Geschichte Griechenlands,

vi.

IGl.

398
Still less

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

can that

name be

given to the short occupain his character of

tion of
^upfedty
"^

Acre by Charles of Aujou

one of the

many Kings
till

of Jerusalem.
said to

The

Sicilian

Anjou.'

kingdoms themselves cannot be

lost territory

have gained or

Malta
g-ranted
to the

Charles the Fifth granted Malta to the

till

Knio-hts of Saint John,

Philip the Second added

153?*''

the Stati degli Presidi to the

Two

Sicilies.

The great
day.

revolution of

all

has taken place in our

own

The

name

of Sicily has for the first time

been wiped from

the European map.

The

island of Hieron

and Eoger

has sunk to form seven provinces of a prince

not deigned to
illustrious realm.

who
of

has
tliat

take the crown or the

title

Comparison
Sicily

.3.

The Crusading

States.

and

the crusading states.

The SiciHau kingdom has much in common with thc statcs formcd by the crusaders in Asia and Eastern Both grew out of lands won by Western Europe. conquerors, partly from the Eastern Empire itself, partly
from Mussulman holders of lands which had belonged But the order of the two proto the Eastern Empire.
cesses
is

different.

The

Sicihan

Normans began by

conquering lands of the Empire, and then went on to

win the
Empire.

island

which the Saracens had torn from the

successive crusades
first

The

founded Chris-

tian states in the lands

which the Mussulmans had won

itself.

from the Empire, and then partitioned the Empire

The
fiefs

first

crusaders undertook to hold their conquest as

of the Eastern Empire.

;

This condition was only

very partially curried out

but the mere theory marks

a stage in the relations between the Eastern Empire

and the Latin powers of Palestine which has nothing

answering to
it

in

the case of Sicily.

'

KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.
oome the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Frank principahties which
First

399
chap.
'

among

these powers

arose out of the

first

crusade.

The kingdom

of Cyprus, JenLLm" of JerusaprinciPolities in

which

in

some

sort continued the

Kingdom

lem, forms a

huk between

the true crusading states

Syria.
'^^"^^'

and those which arose out of the partition of the Empire in

the fourth crusade.

And

closely connected
Armenia.

with this was the kingdom of Kilikian Armenia whose

foundation

we have
state

already

mentioned.^
to

This

last

was an Eastern
Latinized.

which became
states,

some extent
and the

But the Syrian

Cyprus,

Latin powers which arose out of the partition of the

Empire,

all

agree in being colonies of Western Europe

in Eastern lands, states as a

where the Latin

natives, of

settlers

appear

dominant race over the

whatever blood

or creed.

The

great geographical result of the

ofi'

first

crusade
the seas

The cmoff tile

was to cut

the

Mussulman powers from

In the
first

Mus-

of Asia and Eastern Europe.

years of

f")m'the

the twelfth century the Christian powers, Byzantine,

Armenian, and Latin, held the whole coast of Asia

Minor and
Gaza.

Syria.

The Kingdom

of Jerusalem, at

its

Extent of
dom^.'f"*''
'^^'"''"'

greatest extent, stretched along the coast from Berytos

to

To

the east

it

reached some
strip

way beyond
of territory

^'"'

Jordan and the Dead Sea, with a

reaching southward to the eastern gulf of the

Eed Sea. To the north lay two Latin states which, in the days of Komnenian revival, acknowledged the superiority of the
Eastern Emperor.

These were the county of

Trijjolis,

xripoiis.

reacliing northwards to the SjTian Alexandretta^

and
Antiocu.
64o.

the

more famous principahty of Antioch.

Christendom

That great

city, lost to

in

the
p.

first

days of Saracen

See above,

379.

400
conquest,
revival,
ms.
1081.
10t)8.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

won back
to

to the

Empire

in the

Macedonian
the Frank,
fall

lost

the Turk,

won back by

remained a Christian principality long after the

of

Jerusalem, and did not pass again under Mussulman

rule
till

1268.

late in the thirteenth

century.

North-east of

Antioch lay the furthest of the Latin possessions, the

Edessa.

inland county of
lost
;

Edessa.

This was the

first

to

be

1128-1173.

it fell

under the power of the Turkish Attabegs

cut short the

Lops of the
lands

of Syria.

They

kingdom

of Jerusalem,

beyond
Jordan.

taking

away the

territory east of Jordan.

On

their

ruin arose the mightier power of Saladin, lord alike

Jerusalem
taken by
Saladin, 1187.

of Egypt and Syria.

He

took Jerusalem, and the

kiniidom which

still

bore that name was cut

down

to

the lands just round Tyre.

The crusades which

points,

fol-

lowed won back Acre and various

Jerusalem
recovered by Frederick the Second, 1228.

and

at last

the diplomacy of Frederick the Second

won back from

Holy City
one end,

the Egyptian Sultan Tyre, Sidon, and the

itself.

strip

of coast running inland at two points,

so as to take in Tiberias

and Nazareth

at

Jerusalem and Bethlehem at

1239-1243. Final loss of Jerusalem, 1244.

the other, formed the

Eastern realm of the lord of

Eome and

Sicily.

Lost
finally

and won again by the Christians, Jerusalem was

won

for

Islam by the invasion of the

Chorasmians

from the shores of the Caspian.

But

for nearly fifty

years longer the points on the coast were lost and won,
as the
Fall of

Mussulman powers or

fresh

crusaders
fall

from.

Europe had the upper hand.

With

the

of Acre,
to

Acre, 1291.

the Latin dominion on the Syrian mainland

came

an

The land won by the Western Christians from end. the Mussulman went back to the disciples of the ProThe land won by the Western Christian from phet.
the Eastern, and the land where the Eastern Christian
still

maintained his independence, held out longer.

CYPRUS AND ARMENIA.

These were the kingdoms of Cyprus and Armenia,

401
chap.
X.
Cyprus.

The

frontier of

Cyprus hardly admitted of geographical

it

change, unless

were when,
Genoa.

for a part

of the four

teenth and fifteenth centuries, the city and haven of

Famagosta passed
times, before the

to

The kings

of Cyprus Famagosta
connexion

however claimed the crown of Jerusalem, and somewhole Syrian coast was
lost,

they c?pn"and
'^'^""^ ^"^'

really held this or that piece of territory

on the mainin

land.

Meanwhile the Armenian kingdom

some

sort Armenia
ack nowle.ifj^esthe

entered the Western world,

when

its

kina, ^' after re-

Western
^'19^^'

ceiving one confirmation from the Eastern Emperor,

thought

it

wise to receive another from the Western

Emperor also. The kingdom, though sadly cut short by its Mussulman neighbours, lived on under native Then princes till the middle of the fourteenth century. the fragments of the kmo;dom passed, first to a branch of
1
/.

1312.

connexion
^t'tween

Armenia

the Cypriot royal family, and then to the reigning king Cypms,

of Cyprus.

But the

first

joint reign

was the

last.

The
ui)
1

Armenia was swallowed remnant of independent ^

the
till

by ^

^^"'^

"f

Armenia
''^?^

Mameluke lords of Syria, while Cyprus lingered on Saint Mark and his commonwealth became the heirs
king.

^^

^^**'''-

of

its last

The kingdom

of Cyprus forms a link between the

Latin states in Syria and those which arose in Eomania

after the crusading capture of Constantinople.
last

And these
Frank princ'ipalitie.<

again

fidl

into

two

classes.

There are the Frank

in

principalities

on the mainland of Greece, and there are

fell to

Greece,

the lauds, chiefly insular, wliich

the lot of the

maritime commonwealths of the West and

citizens.

of their

Po.vseft^ions

Among

these the

first

place belongs to the

cast off all traces

maritime

common-

great

commonwealth which had now

D D

^eaitiis.

of allegiance to the Empire.

Genoa, which had no

Genoa.


402
CHAP,
--

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

share in the original partition of the Empire, obtained

several points of Imperial territory, both for the

comsmall

monwealth
Venice.

itself

and

for particular

Genoese

citizens.
is

But the part played by Genoa

bcsidc
the

in the East

great

and abiding dominion of Venice.

No
Comparison
the two.

result of the partition

it

was greater than the

field

which

gavc to Venetian growth.

is
;

the two commonwealths

different.

The position of Genoa was a

mere

stransrer in the East

Venice was in a manner at

home.

Once an outlying possession of the Empire,

is

her really great historical position

in its

due

to her share

overthrow.

^ 4.

The Eastern Dominion of Venice and Genoa.

We
state,

have already seen the origin of the Venetian

Sla-

and the beginning of Venetian rule over the

vonic coasts of the Hadriatic.

Connexion
Dalmatian and Greek dominion of
Venice.

The Eastern dominion

of Vcnicc

uow

began, and, in a strictly geographical

view, her Istrian and Dalmatian dominion cannot be

from her Albanian and purely Greek doseparated l ^ ^

minion.

But Venice did not become a great European

she passed from the Slavonic lands whose

power

till

connexion with the Empire was nominal or precarious

into the Albanian
Effect of

and Greek lands which were among

. .

its

immediate possessions.
-^
_

the partition on

dates from that partition

'

of Venice The greatness ^ of the Empire which was the

_ ,

Veuic.

'

surest proof that she

allegiance.

had wholly

cast aside her Byzantine

In this point of view the history of Venice

contrasted with the history of

may be compared and

comparison between

Sicily.
_.

lu BHch casc, a part of the dominions of the

t~,

Venice and

h^astcm

Komc grcw

nito a separate

power
Europe

that
to

,i

power

passed, so to speak, from Eastern

Western,


POSITION OF VENICE.
and, in
its

403
chap.
-

new Western character,

it

appeared as a con-

queror in the Eastern lands.

But, as Venice and Sicily

parted from the Empire in different ways, so their later

relations to the
Sicilian state

Empire were
in actual

widel)^ different.

The

began

conquests

made by

foreign

invaders at the expense of the Empire.

Venice was a
drifted into

dependency of the
independence.

Empire which gradually

Sicily

Thus

became more thoroughly

kings, both

Western than Venice.

of the whole Sicilian

The attempts of the

kingdom and of
lasting.
its

divided parts,

to establish an Eastern

dominion were attacks from

without, and were not really

of the princes were lords of one fourth and one eighth '^ i

But Venice, whose 11 PI

Venice
inherits

Empire of Komania,^ took up

the

in

some sort the position of

bulwark against
as
,

tbe position of the

Empire.

Empire

itself.

If she destroyed one

the Mussulman, she set

up another.

was

really a great power, her

... mam

As long
*'

Venice
J,
.

importance
of the fourth cmsade in
history.

mterests lay east oi

the Hadriatic.
point.
It

The fourth crusade was her

at once the beginning of

turnincr Venetian

was

her Greek

dominion and the recovery- of her Dalmatian dominion.

The scheme

of partition gave

to

Venice a vast

Territory

dominion, insular and continental.

tress of the Hadriatic

Slie w^as to

be mis-

Venice by
Partition,

and Ionian

seas.

lo her were
from the

assigned, not only the islands off the west coast of the

Empii'e, but the whole western coast

itself,

north of Albania to the southern point of Peloponnesos.

She was to have some points

in

the ^gaean,

among
with a

them Oreos and Karystos

She
w-as
to

at the

two ends of Euboia.

capital,

have her quarter of the

Thracian and an Asiatic dominion, including, according

'

It is well to see this familiar title in

Greek.

The Duke

{cuvi

BcvtWnc) was ceo-To-tcw diiio^an rifirjdiic, tx^"' ''^ ^^ 6\ov ttiioq to 6\0V O TO Tb)V l>pay(CWJ' (KTi]ffaTO yivOC to TtTUpTOV Ka\ TOV TirdpTov George Akropolites, 15. ed. Bonn. TO ijfiKTv.

404
to

TIIE

EASTERN EMPIRE.
Lazia at the

some

versions, the strange allotment of

east of
in

theEuxine^

The

actual possessions of Venice

the East have a very different look.

Much

of the

territory

which was assigned to the republic never

hers,

became
Herdominion prim?['>'.
.

while

she

obtained large
to her.

possessions
point,

which were not assigned

But the main

and of her

the domiuiou of the Hadriatic, was n-ever foro-otten, ^

thouc^h ~

llaunatic.

some both of her

its

earliest

latest

conquests lay beyond

Tossessions

necessary range.
of Veuicc wliich were not
.

Auioug

tliosc posscssious

signed by

the

partition.

to her assimcd ^
.

the act of partition was her greatest

,

and most lasting possession of

This she

all,

the island of Crete.

conquest,
half,

i20G-i6<;9.

won

almost at the
it

first

moment of the
centuries
all

and she kept

1G45-16G9.
till

for

more than four

Before

and a

the

war of Catidia handed over

Ottoman.

Crete, save

two

fortresses, to the
ttun'of'^

this loss. Saint

Mark

had won and

lost

another great island which lay alto-

im"^'

gether beyond the scheme of the Latin conquerors of

Constantinople.

Late in the

fifteenth

century

the

republic succeeded the Latin kings in the possession of

Cv*"^"^
i-''^'-

Cyprus.

But

this

was held

for less than a century.

Cyprus, like Crete and

struggle between
it

Sicily,

was a

special

scene of

European and barbarian powers.

But

shared the

fate,

not of Sicily but of Crete, and became

the solid prize of the Ottoman,

Occupation
l7c\l''^,\..

when Christendom won

Another possession

the barren laurels of Lepanto.

Avhich lay out of the usual course of Venetian dominion

was the short occupation of

a

Thessalonike.

Bought of
by the
might have

Greek despot,

it

was

after four years taken

it

Turk.

Had

Thessalonike been kept,

j)assed as a late
^

compensation to the republic for the

is

If this is

what

really

meant by Laza or Lacta

in the

Act of

Partition.

Muratori,

xii.

357.

'

OUTLYING POSSESSIONS OF VENICE.

early
loss

405
chap.
"^

of Hadrianople

and her other Thraciau

territory.

But the true scene of Venetian enterprise

East
is

in

the

Venetian
both Dal-

primarily the Hadriatic, and nest to that, the

matian and

coasts

and islands of the xEgtean.

She remained both a

of her ovei'throw,
to

^reek.

Dalmatian and a Greek power down to the moment of

her overthrow^ and, at the
it

moment

was not eighty years since she had ceased

an ^gaean power.

be a

Peloponne&ian and

The Greek
Taking of
1202.'

dominion of Venice was an enlaro;ement of hr Dalmatian dominion.

It is significant that

Zara was taken

the

not
the

for the first or the last time

on

way

to

taking

of Constantinople.

Already mistress, or

striving to

be mistress, of the northern part of the

Hadriatic,

eastern coast of the

the

partition of the

nadriatic
"^
Vu!ii..e.

Empire opened

to

Venice the hope of becoming mistress

Mistress of the whole coast she

of the southern part.

never was at any one

moment
more

one point was gained

in those lands

and another
steadily
years,

lost.

But extension
for

was

aimed

at

than seven

hundred

and the greater part of the eastern Hadriatic

coast has been, at one time or another, under Venetian

rule.

The

story

of.

Venetian dominion in these parts can-

not be kept a^3art from the story of the neighbouring

Slavonic lands.

The

states of Servia

and Croatia were

from the beginning the inland neighbours of the Dalmatian coast

cities.

The

river

Tzettma

may pass

as the
states,

Servian dis-

boundary between the Servian and Croatian

renta and Eagusa, Terbounia, represented
Trehinje^

"
coast.

Pagania on the Narenta, Zachloiimia between the Na-

by the modern

the

coast

district

of the Canali, Dioklea,

taking in the modern Montenegro with the coast as far


406

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

as the

X.
.

CHAP,

Drin

Skodra ov Scutari on

its

lake, tlie harbours

all

'

of Spizza, Aiitivari, and Didcigno, were

originally

The Daima- gerviau.

tiau cities.

The Dalmatian

coast cities,

Dekatera or CatTrails

taro,

Raousion or Ragusa, Tragourion or

Dia-

dora, Jadera, or Zara, formed a

Eoman
It

fringe on

what

had become a Slavonic body.

tinuous fringe, as the Slaves
Pajj:ania.

was not even a conto the sea at

came down

more than one point.

marked
parts. ^
It

Pagania above

all,

the land of

the heathen Narentines, cut

The
Islands.

Eoman

Dalmatia into two

.

Curzola once Black Korkyra Jleleda, Lesina once At the separation of the two Pliaros and others.
^

even took in most of the great islands,

Empires the Croatian power was strongest

Croatia

in

those

lauds.
citics to

The wars

of Charles the Great left the coast

undGr
Charles the Great, 806810-

while inland Dalmatia the EastcHi .Empire, ^

rule.

and Croatia passed under Frankish

Croatia

Presently

825-830.

won

its

independence of the Western Empire,

cities

while the
Settlement

coast

were practically

lost

by the

under iiasil the Maceduniau, 868-878.

Eastem.
'

Under

Basil the
'

Macedonian the Imi^erial

authority was admitted, in

cities
'^

name
.

at least,

'

the both by ^ cen

and by the Croatian

first
,

prince.

More than a
i

rirstVenetian Conquest, 095997.

tury later came the

Venetian conquest, which was

-^
.

looked on at Venice as a deliverance of the

Croatian rule.

cities

from

The pagan power on

But
_

the Narenta was

title

destroyed, and the

Duke of Venice took the

all this

of

Duke
to

of Dcdmatia.
The
cities

involved no formal separation

_

under
Croatia,

from the Empire.^ ^

havc takcu place
^

Such a separation may be held

^
''

in the

middle of the next century,

viii.

See the Venetian Chronicle in Pertz, Venetian conquest the Duke's name is placed
in religious ceremonies.

29, 32.

After the

alter that of the

Emperor
on the

But we

see

how

slight

was the

real hold of

the

Empire on these

distant dependencies,

when we

find that,

submission of Croatia and Dalmatia to Basil the Macedonian, the

tribute of the cities

was assigned

to the Croatian prince.


DALMATIAN POSSESSIONS.

"

407
chap.

when when

tlie cities

again passed under Croatian rule, and

title

the taking of the

of

Croatian Kresimir
plete independence.

may
*

ijass for
.

King of Dalmatia by an assertion of com.

^
1062.

^^

Kingdom,

But the kingdoms,

Masyar.
that

first

of Croatia, Magyar
croftia,

then of Dalmatia, were presently swallowed up by the

ffrowmo;

power

ot the

inen comes a tune

Dalmatia,

which

this

city

and

passes to

and

tro

between
the
Croatia ami

Venice and Hung^ary.

Under Manuel Kommenos

.

Dalmatia

whole of Croatia and Dalmatia was

fully restored to tlie ^

restored to the EiDpire,

Empire

but ten years later the

cities

again passed to

n'^y^J^^^in

Hungary.

This was their final separation from the

this

Empire, and by

time Venice had thrown off

all

"

-'

Byzantine allegiance.

From

this

time the history of Croatia forms part of

the history J of the

1-1 Huncrarian kingdom. ^ ^

part

11The history
-^

struggle
for the

doniini.n of

Dalmatia.

of Dalmatia becomes

of

the long

struggle of

Venice for
years the

Hadriatic
cities

dominion.

For

five

hundred

and islands of the whole Hadriatic

and won over and over again
in the in to

coast were lost

strifes

of the powers of the mainland.

These were
;

Dalmatia the Hungarian and Bosnian Kings

more

the south they were the endless powers which rose and
fell

in

Albania and northern Greece.

all.

In after times the

of the cities

Ottoman took the place of

were
able,

And many

amid the

disputes of their stronger neigh-

bours, to

make

themselves independent commonwealtlis

for a longer or shorter time.

Ragusa, above

all,

kept

indepen-

her independence during the whole time, modified in

later times

Kagusa;

by

a certain external dependence

on the

Turk.

And

the almost invisible inland

commonwealth
its

of Polizza

a Slavonic

San Marino

kept

separate

ofPoiizza.

being into the present century.

The crusading conquest

of Zara was the beginning

riuctatious

408

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

of this lonor
-

"
'
'

CHAP,

strucrsrle.
tlie

The

frontier fluctuated during

;

the

whole of
the

thkteenth century
coast

early in the

Venice and
1315.

fourteenth

whole

was

again

Venetian.

Meanwhile the republic was

her
position

striving

further

south.

to make good The Epeirot despotat

long hindered her establishment either on the coasts

Final conquest 01 Dui-azzo

gr

the

islauds

of northern Greece.

Durazzo,

the

and Corfu, ^-^^^^^^-

between the older central point i

etian range,
liest

and the newer Venin

was won, along with Corfu,

;

the ear-

days of the conquest

but they were presently

lost, to
corfi?^^^

come back again

in after times.

The famous
its

island of

Korkyra or Corfu has a

special history of

own.

No

part of Greece has been so often cut off from

the Greek body.

less

Under Pyrrhos and Agathokles, no

it

than under Michael Angelos and Eoger,

Sicilian

obeyed

an Epeirot or a
first Second Venetian
^

master.

It

was among the

parts of Greece to pass permanently under

Eoman

dependence. ^
rule,
it

At

last, after '

yet another turn of Sicilian

-^

Cmfu^^*
1386-1797.

passed for four hundred years to the great com-

n^onwealth.
free

In our
till

own day Corfu was

not added to

Greece

long after the deliverance of Attica and

But, under so

Peloponnesos.

many changes

of foreign

masters, the island has always remained part of

Europe
lands,
It

and of Christendom.

Alone among the Greek

rule.

Corfu has never passed under barbarian

1716.

has

seen the Turk only, for one

moment

as

an invader, for

1800.

another

moment

as a

nominal overlord.

Greek advance
Venice.

The of,.. oeginnmg 01

islands.

sccoud Venetian occupation of Corfu was the

a great advance

,-,

among

,-,

the neighbouring

'ii-

But,

during the hundred and eighty years

fields of

between the two occupations, the main

tian action

Vene-

lay

more

to the north

and more to the

south.

The Greek

acquisitions of the republic at this

'

GEEEK POSSESSIONS OF VENICE.

time were in Peloponuesos and the ^Egasan islands,

409

On

the mainland she won, at the very beginning of

^
Modon and
i^oe.

chap.

Latin settlement in the East, the south-western peninsula of Peloponuesos, with the towns of

Methdne and

Korone-

otherwise Modon and

hundred
greatest

Coron

which she held

the ^Egasan

for nearly three

years.

Among
to

islands Venice
in

began very early

of
their

win an infkience
History of
Eviboia.

the

number, that of Euboia,

often disguised under the specially barbarous

name

of

Negropont}
shiftings

The

history of that island, the endless

its

between

Latin
kinds,

lords
is

and

the

neigh-

bouring powers of
part

all

the most

pei-plexed
time, c.mpiete

of

the perplexed

Greek history of the

affairs
,

Venice,

mixed up ^

the end

throughout, obtained ^ complete possession, but not till after the

m its

cf Euboia,

1390.

second occupation of Corfu.

The

island

was kept

till

Turkish
Eui.oia,

the Turkish conquest eighty years later.

islands

Several other

were held by the republic

at different times.
linally lost
till

Of

these Tenos

and MyJconos were not

-^

Loss of the
i-iands, 1718.

Venice was in the eighteenth century confined to the

western
seas.
first

Between the

and the second occupation of

in

Corfu, the Venetian

fallen again.

power
.

Dalmatia had risen and

Peace of Zara, 1.'558.

By

the peace of Zara, Lewis the Great of

Hungary shut out Venice altogether from

tian coasts, and, as

the Dalma-

Daimatia
""'''"^"-

Dalmatian King, he required the

Venetian
in the

Duke

to give

up

his

Dalmatian

title.

Later New
advance of
Venice.
1378-1455.

century Venice again gained ground, and her

Dalmatian, Albanian, and Greek possessions began to

draw near
'

together,

and to form one whole, though

of

Negropontc
of one of

wild corruption
the

Evnpos

is

strictly

the

name
lessly

tlie

Latin baronies in Euboia, and has been care-

transferred to

whole island, as Crete used often

to

be

called Candia.

410

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

CHAP,
^-^

never a contiiuious whole.

-

In

the

space of about

eighty years, amid

Bosnia,

many fluctuations towards Hungary, and Genoa a new claimant called into rivalry

Kecovery
matia.

by the

w^ar of Cliioggia

Venice again became mistress

Some
districts

of the greater part of Dalmatia.

how-

ever formed part of the

Duchy of Saint Sava, and Hun-

gary kept part of the inland territory, with the fortress

of Clissa.

The

point where the Hadriatic const turns

nearly due south

lasting
Advance in
Albania

may be

taken as the boundary of the

;

and nearly continuous dominion of the Kepublic

tlic

but for

prcscut thc Venetian

i f.

power went on spreadthe second occupation

^

nd Greece,

ino- far soutli of that Douit.

r\ Ou

of Corfu followed the acquisition of Durazzo^ Alessio,

1401. 1407.

and of the Albanian Skodra or Scutari.

the ever

Butrinto and

memorable Parga put themselves under Veneand Lepanto was ceded by a Prince of
In Peloponnesos the Messeniau towns were

tian protection,

Achaia.
1388.

still

held, and to

them were now added Argos and

in Italian

its

port of
U03-1415.
^*'^'
1423.

Nauplia,known

asNa-poli di Roniania.

Patras was held for a few years, Monemhasia was won,

for almost pa:ss which mioiit of Aiqina. i ^ .? On the other side of Greece, the part of Peloponnesos.

and the

isle

'

possession of Corfu led to the acquisition of the other

The
Western
Islands. 1449.

so-called Ionian Islands.

-J

Zakunthos ov Zante, and oi Leukadia or Santa

found
it

The prince of Kephallenia, of Maura,

^
"*
_

to his interest, for fear of the

advancing Otto-

man,
Saint
Venice the

to put his

dominions under the overlordship of

MarL
au epoch
Tlic champiouship ot Christendom against the

Tliis luaiks

champion apinst the

Europc.

.-,.[,

in the history of
^-^,
.
-,

Venice and of
,

Turk now

passes from the

New Eome to the

The

hardly

less

Byzantine city in the Lagoons.

of Thessalonike

short occupation

may

pass for

the beginning of the

'

VENICE AND THE OTTOMANS.

struG'o-le.

411

Later in the fifteenth century, Venice and

at every point.

the

Turk were meeting

'

In Pelopon;

chap.

nesos,

was Arqos "^

first

lost

to the

lurk

at the

same
,

Loss of Argos,
1463.

moment he appeared
matia.

far to the north,

and gradually
Dal1.500-1699.

occupied the Bosnian and Hungarian

districts of

Througfhout the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-

turies the inland districts

lost

and the smaller towns were

over and over again, but the Eepublic always kept

cities,

the chief coast

'

Zara, Sebenico, and Spalato.

of
If""^^^ V enice.

Meanwhile, to the south of Dalmatia, the Venetian power ^

went back everywhere, except

in the

western islands.
1474-1478.

On

the mainland Creja, the city of Scanderbeg, was

held for a while.

Bmt both Croja and Skodra were won

treaty

by Mahomet the Conqueror, and the

ended
this

which

war

left

to the

Eepublic nothing on the

coast of Albania

and

JSTorthern Greece, save

Durazzo,
followed

1479.

Antivari,

and Butrinto.

The

treaty which

the next w^ar took

panto.
-'

away Durazzo^

Butrinto, and Le-

1500.

series of revolutions in th-e islands of

which

The

estern

the Eepublic already held the overlordship placed

them

54sui483

under her immediate dominion, to be struggled for

against
tlie

Turk.

By

the next peace Zakynthos was

;

i^^^^.

kept, on

payment of
to

a tribute to the Sultan

Kephal1502.

lenia passed

the Turk, to be

won back

seventeen

years later, and then to be permanently kept. Leukadia

1502-1504.

was

at the

same time won

for a

moment and

lost a2i:ain.
lost

In Peloponnesos

Modon and Koron were

last

along

Loss of the

with Durazzo and Lepanto, and the great naval war with

neshm
1502.
i^-^'^-

for-

Suleiman cost the Eepublic her

sessions,

P^eloponnesian posall

Nauplia and Monembasia, together with

her ^ggean islands, except Tenos and Mykonos.

strictly

The
hun-

Greek dominion of Venice was now

for a

dred and forty years confined to the islands, and, after

412

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

the
'

V
venetian
Peioponnesos.

CHAP,

loss

of Cyprus
islands.

and

Crete, almost wholly to the

Western

But

after the loss of Crete

came a

revival of the Venetian power, like one of the old revivals of thc

Empire.

The great campaigns of Franby the peace of Carlowitz,

added
it

cesco Morosiui, confirmed

1685-1699.

freed all Peloponnesos from the Turk, and

to the

dominion of Saint Mark..

treaty confirmed Venice in the possession

The same
PeiopMi-

of the greater part of Dalmatia.

The next war

islands.

cost

m5-i7i8.

her the wliole of Peloponnesos, her two Cretan fortresses,

and her two remaining ^Ega3an

she had

She

now

withdrev/ wholly to the western side of Greece,

where

again

won Leukadia and

Butrinto,

and had enlarged her dominion by the acquisition of

Extent
of

Pvevesa.
sions iu

During the

last

century the Venetian posses-

domhiion
in the last centurv.

Greece consisted of the seven so-called Ionian

islauds, witli thc continental posts of Butrinto^ Prevedci,

and rarga.
Venetian
territory in

xhc Dalmatian
game

durinoj territory of the Eepublic l o the j

Dalmatia.

tiiuc cousistcd

of a considerable inland district in

the north-east, and of the whole coast

down

to

Budua,
Eagusa

except where
Somier"

the

territory

of independent
rule.

brokc the continuity of her

jealous of the mightier
ferred the
coast, at

Eagusa was so
that she pre-

commonwealth
At two

Turk

as a neighbour.

points of the

Klek at the bottom of the gulf formed by the

long peninsula of Sabbioncello, and again at Sutorina

on the Bocche, the Ottoman territory came down

the Venetian possessions on either side.
frontier

to

the sea, so as to isolate the dominion of Eagusa from

Such was the

of the two Hadriatic commonwealths

down

to the days

when,

first

Venice and then Eagusa, passed

away.

'

DUCHY OF NAXOS.
Meanwhile, besides the direct possessions of the
Venetian commonwealth, there were other lands within
,

413
chap.

the former dominions of the Eastern

Empire which were

to

Possession of Venetian
cities.

held by Venetian lords, as vassals either of the republic

or of the Empire of Eomania.
It

would be endless

trace out the revolutions of every

^ggean
to

island

but

one among the few which claim our notice became the
seat of a dynasty

which proved, next

the

the Venetian

commonwealth
in the

itself,

the most long-lived Latin

power
TiieDuchy
ofNaxos.
''

Greek world.
as

This

is

duchy variously
^

known

that of Naxos, of the Bodekannesos,

and

of the ArcJiipeJago^ the barbarous name given to the ^gean or White Sea} Founded in the early years of Latin settlement by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, the island duchy lived on as a Latin state, commonly as a vassal or tributary state of some greater

i-^or.

1207.

power,

till

the

last
its

half of the
islands

sixteenth

century.

i5(36.

Shorn of many of

by

its

Ottoman overlord,
it

by th^^
^"_y'

granted afresh to a Jewish duke,

years later

passed

thirteen

under the immediate dominion of the Sultan.

either parts of this

Most of the KyJdades were

or
fiefs

duchy

by other Venetian families. All came but some of the very into the hands of the Turk smallest remained merely tributary, and not fully anheld of
it
;

1617.

nexed, into the seventeenth century.

The year which saw the Xaxian duchy pass from Latin to Hebrew hands saw the fall of the most remarkable of the Genoese

'"

ff.t'f'^f

'^l!^^
citizens.

settlements in the

Greek

lands.

These settlements, like those of Venice, formed two classes, those which were possessions of the Genoese
1

"

Aanpr] ddXanact, as distinguished from the Euxine, the

f.uivpr]

duXaatra,

414

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

1304.

CHAP,
^r^

commonwealth
fourtli

itself

and those which came

into

the

'

hands of Genoese
Crusade
tlie
;

citizens.

Genoa had no share

in the in the

she

had therefore no share

division of

Empire, though, after the restoration of

Byzantine rule, her colony of Galata

made her almost

But the
seat

a sharer in the capital of the Empu^e.

Possessions

of dircct Gcnocsc dominion in the East was not the

on

tbe"'^
'

JEgasan but the Euxine.

On

the southern coast of that

1461.

sea the republic held Amastris

and Arnisos, and

in the

Tauric Chersonesos was her great colony of Kaffa.

The Euxine dominion of Genoa came

1475.

to
;

an end during
but
it

the later half of the fifteenth century

outlived

the Empires both of Constantinople and of Trebizond.

The ^Egaean dominion

lono;er lived
Lesbos.

of the citizens of

Genoa was

than the Euxine dominion of Genoa herGattilusio received Lesbos as an

self.

The family of
fief

Imperial
till

in the fourteenth century,

and kept

it

after the fall of Constantinople.

But the most

re-

markable Genoese settlement

The zaccaria at

in the

^gsean was

that

of C/uos.
.

First licld
.

bv priuccs of the Genoese house

.

Chios. 1304-1346.

of Zaccaria, the island, with

' '
_

some of

its

neighbours,
,

passed into the hands of a Genoese commercial comThe

Maona.
1346-1566.

pany or Maona, a body somewhat

India Company.

like
-y

Samos, Ros, and

at different times
fall

m Phokaia
i

our

own

East

on the

mainland, came

under

their power,
till

and Chios did not

1566.

under the Ottoman yoke

the

same year

as the

duchy of Naxos.
dominion remains, chiefly famous

One more
an order.
TevoiuRhodes.

insular

as the possession, not indeed of a

commonwealth, but of
possible revoluit

In a few years of the thirteenth century

all

the island of Rhodes passed through

tions.

In the

first

moment

of the Latin conquest,

'

THE KNIGHTS OF RHODES.

became an independent Greek principality, like Epeiros and Trebizond. Then it admitted the overlordship of the
Nicene Emperors.
Seized by Genoa,
till it

415

chap.

1233.

was presently
it

1246.
1249.

won back

to the
-^

Empire,

seventy years later

was

of Saint John. From seized by the Knio-hts again O mentofthe Ehodes as a centre, the order established its dominion Knights,
EstabUsh-

....
the

over Kos and some other islands, and on some points

of the Asiatic coast, especially their famous fortress of

1315.

Halikarnassos.

They beat back Mahomet

Con-

u-^o.

queror, but they yielded to Suleiman the Lawgiver

forty years later.
*^
_

1522.

Banished from Ehodes, the order

^

Their

re-

moval
^"i^a,
1530.

to

received Malta from Charles the Fifth as a

Sicilian

fief

of his

kingdom.

We

are thus brought back to the

lost to the

island

which had been

years.

Eastern Empire for

in their

seven hundred

The knights

new home

i566.

beat back their former conqueror Suleiman, and kept

their island
lield
till

the times of confusion.

Held by France,

RevoiuMalta.

by England,

held, nominally at least,

this

by

its

own

Sicilian overlord,

fragment of the Empire of Leo

finally

and of the kingdom of Koger

passed at the

isu.

peace under the acknowledged rule of England.

5.

The Principalities of

the

Greek Mainland.

The Greek

possessions of Venice, of Genoa, and of

the Knights of Saint John, consisted mainly of islands

and detached points of

coast.

The Venetian conquest of

scale.

Peloponnesos was the only exception on a great

In this they are distinguished from the several powers,

Greek and Frank, which arose on the Greek mainland.

We

have already heard, and we

shall

hear again, of the

Greek despotat of Epeiros, which

into an

for a

moment grew
the Latin

Empire of Thessalonike.

Among


416
CHAP,
"

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

powers two rose to European importance.

the

These are
in

'

duchy

of Athens

in

central

Athens.
Pfifciijaiity

according to the Byzantine

principality of

nomenclature and
Greece
in

Hellas,

the

Achaia or Moraia

Peloponnesos.
its

This

last

name, of uncertain origin/ has come, in

Italian
Use
of the

shape, to be a

modern name

of the peninsula
strictly

itself.

But the name of Moraia seems

tlic

to

name
3i6raia.

bcloug to

domalu lands of the

principality,

and

never to go beyond the bounds of the principality,

whicli at no time took in the

whole of Peloponnesos.
in the first days
finally
fall

Both these powers were founded

of the Latin conquest, and the

Turk did not

till

annex the

territories

of

either

after the

of

Constantinople.

But while the Athenian duchy lived

the prize of

on

to

become

itself

Mahomet

the Conque-

ror, the lands of the

Lordship of Athens.
1204-1205.

Achaian principality had already

o-one '^

back into Greek hands.

la

The

lordship of Athens,
first

founded by Otho de

Eoche, was

fief

of the

kingdom
mauia.
The Duchy.
1260.
co'uquesl;,^"

of Thessalonike, then of the

Empire of Eo-

But

it

was by the grant of Saint Lewis of

title

France that the

for that of

of Great

Lord^ was exchans^ed ^

into the

Duke.

The duchy

fell

hands of the

Catalan Great Company,

who

in central

Greece grew
Tliey

1^11

from mere ravagers

into territorial occupiers.

brought with them the Thessalian land of Neopatra, and

transferred the nominal
iVukes.'''''^"

title

Neopatra

to princes of the

Duke of Athens and Sicilian branch of the House

of
Sicilian

of Aragoii.

Thus the two claimants of the

crown
^

were brought face to face on old

Greek ground.
;

Hopf and Fallrnerayer gives the name a Slavonic origin Hertzberg make Mwpo/a a transposition of 'Vw^iaia. Neither derivation is satisfactory but either is better than the mulbeny-leaf.
;

Grand

Sire,
i.

Megaskyr,
p.

= fxiyag

viip/oc.

See Nikephoros Gre-

goras, vii. 5, vol.

239.

chap.

'

DUCHY OF ATHENS.
The duchy next passed
ciauoli,

417
house of Ac-

to the Florentine

which already held Corinth, Megara, Sikyou, and

the greater part of Argolis.

.

But

their Peloponnesian
,

the house .if Acciauoli.

dominion passed to the Byzantine lords of the peninsula,

and Neopatra
lived on, the

fell

into the
itself,

hands of the Turk.

The
at

1.390.

Athenian duchy

taking in Attica and Boiotia,

vassal in turn of the

Angevin king

Naples, of the Greek despot of Peloponnesos, and of

the Ottoman Sultan.

Annexed
in

at last to the

Ottoman
our

ottoman
Hofi1460.

dominions, Athens remained

day, save only tw^o

bondage

till

own

momentary occupations by Venice,

lesj.

one soon

after the first conquest, the other in the great nee.

war of Morosini.

The
but

smaller principalities of Salona and Bodonitza

Saiona

an.i

BodoDitza.

play their part in the history of the Athenian duchy

we

turn to the chief Latin power of Peloponnesos,

the principality of Achaia.

ties

The

shiftings of its dynasits

and feudal
is

relations are endless;

geographical
at the
fall

xhePrinci-

history

simpler.

The peninsula was,

time AchaL?

of the Latin conquest, already beginning to

away
1205.

from the Empire.

King Boniface of Thessalonike

its

had

to

win the land from

Greek lord Leon Sgouros.

struggle with
the

The
the

princes of the house of Champlitte and Villeharvassals.

douin were his

They had

to

Venetian settlement in Messenia, and with

Greek despot of Epeiros, who, oddly enough, held

Corinth, Argos, and Nauplia.

These

last

towns were
fief in

1210-1212.

won by

the Latins, and

became an Achaian
.

the
its greatest extent. 1248.

hands of Otho of Athens.

century, the

Before the end of half a

conquest of the wdiole peninsula, save

the Venetian possessions,

of Monemhasia.

was completed by the taking

if,

Things looked as
E E

now

that the

41

THE EASTERN EMriRE.

Latin power was waning at Constantinople, a stronger
'

CHAP.
^^^

Latin power had arisen in Peloponnesos.

crowd of

Greek

lands, Zakyntlios, Naxos, Eiiboia, Athens, even

Epeiros and Thessalonike, acknowledged at one time or

another the supremacy of Achaia.
Kecovery
Peioponthe Empire
1263!

But Latin Achaia,

to

like

Latiu

Constantinople,

had

yield

to

revived

Greek energy.
do^mouian

The Empire won back the three Laceand presently made Kalahryta
in

fortrcsscs,^

northern Arkadia a Greek outpost.

Here the Greek

advance stopped
An-evin
ship.

for a wdiile.

Bcforc the end of the century the Frank principality lost

to the
its

independence.

It

passed into vassalage

Angevin crown, and was

held, sometimes

by the

Neapolitan kings themselves, sometimes by princes of

their house

^some of them

nominal Emperors of Eo-

mania
Dismemihe'priaci1337.^'

sometimes by princes of Savoy,

Italy.^

who

carried

tlic

Achaiau name into Nortliern

Patras became an

In the course

of the fourteenth century the principality crumbled

away.

ecclesiastical

principality

under the overlordship of the Pope of the Old Eome.

1356.

Argos

f:and

its

port

became

separate

lordship.

1358.

Both of these passed for a longer or a shorter Corinth and the time -under the power of Venice.
north-east corner of the peninsula passed to the Acciauoli.

Byzantine advance. 1348-1343.

Meantime the Byzantine province grew. For gome wliile, uudcr dcspots -of the house of Kautakou^^iios, it
state.

might almost

.pass for

an independent Greek

Notwithstanding the inroads of the Navarrese,

second Spanish invaders of Greece, and the
first

1381. 1387.
1442.

the

appearance of the Ottoman, the Greek power advanced,

till it

took in

all

Peloponnesos save the Venetian towns.

S'constanJ^^to^^^''^^"

^hc

last
1

Constautinc even appeared as a conqueror at

p.

See above,

388.

ggg above,

p.

283.


DESPOT AT OF EPEIROS.
Athens and
in central Greece.

'

419
chap.
~^
'

Then came more OttoBut the

last

man
final

inroads,

dismemberment, Albanian colonization,

annexation

by the Turk.
*^

con-

i^ss-uco.
Successive

Peloponnesos queror has been twice driven to conquer ^ * ^

afresh.

Turkish
conquests
of Peip"'>nesos.

The

first

revolt

under Venetian support was ^

J-

crushed a few years after the

the

first

conquest.

Then
1403-1540.
i67o.

Turk gradually gathered

in
his,

the Venetian ports,

save so far as

and the whole peninsula was

kept on a
to

the

last

Maina kind of wild independence almost down The complete and Venetian conquest
of
all

less

unbroken

possession

Peloponnesos

by

the

Ottoman has never

century.

filled

up the whole of any one

We

have seen

how

the despotat of Epeiros parted

"^
^^^^^^l^^

away from the momentary Empire of Thessalonike. The despots, like their neighbours, often found it convenient to acknowledge the overlordship of some other

power, Venice, Nikaia,

Sicily,

or Achaia.

daries of their dominions

were greatly cut

The bounshort by the

in old pismpmoerment
ji^'e

advance of the restored Empire and by the cessions to

Manfred of

Sicily. ^

state

was

left

which took

or

Epeiros, Akarnania, and Aitolia, save the points on the

coast

-lespo-

which were held by other powers.

Aria^ the old

its

Amhrakia^ was,
with

as in the days of Pyrrhos,

head.
i27i-,3i8.
1309.
1318. 1339.

Another branch reigned in Great Blachia or Thessaly,

its

capital at Neopatra, a capital presently lost to

the Catalan invaders.

and then Epeii'os

Next the greater part of Thessaly, itself, were recovered by the Empire,
./

and then

all

under the Servian power, gradually passed i

serviau
conquest. 1331-1355.

On

the break-up of that power

confusion and endless shiftmgs,

came a time of utter which has however one

race

marked

feature.

The Albanian

now comes

fully Advance

420
to the front.

THE EASTEEN EMPIRE.

Albanian
settlers press into all the

southern
level

lands,

and Albanian

principalities stand forth

on a

with those held by Greek and Latin lords.

Kings of Albania of
the house of

The

chief Albanian

power which arose within the

t]ie

Thopia, 1358-1392.
1366.

bounds of the despotat was

northern Epeiros.

house of Thopia

m
To

Albania
their

Kings of they won Durazzo from the Angevins, and

called themselves
lasted
till

They
that

power

duchy passed

to Venice.

Servian

the south of them, in southern Epeiros, Akarnania,

dynasty in
Epeiros. 135y.

and Aitoha, reigned a Servian dynasty, whose prince

Stephen Urosh added Thessaly to his dominions, and
called himself

1363.

Emperor of

the

Serbs

and Greeks}

His

western dominion passed from him.

Kingdom
Thessaly.
Tuikiiih
con(juest.

Servian despot

of

ruled at Joannina, and an Albanian despot atArta. But

Thessaly went on as a kingdom, taking in the greater

part of
tlie

land anciently so

called,'"^

kingdom which

1393.

was the

first

Hellenic land to pass under the power

of the Turk.
139{;.

Neopatra and Salona followed, and the

to the Corinthian gulf,

Ottoman power stretched

parted asunder the
still

and

independent states of Western

Greece from Attica and Peloponuesos.

In Epeiros the Servian and Albanian despots had
Buondolmonti in Northern
Epeiros.

both to yield to Italian houses.

Northern Epeiros passed

to the Florentine house of Buondelmonte.

To

the south

The house
of Tocco.

arose a dynasty

of greater interest, the Beneventan

house of Tocco, the last independent princes in

1357.

Western

Greece.

They

first,

as counts palatine, held Kephallenia

and Zakynthos
1362.

as a fief of the Latin

Empire.

Then
in

they

won Leukadia

with the ducal

first

title.

Tliey next

began a continental dominion,

^

for a

moment

See below,
See
p.

p.

425.

141.

It

was Thessaly,

less

Neopatra attached

to

Athens,

Ptelcon held by Venice, Zdtouni by the Empire.

'

HOUSE OF TOCCO.
Peloponnesos, then more lastingly in the lands near their
island

421
chap.
~

duchy.

Duke

Charles of Leukadia
;

gradually

won
and

all

Epeiros save the Venetian posts

and

he, his wife, hos-uis.

his heirs

were called Despot of Eomania, King

This
is

of Epeiros, and even Empress of the Eomans.^

dynasty, though not long-lived on the mainland,
real

of

its effects.

and abiding importance

in the history of the

Greek

nation.

The advance

of the Albanians was checked

their settlements

were thrust further north and further

south, while the Beneventan dominions

became and

reVenetian
Turkish
opcupation. i43o.

mained purely Greek.

Charles, the

Soon
1

after the death of

Duke

Turk won Joannina and the greater part

of Epeiros

p-r-,

ITbut his

! '11 ^ son kept Arta and its neighbour-

hood

for nineteen years as a vassal of Venice.

Then
1449.

the dominions of

Duke

Charles became the Turkish

province of KarlilL
possessions
for

The house of Tocco kept its island thirty years longer. Then they too

1449-1479. i48i~i483.

passed to the Turk, to be recovered for a

tlieir

moment by

own Duke, and

tlie

then to be struggled for between

Turk and Venetian.

Meanwhile
strictly

Albanian lands, from the

Northern

Akrokeraunian point northwards, were subdued by

the Turk, were freed, and subdued again.
fifteenth century the
^

Early in the

i4i4.

Turk won

all

the Albania, except ^

Turkish
con(iuest.

Venetian

posts.

Seventeen years later came a revolt

i^si.

and a

successful defence of the country,

whose

later

Revolt,

stages are ennobled

^

by the name of George Kastriota of

Death
Jegof
.

crave his land His death ^ back to the Ottoman, while Croja itself was for a while

Croia, the famous Scanderbesr.

'

Scander-

held by Venice.
'
*

The whole Greek and Albanian

'
'

Romoei is not Basilissa Romgeorum '=Pu)fiaiioi' j^aalXiafra. uncommonly used for the 'Fot/xawi of the East, as distinguished from the Romareorum Imperator of the West.
' '

422
^HAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

mainland was now divided between Turk and Vene'

The Empire of

tian.

Lastly,

we must
the rest.

not forget that Greek state which

Trebizond.

outlived

all

Far away, on the furthest bounds

of the elder Empire, the

Empire of Trebizond had the

remaining fragment of the
rule of the

honour of being the

Eastern

last

Eoman

power.
fall

The

Grand Kom;

nenos survived the

of Constantinople

it

survived

the conquest of Athens and Peloponnesos.

Origin of the Empire. 1204.

We

have seen the origin and early history of

its

this

power. After

western dominions passed to the Nicene

to the Turk, the Trapezuntine

Emperors and Sinope

Empire was confined

to the eastern part of the south

coast of the Euxine, stretching over part of Iberia,

and

keeping the Imperial possessions in the Tauric Chersonesos.

Sometimes independent, sometimes tributary to

and

Turks or Mongols, the power of Trebizond lived on

for nearly eighty years as a distinct
Agreement
between
Constantinople and Trebizond,
1281.

rival

Eoman
in

Empire.

Then,

when

Constantinople was

again

Greek hands, John Komnenos of Trebizond was content to

acknowledge Michael Palaiologos

as

Emperor

of the Eomans, and to content himself with the style

of

'

Emperor

of

all

the East, of Iberia, and of Perateia.'

This last

name means
'

the province beyond the sea, in

the Tauric Chersonesos or CiHm. the style of

We

thus see that

it

Emperor

of the East,' which

is

some-

times convenient to give to

strictly

belongs to him of Trebizond.

East
at the

him of Constantinople, The new Empire

territory,

of the
chiefly

suffered

many

fluctuations of

hands of the neighbouring Turkomans.

of iron, was lost
;

Chalybia, the land

the coast-line

was

split

asunder

the Empire

bowed

to

Timour.

But

E3^iriRE

OF TREBIZOND.

423
up
to

the capital and a large part of the coast bore

chap.

the
till

last,

and did not pass under the Ottoman yoke

fall

^^

'

years after the eidit ~

"^

of Constantinople.
_
_

The

outlying dependency of Perateia or

Gothia was not

Turkish conquest of xrebizond;

or Perateia.

conquered

till

eleven years later

still.

As

the Tauric

Chersonesos had sheltered the

wealth,
it

last

Greek commonprincipality.

sheltered also the last

Greek

6.

TJie Slavonic States.

The Greek and Frank

been speaking arose,

states of

which we have just

for the

most part they directly

arose, out of the Liitin partition of the Empire.

On
was
their tioncfthe.
. .

the Slavonic powers the effect of that partition

.

only mdirect.

n Servia

T-ri'iii and Bulgaria had begun

b<jfore

1*
_

Effects of ^^'^ parti-

Empire on
thesiavonic.
state*.

second career of independence '

the partition,
_

The partition touched them only so far as the splitting up of the Empire into a number of small states took away
all fear

of their being again brought under

all

its

obedience.

In Croatia a^id Dalmatia

passed away.

trace of tlie Imperial

power
;

The Magyar held the inland parts the question was whether the Magyar or the Venetian The
the

should hold the coast.

were those chief independent Slavonic powers ' ^

Servia and Bulgaria.

of Servia and Bulgaria.

Of

these, Servia represents

is,

unmixed
;

Slave, as unmixed, that

as

any nation

can be

Bulgaria represents the Slave brought under

influence
is

some measure of Turanian

history of the purer race
brilliant.

and mixture. The

the longer and the

more

to the
first to

The Servian people made a longer resistance Turk tlian the Bulgarian people they were the
;

throw

off his

yoke

one part of them never sub-

mitted to his yoke at

all.

The

oldest Servia, as

we

fe1tla!^

424
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

have seen, stretched
sent principahty,
far

beyond the bounds of the presea-

and had a considerable Hadriatic

board, though interrupted by the

the Zupans or princes of the
cliief

Eoman cities. Among many Servian tribes, the

were the nortliern Grand-Zupans of Desnica on from

the Drina, and the southern Grand-Zupans of Dioklea

or Eascia,

so

called

their

capital Ea.ssa,

the

delations to the

modern Novi-Bazar. This last principality was the germ of the historical kingdom of Servia. But till the
fall

Empire.

of the old Empire, the Imperial claims over Servia

were always asserted and were often enforced.

Indeed

common enmity
1018. 1040.

to the Bulgarian, the

tie

momentary conof

queror of Servia,^ formed a

the Empire
Servia Servia
Conquest

between Servia and

down

to the

complete incorporation

by

Basil the Second.

for

The

successful revolt of

made room

more than one claimant of Servian

but the Imperial claims re-

dominion and kingship.;

by Manuel Komneuos1148.

mained, to be enforced again in their fulness by Manuel

Komnenos.
from
all

At

last

the Latin conquest relieved Servia

;

danger on the part of Constantinople

Servia

stood forth as an independent power under the kings

of the house of Nemanja.
L'elations

They had
enemies to
tlie

to

struggle

against

more

dangerous

towards

Hungary.

before the last

Loss of
Bosnia.

Even Imperial conquest, the Magyars had cut

north in the Kings of Hungary.
as

away

the western part of Servia, the land beyond the

Drina,

known
it

Bosnia or Rama.

Under

the last

name
1286.

gave the Hungarian princes one of their royal

This land was more than once

titles.

won back by
half of the

Servia

but

its

tendency was to separation and to

In the
first

growth
1326.

at the cost of Servia.

fourteenth century, Bosnia was enlarged by the Servian

'

See above,

p.

377.

KINGDOM AND EMPIRE OF SERVIA.

lands bordering on the Dalmatian coast, the lands of

425
chap.
X.

Zachloumia and Terbounia, which were never permanently

won

back.

So the lands on the Save, between

the Drina and the Morava, taking in the modern capital

of Belgrade, passed, in the endless

frontier,

shift ings

of the

at

one time to Bulgaria and at another to

Servia, thus
to

Hungary.
west,

cut

short to the

north

and

Servian

was driven

advance southward and eastward,

eastward
ward.

at the

expense of Bulgaria and of the powers which

had taken the place of the Empire on the lower Hadriatic coast.

From

the latter part of the thirteenth

century, onwards, Servia

grew

to

be the greatest power

in the south-eastern peninsula.

driatic
1

Shorn of her old Ha-

seaboard, she gained a

new and
'

longer one,
to

Herseaboard. i296.

Stretching from the

mouths
fell

/-

of

Cattaro

Durazzo.
;

Durazzo
the

itself

twice

into Servian

hands

but at

1319-1322.

time

of the

highest

j30wer of Servia that city

remained an Angevin outpost on the Servian mainland.

That highest ])ower was reached in the reign

Rei-nof
Duifhsm,

of Stephen Dushan,

who

spread

his

dominions far

1331-1355.

indeed at the cost of Greeks and Franks, at the cost

of his old Slavonic neighbours and of the rising powers
of Albania. In the

new Ser\ian capital of Skopia, Skoupi,

and
Greeks.
isie.

or Skopje, the Tzar Stephen took an Imperial crown as

Emperor of

The new Empire stretched uninterruptedly from the Danube to the Corinthian gulf. At one end Bosnia was won back
the

Serbs

The
Empire,

at the other

end the Servian rule was spread over

as

Aitolia

and Thessaly, over Macedonia and Thrace

It

far as Christopolis.
this great

only remained to give a head to

body, and to

make New Eome

the seat of

the Servian power.

But the Servian tzardom broke

in .pieces at the Breakup


426
CHAP,

THE EASTEEN
deatli of the great Servian
-

E^rPIRE.

Tzar

and before he

died,

"^
Servian
1355.
'

the

Ottoman was akeady

in

Europe.

In fact the his-

torical
split

rcsult of the great

advance of Servia was to

lands,

up the whole of the Greek and Slavonic

to

and to leave no power of either race able

the barbarian.

keep out
of Ste-

We

have seen

how

the

titles

phen's Empire lived for a generation in the Greek part

of his dominions.^

In Macedonia and Thrace several

small principalities sprang up, and a power arose at

Skodra of which we
north Bosnia
Later
Serv1a'"

shall

have to speak again.

To

the

fell

away, and carried Zachloumia with

it.

Scrvia itself comes out of the chaos as a separate

off

kingdom, a kingdom wholly cut

stretching

from the

sea,

but

southward as

far as Prisrend,

and again

Conquests
rauces of Servia. 1375.

lioldiug tlic lauds

between the Drina and the Morava.

'
^

The Turk
.

first

under

tribute.

took Nish. and brought the kinfi-dom O & The overthrow at Kossovo made Servia

1389
j^Qg'

wholly dependent.

With the

fall

of Bajazet

it

again

became
^^^^1^*2.

free for

a generation.

Then the Turk won Then the campaign

kingdom
;

the whole land except Belgrade.

of Huniades restored Servia as a free

the

1444.
1459.

event of Varna again brought her under tribute.

last

At

Mahomet

the Conqueror incorporated

all Servia,

except Belgrade, with his dominions.

The KingBosnia.

Tkc
holdiug

history of Bosnia^ as a really separate power,

its

owu

placc in Europe, begins with the break-

up
Its origin,

of the

momentary Servian Empire.

The Ban Stephen

1376.

T vartko became the first king of the last Bosnian dynasty,

under the nominal superiority of the Hungarian crown.
Thus, at the very

moment

of the coming of the Turk, a

kingdom

of Latin creed
^

and associations became the

p.

See above,

420.

'

KINGDOM OF BOSXIA.
first
it

427
For a while
chap.

power among the south-eastern

as if

Slaves.

seemed

Bosnia was going to take the place which

Servia.

had been held by

its

The Bosnian kingdom

.

at

neatest extent took in

it

Herzegovina, with,
Zara,

...

all

the present Bosnia and

.

Greatest extent of Bosnia,

1382.

would seem,

all

Dalmatia except

and the north-west corner of Servia stretching

But the Bosnian power was broken
In the time of
the

beyond the Drina.

at

Kossovo

as well as that of Servia.

confusion which followed, Jayce

^

in
_

north-west

Loss of
Jayce, 1391.

corner became a power connected with both Hungary

and Bosnia, while the Turk established himself

the extreme south.

in

The Turk was driven

The Lord of
1

out
to

for

a while, but
a

tlie

kingdom was dismembered

vassal, transferred his
.

form
Zach- Dnchyof
^

homage to the Austrian king of the Eomans, and, became sovereign Duke of Saint Sava, perhaps rather of Primorie. Thus arose the state of Herzegovina^ that is the Duchy commemorating in its half-German name the relation of
a
^

new Latin power. I'T-.' loumia, Bosnian

the old
-

Saint Saba or Herzegovina.

1440.

its

prince to the Western Empire.

But neither king1449.

dom

nor duchy was long-lived.

Witliin ten years after

the separation of Herzegovina the

Bosnia.

Turk held western

Turkish conquest of
Bosnia,

Fourteen years later he subdued the whole

kingdom.

The next year

the

duchy became

tributary,
it

and twenty years

But

after the

conquest of Bosnia

was

of iierze-

incorporated with the

now Turkish

province of Bosnia,

uss"'*'

in the \o\m o stru^^o-le CO

its

between Venice and the Turk

various parts of

territory, especially the coast,

came

under the power of the Eepublic.

Meanwhile one small Slavonic land, one surviving

fragment of the great Servian dominion, maintained
independence through
all
its

changes.

In the break-up

428
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

of the Servian Empire, a small state, with Skodra for
capital,
its

formed
as

itself in

the district of Zeta, reaching

Cattaro.

Dominion
of the house of Balza at

northwards
princes

far

as

For a moment
spread
tlie

its

of the house of Balsa

their

power
was

Skodra.

over
cut
Loss of Skodra,
1394.

all

Northern Albania

but

new

state

short

on

all

sides
itself

by Bosnia, Venice, and the

was
sold to Venice.
state

Turk, and Skodra

In the

middle of the fifteenth century, the

definite shape,

took a more

Bet^inning
of Montenegro, 1456.

though with a smaller

territory,

under

new

dynasty, that of Tzernojevich.

This indepen-

dent remnant answered to the modern Tzernagora or

Montenegro, with a greater extent to the east and with a

small seaboard taking in Antivari,
w^as
Its capital

Zahljak
;

more than once

lost

and won from the Turk

at the

end of the century

lower
districts,

it

was found hopeless

to defend the

and prince and people withdrew to the

its

natural fortress of the Black Mountain with

Establishof Tzetinje, 1488.

newly

founded capital of Tzetinje.

dj'nasty resigned his

The

last

prince of the

ment

power

to the metropolitan bishop,

state

Tlie

and Montenegro remained an independent

its

under

Vladikas,
1499.

Vladikas or hereditary prelates,

in

till

their

dominion
that of

Lay
princes, 1851.

was

our

own

time

again

exchanged

for

temporal princes.
of

During
maintain

all this

time the territory

of the mountain against

Montenegro was simply

could

so
its

much

region as

independence

the ceaseless attacks of the Turk.

as

Yet Montenegro,
and won
herallies
;

the

ally

of England

and Russia, bore her part

struggle,
at

in the great
1813.

European
and a

for

self

a haven

ca])ital

Cattaro.

Her

stood by while Cattaro was filched by the Austrian

1858.

and,
tier

more than
was
first

forty years later,

when

a definite fronso traced

it

traced.

Western diplomacy
inlet

as

to give the

Turk an

on both

sides to the

uncon-

'

MONTENEGRO.
quered Christian land.
In the
latest times the

429
Monte'

arms set free a large part of the kindred land of nesrin and won back a considerable part of the Herzeorovina, *
.

chap.

Montenegrin conquests, i"6-i877.

lost territory to the east,

including part of the old sea-

board as

far as Didcigno.

Then Western diplomacy drew

another frontier, which forbade any large incorporation

of the kindred Slavonic districts, while a small extension

was allowed
Montenegro
to the Turk. as she

in that part of the lost

ancient territory

which had become Albanian.

in the war,

Of three havens won by

filch

Dulcigno has been given back

Spizza,
Spizza.

Austria has been allowed to

filched

had before

Eagusa and
was
left

Cattaro.
to

The

third haven, that of Antivari,

those

who

had won

it

under such restrictions as armed wrong

to

knows how

impose on the weaker power of

right.

The continued independence

their

of Montenegro enables

the Servian branch of the Slavonic race to say that

nation has never

been wholly enslaved.

The

The

third

case has been different with Bulgaria.

We

have seen
Vlacho-

kingdom,

the origin of the third Bulgarian, or rather

Bulgarian, kingdom which

won

its

independence of the

Empire
garian

in the last years of the twelfth century.

From

that time to the Turkish conquest, one or

states

more Bul-

always

existed.

And

throughout the
its

thirteenth century, the Bulgarian kingdom, though

boundaries were ever shifting, was one of the chief

powers of the south-eastern peninsula.

The
was the
the

oldest Bulgaria
first

between Danube and Htemus

the Byzantine dominion, and

to

throw

off"

the last to

come under the power of the Turk. new Bulgarian power grew fast, and for a
back
tlie

But
wliile
Buigari.-m

called

days of Simeon and Samuel.

Under

1197-1267.

430
CHAP.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Joannice the frontier stretched far to the north-west,

'

over hinds which gradually passed to Servia, taking in

Skupi, r
'

Dominion of John
i2i8"'i24i

Nish, and 5
the

even Belgrade. &

Bulgaria, the

Under the Tzar

Jo^^^

Asan
its

new

kingdom of Tirnovo^

reached

greatest extent.

The

greater part of Thrace,

Phihppopolis and the whole land of lihoclope or Achridos,

Hadrianople

itself,

Macedonia

too

stretching

away to Samuel's Ochrida and to Alhanon or Elbassan,

were
all

under

his rule.

If his
it

realm did not touch the

to
its

Hadriatic or the ^gasan,

came very near

both

but Thessalonike at least always remained to

Frank

and Greek

lords. ^
its

But

this great

power, like so
its

many

other powers of
Decline of Bulgaria. 1246-1257.
shiftings of the
frontier.

kind, did not survive

states,

founder.

The rcvivcd Greek

of an older disputes ^
,

the Nicene Empire and the

Epeirot despotat, cut the Bulgarian realm short.

The
There

and of a

later time

went

on.^

was uudisputcd Bulgaria north of Hcemus, an evershifting frontier south of

it.

The inland Phihppopolis,

Arichialos

and the coast towns of

phiiippopolls finally

and Mesenibria,

passed backwards and forwards between Greek and

Bulo-arian.

The

last state of things,

f34trG6'

^^^

common

overthrow, gave PhilippopoUs to Bulgaria

to the

....
Presently a
351 )

immediately before

and the coast towns

Empire.

An
Wars with
Hungary.
1260.

attempt at extension of the north by an attack

Huno;arian Banat of Sevemi, the western part ^
'-'

qu
Qf

tlic

modern Wallachia,
title

led only to a

Hungarian invasion,

to a temporary loss of Widdin,

and the assumption of a

king.

Bulgarian
^

by the Magyar

new
to rule

He claimed

(see Jirecek, Gcschichte der Bvlgaren, p.

over the Greek, the Albanian, and the Servian lands, from Hadrianople to Durazzo.
^

The

history of George Akropolites gives a narrative of these

is

wars which

worth studying,

if

only for

its

close bearing

on the

most recent events.


KINGDOM OF BTJLGAMA.
Turanian dynasty,
in
this

'

431
chap.
^

time of
after,

Cuman

descent, reigned
for

Bulgaria, and soon

the

kingdom passed

the

moment under a
broke up.

mightier overlord in the person

dynasty ia
Bulgaria.
1280.

of Nogai Khan.

In the fourteenth century the king-

dom
has

The despot Dobroditius

many

spellings

foniied

his

name

the king-"
1357.

a separate dominion on

the seaboard, stretching from the

perial frontier, cutting off the

Danube to the ImKing of Tirnovo from

PrindUobrutcha.

the sea.

Part of his land preserves his

Presently

memory

in

its

modern name Dobrutcka.

we

hear of three

Bulgarias, the central state at Tirnovo, the sea-land of

Dobroditius, and a north-western state at Widdin.

this

By
1362.

time the Ottoman inroads had begun

Philippo-

polis

was

lost,

and Bulgarian princes were blind enough

in a second attack

to

employ Turkish help

on Severin,
Widdin.

i365-i369.

which led only

to a second
;

temporary

loss of
;

The Turk now pressed on Sofia was taken the whole land became a Turkish dependency. After Kossovo
the land was wholly conquered, save only that the

1382.

i388.

conquest
1393.''"''''"''

northern part of the land of Dobroditius passed to Wallachia.

states

Bulgaria passed away from the

list

of European
Servia.

both sooner and more utterly

still

than

Servia

had

its

alternations of freedom

and bondit

age for sixty years.

passed to a rule which,

In after times large parts of

if

foreign,
first

was

at least

European.

In later days Servia was the

to

of the subject nations

win

its

freedom.

But the bondage of Bulgaria was

never disturbed from the days of Bajazet to our

time.
7.

own

The Kingdom of Hungary.

of the

The

origin

Hungarian kingdom, and the

reasons for dealing with along with the states which

432

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

arose out of the break-up of the Eastern

Empire have

already been spoken

of.^

The Finnish conquerors of

the Slave, admitted within the pale of Western Chris-

tendom, founding a new Hungary on the Danube and

the Theiss while they
left

behind them an older Hunat

gary on the Kama, have points of contact

once with
But,

Asia and with both Eastern and Western Europe.

as closely connected in their history with the nations

Its position in south-

as sharers in the bondof the south-eastern peninsula,

'

So'

c-

garia, in

^S ^^^ ^^ ^^^ deliverance of Servia, Greece, and Bulour geographical survey they claim a place
at strictly as part of the

where they may be looked

south-eastern world.
It
Effects of

has been already noticed^ that the main geo-

graphical

work

of the

Magyar was

to cut off that south-

invasion,

eastern world,

the world
its

where the Greek and the

Slave, struggling for

supremacy, were both swal-

lowed up by the Ottoman, from the Slavonic region

between the Carpathians and the

Baltic.

At the mo-

ment of the Magyar inroad, the foundation of the

Great Moravia.
84-894,

Great-Movavian kingdom, the kingdom of Sviatopluk,

_ _

made

it

more

likely than

it

has ever been sine that

the Slaves of the two regions might be united into a

single power.

That kingdom, stretching

to Sirmiimi,

marched on the north-western dependencies of the

Eastern Empire, while on the north
batian land which was afterwards
a
it

took in theChroPoland.

Little

Such
at

power might have been dangerous

;

to both

Empires

once
in

but the invaders

far

whom

the two Emperors called

proved

more dangerous than Great Moravia could

The Magyars, Ogres, or Hunga^

ever have been.

See above,

p.

157.

See above,

p.

158.


THE MAGYAR SETTLEMENT.
rians, the

-too

Turks of the Imperial geographer/ were

chap.
-'

called

ill

by

his father

Leo

to

check the Bulgarians,

in the

-"

as they

were called

in

by Arnulf

West

to

check

the

new power

of Moravia.

They

passed,

from the

north rather than from the east, into the land which

was disputed between Moravian and Bulgarian.

.

The
906.

Moravian power was overthrown, and the Magyars,

into stepping; ^ i

Relations

its

place, ' ^

became constant invaders of

But
-

between

and their dependent lands. both Empires i

west, the victories of the
their inroads, and, save

Hungary to the ^ud Ger"many.

Saxon kings put a check

shiftings

to

some

on the Austrian

march, the frontier of Germany and Hungary has been

singularly abiding.

settlement placed While the Magyar a barrier be^^ *

_

The two
Chrobatias feparated by the

tween the two chief

whole,
it

reojions of the Slavonic race as a O

specially placed a barrier

between the two divi-

Magyars.

sions of the Croatian or Chrohatian people, those

on the

Vistula and those on

tlie

Drave and Save.

The northern
Magyar
i0"^5.

Chrohatia
it

still

reached south of the Carpathians, and

was not

until the eleventh century that the

its

kingdom, by the acquisition of

southern part, gained

a natural frontier which, with some shiftings, served to

part
it

off

from the Slavonic powers

to the north of

it.

To

the south-east an uncultivated and

wooded

tract

separated the

Magyar

territory

from the lands between

Geographical position of the

Danube wliich were still settlement held by the Patzinaks. The oldest Mac^ar ^*' thus occupied the central part of the modern kingdom,
the Carpathians and the lower *
^

Magyars.

on the Theiss and the middle Danube.

'

There the

On

the origin of the name, see Roesler, Romdnische Sfudien,

159, 218, 2G0.

There

is

something strange in Constantine calling

the Finnish Magyars TovpKoi, in opposition to the really Turkish

Patzinaks.

Germany.

De Adm. Imp.

His TovpKia and ^pciyym are o course Hungary and 13, 40. pp. 81,173. ed. Bonn.

P F

434

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Turanian invaders formed a ruling and central race,
within a Slavonic fringe
at

each end.

There were

northern and southern Croats, Slovaks to the north,

and Ruthenians

to the north-west, towards the kindred

land of Halicz or
^Hungary a kingdom
Its

Red

Russia.

Hungarv, ranking from the beginning of the eleventh

century as a kingdom of Latin Christendom, presently

growth,

grew

in all directions.

We

have just seen

its

advance
Its

at the expense of the northern Chrobatian land.

advance at the expense of the southern branch of that

race,

and of the other Slavonic lands which owed more

Eastern Empire, was
still

or less of allegiance to the

more marked.
gave royal
titles

All these lands at one time or another

to the

King of Hungary, King

also of

Croatia, of Dalmatia, of
H""K''i'"y

Eama, even of Bulgaria. But in

though the frontier

most of these lands the Hungarian kingship was temporary or nominal

;

in Croatia alone,

has often shifted,

Hungarian rule has been abiding.

has never been fully wrested

Croatia has never formed an independent state since the

first

Hungarian conquest

it

from Hungary since the days of Manuel Komnenos. In

those days
itself
it

was indeed a question whether Hungary

in

had not an overlord

the Eastern Emperor.

After the great Bulgarian revolt that question could

never be raised again.

ever
sliifting

But the Hungarian

frontier

was

towards the former lands of the Empire,

Venetian, Servian, and Bulgarian.

.

One

part of the old

Croatian kingdom, the land between Save and Drave,

Kingdom of
siavonia.

was cut

off to form, first

.

an appannge, then an annexed

kingdom, by the
shared by
it

special

name

of Slavoma^ a

rn

name

with lands on the Baltic, perhaps on the

^gasan.
But, from the
first

days of

its

conversion, the

Hun-

'

THE EOUALVNS.
garian realm began to advance in other directions, in
lands which had formed no part of the

435
chap.
"

Empire

since

<-

^'^

the days of Aurelian. Before their Chrobatian conquest, niTor

the Magyars passed the boundary which divided them
inrgen.

from the Patzinaks, and won the land which from

position

its

low.

took the name of Ti^anssilvamaJ

settle in

Colonists

were invited to

the thinly inhabited land.

One
i^us "^'f colonies.

chief settlement was of the

Low-Dutch speech from

w^as

Saxony and Flanders.

''

Another element

formed
Siculi

by the Turanian
might
the

Szeklers,

whose Latin form of

easily mislead.

Another migration brought back

of the Old

name and speech

The legendary

Eome

to the first land

from which she had withdi^awn her power.

belief in the

unbroken

life

of the

Oricin of

Eoman name and

Danube
is

speech in the lands north of the

belief. ^

mans.

merely a legendary

There can be no

reasonable doubt that the present principality of Eou-

mania and the Eouman lands beyond its borders derived

their present population

and language from a settlement

Eouman people further south. South of the Danube, the Eouman or Vlach population, scattered among Greeks, Slaves, and Albanians, at many points
of the

from Pindos northwards, has kept

ahty, but
it

its

distinct nation-

has never formed a political whole.

But a

Their
migration.

migration beyond the

Danube enabled

the Eouraans in

course of time to found two distinct principalities, and

to

form a chief element

'

in the population of a third.

Also called Slebenhilrgen, a corruption of the name of the forI

which has many spellings. must have given far more faith to it than I do now when I wrote p. 71. Roesler's book, Romdni&che Studien, has since put the whole matter in a clear light nor can I think that his arguments are at all set aside by the answer of Jung, Rorner unci Romanen in
trefs of Cihin,
"^

den Donaiddndern.

Innsbruck, 1877.

r F 2

436
There
the
of
is

THE EASTERN EMPIHE.

no sign of any Eouman population north of
the thirteenth century.

Danube before
tliat

The events

century opened a

way

for a reversal of the

ordinary course of migration, for the settlement of lands

beyond the Empire by former

Rouman
elemeut in the third
Biilgiirinn

subjects of the Empire.

We

have seen that the third Bulgarian kingdom, that

at the

which arose
origin as

end of the twelfth century, was

as Bulgarian.

in its

kingdom.

much Eouman
to that of the

By

this

time

Cumans
Dacia.

in

the rule of the Patzinaks beyond the lower

given
Mongolian
invasion.

way

kindred Cumans.

storm of Mongolian invasion,

itself for

Danube had Then the which crushed Hungary

a moment, crushed the

ever.

But the remnant of the

Cuman power for Cuman nation lived on

within the
Rouman
settlement in the

Magyar realm, and gave its king yet another The former Cuman title, that of King of Cumania. land now lay open to new settlers, and the Eouman part

Cuman
land.

of the inhabitants of the

new

Bulgaria began to cross the

districts.

Danube

into that land

and the neighbouring

In the course of the thirteenth century they occupied

the present Wallachia, and already f(3rmed an element
in the

mixed population of
began

Transsilvania.

state thus

to be formed, which took the

Eouman name

by which the Eoumans were known

bours.
Little

to their neigh-

The new

Vlachia, Wallachia, stretched on both

sides of the Aluta.

Wallachia.

To

the west of that river. Little

Wallachia formed, as the banat of Severin, an integral

part of the Hungarian kingdom.

Great Wallachia to

Great Wallachia

the east formed a separate principality, dependent or

independent on Hungary, according to

time to time.
Dobrutcha.

its

strength from

And, towards the end of the fourteenth

Another Eouman

century, the land south of the Danube, called Dobrutcha,

passed from Bulgaria to Wallachia.

migration, passing from the land of

Marmaros north


'

; -

LE^VIS

THE GREAT.

437
chap.
^-^

of Transsilvania, founded the principality of Moldavia

between the Carpathians and the Dniester.

stood to the Hungarian crown in
relation as Great Wallachia,
its

This too
shifting
c.

the

same

isTiV^'

and sometimes transferred

vassalage to Lithuania and Poland.

The
was

*-

greatest extension of the Huno;arian dominion ^

i^ewis the Great,

in the

fourteenth century,

under

the

Angevin
Hungary,

1342-1382

King Lewis the Great.

frontier

Before his time the Magyar

fallen

had advanced and

back.
its

First

having a Eussian population within

a while enlarged
its

borders, had for

^5"^

Eussian dominion by the annexation

of Halicz or Galicia.
It ofwidcun,
12G0-1264.

of

the

Eed Eussian land

had

also, for

a shorter time, occupied the Bulgarian

town of Widdin,

Lewis renewed both these conquests,

Halicz was

Conriuests

and made
1

others.
1

not only
^
^

won

but was enlarged

11by

the

neighbourmg prmcipality
of
Servia, but

!
it

again, Haiiczakd
Vladimir,
i-'542;

of Vladimir.

The great day of Hungary was contemwas a

fall

ises-iaW.

porary with the great day

longer day, and
of Servia.

Hungary

profited greatly

by the

While Lewis annexed Dalmatia, he

also at

i356.

various times established his supremacy over Bosnia

and the Eouman

of Poland

principalities.

That Lewis was king

affect

by a personal union did not

But the separation

Hunthe RedEussia

garian geography.
at

of the crowns

his death led presently to the

restoration of

Eed Eussian

provinces to Poland.

Somewhat

later, Poland,

under Sigismund, a territory within the

border, part of the county

Hungarian
pledging of
^^*

of Zips or Czepusz, was

pledge to Poland, and continued to be held by that pledged

power,

Meanwhile the Ottoman was on his march to overthrow Hungary as well as its neighbours, though the

438
CHAP
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

position of the

Magyar kingdom made

first to

it

the last to

be devoured and the

be deUvered.

Tlie Turkish

inroads as yet barely grazed the strictly Hungarian

First

frontier.
in-

The

first

Turkish invasion of Hungary, the

Turkish
vasion. 1391.

first

Turkish exaction of tribute from Wallachia, came

in the
Battle of Nikopolis. 139G.

same year

in

which Sigismund established

his

supremacy over Bosnia.

The

defeat of Nikopolis con-

firmed the Turkish supremacy in Wallachia, a supre-

Campaign
ofHuniades
1443.

macy which was again won

Meanwhile the
full

for

Hungary

in the great

Battle of

campaign of Huniades, and was again

live the reign of

lost at

Varna.

Varna.
1444.

possession of Dalmatia did not out-

Disputes for Dalmatia.

Lewis.

Henceforth Hungary is merely

one competitor among others in the ceaseless shifting^

of the Dalmatian frontier.

Hungary
under Matthias
Corvinus.

Later

in

the fifteenth century came another day of

Hungarian greatness under the son of Huniades, Matthias Corvinus.

Its

1458-1490

most

distini?uishinof

feature

was
over

1477.

the extension of the

Magyar power

to the west,

148?.

Bohemia and
lachia

its

dependencies,

and even

over the

1467.

Austrian archduchy.

In the south-eastern lands Wal-

and Moldavia again became Hungarian depenJayce was won back from the Turk,

1463.

dencies.

now

lord

of Bosnia, and, Belgrade being

frontier towards the

now Hungarian,
till

the

Ottoman was fixed

Ottoman conquest
in

the time

of his great advance northwards.

Loss of Belgrade.
1521.

The
grade.

first

stage of

Hungary,

as-

distinguished from mere ravage,

was the taking of Belends.

Battle of

With

the battle of Mohacz, five years later,

Mohacz.
1526.

the separate history of

Hungary

That victory,

followed by the disputes for the

Turkish
occupation of the greater part of

Hungarian crown

between an Austrian archduke and a Transsilvanian

palatine, enabled

Suleiman to make himself master of

the greater part of the kingdom, especially of the part

'

TURKISH CONQUEST OF HUNGARY.

which was most thoroughly Magyar.
of the sixteenth century
till

439
chap.

From

the middle

the latter years of the

seventeenth, the Austrian Kings of

a fragment of Croatia,

Hungary kept only including Zagrah or Agram, and

kingdom passed under
and
a

1552-1687.

a strip of north-western Hungary, including Presshurg.

The whole
at

central part of the

the immediate dominion of the Turk,

Pasha ruled

Buda.
the

Besides this great incorporation of Hungarian

soil,

Turk held three

-IT
-I

vassal principalities within

the dominions of Lewis the Great.

a large part of north-eastern silvama, increased by J i & the third was Hungary the second was Wallachia
'
^ ^

....
'^
: '

One was Trans-

^1

Tributary
principali-

ties:Transsilvan ia,

: '

waiiachia, Moldavia.
i^^?.

Moldavia, which
fifteenth century.

began

to

be tributary

late in the

The Eouman lands became more

on the Turk, who took
Indeed, one might for a
itself as

and more

closely dependent
their princes.

on him to name

while add the Austrian kingdom of Hungary

fourth vassal
state, as
it

a
igog.

paid tribute to the Turk into

the seventeenth century.

For the superiority of the

xheRoudisputed

Eouman
Slavonic

principalities

an endless struggle went on

between Poland and the Turk.

At

last

the same

power stepped
also.

in

to

deliver

Hungary and
Turk before

between Poland and

Battle of

Austria

With

the overthrow of the

Vienna began the reaction of Christendom against Islam

less.

which has gone on

dependence

to

our

own

day.
Recovery of from the

The wars which

in Servia

follow answer to the wars of in-

and Greece in so
land.

far as the

Turk

was driven out of a Christian

that

They

differ in this,

the Turk was driven out of Greece and Servia

to the profit of Greece

and Servia themselves, while he

to the profit of the Austrian

was driven out of Hungary

king.
<3nded

The

first

stage of the work, the

war which was

all
Peace of

by the Peace of Carlowitz, won back nearly

440

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Croatia and Slavonia, and
all

Hungary

proper, except

the land of Temeswar between Danube, Theiss, and

Maros.
Incorporation of Transsilvania. 1713.

Transsilvania

became a dependency of the

it

Hungarian kingdom, with which

corporated.

was presently

in-

Wallachia and Moldavia remained under

Turkish

supremacy.

The next war, ended by

fully restored

the

Peace of
I'assa-

Peace of Passarowitz,

the Hungarian

rowitz. 1718.

kingdom

as part of Christendom.

The Turk kept only

frontier

a small part of Croatia.

All Slavonia and the banat of

;

Temeswar were won back

strip of

the

was even

carried south of the Save, so as to take in a small

Bosnia and a great part of Servia, as also the

old banat of Severin.

Lesser Wallachia, the

Thus,

while the
Belgrade.
Losses by the Peace (if Belgrade. 1739.

first

stage delivered Buda, the second delivered

But the next war, ended by the Peace of

Belgrade, largely undid the work.

The
till

frontier fell

back

to the

point at

which

it

stayed

our

own

day.

mouth of the Unna to Orsovo, the Save and the Danube became the frontier. Belgrade, and all the

From

the

land south of those rivers, passed again to the Turk, and

Little Wallacliia
Final
loss

became again part of a Turkish delater stage of the

lost.

pendency.

At a

century Belgrade

of Belgrade.

1789-1791.
Acquisitions from

was again delivered and again

The

later acquisitions of the

House of Austria were

Poland.

made
did

in the character of

Hungarian kings, but they

the Austrian acquisipartitions of Poland,

not lead

to

any enlargement of the Hungarian

to

kingdom.
tions

Thus the claim

at the first

made

and third

rested

solely

on the two Hungarian occupations of

Eed
Galicia

Eussia.

Under the softened forms of Galicia

lands

and Lodomeria, the Eed Eussian

of Halicz
itself,

and Lodonieria.

and Vladimir^ together with part of Poland

became a new kingdom of the House of Habsburg,


LATER HISTORY OF HUNGARY.
as the greater part of the territory thus

44]
chap.
~

mains.

Between the two

partitions the

won still renew kingdom

-'<-

by the addition of Bukovina, the northwestern corner of Moldavia, which was claimed as an
w^as increased

of

sf

i776-i786.

ancient part of the Transsilvanian principality.

It

was

again only in

its

Hungarian character that the House of

to Dalmatia.

Habsburg could make any claim

Certainly

Daimatia.

no Austrian duke had ever reigned over Dalmatia,

Ked

Eussia, or the

Kouman

principalities.

Yet

in the

present dual arrangemeiit

of the

Austro-Hungarian

monarchy the

so-called triple
is

kingdom of Croatia, DalGalicia also counts to

matia, and Slavonia,

divided between the rule of

Pest and the rule of Vienna.

the Austrian, and not to the Hungarian, division of the

monarchy.

All this

is

perhaps in harmony with the

generally anomalous character of the

power of which
Spizza.

they form part.

to the Dalmatian

The port of Spizza has been added

kingdom.
It is

hard to say in which

of his

many

characters

the

Hungarian

King

and
Bosnia and

Archduke holds the lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina^ of which the Treaty of Berlin confers on
Austrian

vina!^^

him, not the sovereignty, but the administration.

They

might have been claimed by the Hungarian king in his

ancient character of

King of Eama.

But the formal

to

aspect of the transaction

would seem rather

be that

he has,

like his predecessors in

the sixteenth century,

become the man of the Turk.

After the restoration of the Lesser Wallachia to the

Later his-

Turk and the addition of Bukovina

geographical history of the
off

to Galicia,

the

Roumania.

Eouman

principalities parts

wholly from that of Hungaiy, and will be more

another section.

fittingly treated in

442

THE EASTERN EMriRE.

The Ottoman Power.

8.

CHAP.
X.

Last

among

the powers which

among them

sup-

planted the Eastern Empire, comes the greatest

The Otto-

and

most
itself

terrible of all, that

which overthrew the Empire

states

man Turks
ruins,

and most of the

which arose out of

all

its

and which stands distinguished from

abiding possession of the Imperial

the rest

by
Their
special

its

city.

This

is

the

power of the Ottoman Turks.

from
all

They stand

distin-

character as Maho-

guislied

the other invaders of the

European
that

metans.

mainland of the Empire by being Mahometan invaders.

The examples of Bulgaria and Hungary show

Turanian invaders, as such, are not incapable of being

received into European fellowship. This could not be in
the case of a

Mahometan power, bound by its

not, like the Bulgarians,

religion to

keep

its

Christian subjects in the condition of

bondmen.
be
lost in

The Ottomans could

Preservation of the subject nations.

the greater mass of those

this

whom

they conquered.

But

very necessity helped in some measure to preserve

national being

the

of the subject nations.

Greeks,

Servians, Bulgarians, have

under Ottoman rule remained

Greeks, Servians, and Bulgarians, ready to begin their

national career afresh whenever the time for indepen-

dence should come.

The dominion of the Turk Eastern Europe answers, as a Mahometan dominion,

the dominion of the Saracen in Western Europe.
in everything, save the

in
to

Comparison with the

Saracen

But
it

mere reckoning of

years,

has

power in
Spain.

been

far

more

abiding.

southern

Spain

did

The Mahometan dominion in indeed last two hundred years

yet lasted in

longer than

Mahometan dominion has

to fall

any part of Eastern Europe.

in the
lished,

But the Saracen power

as soon as
it

West began
and
its

back

was

estab-

last

two hundi^ed years were a mere

THE OTTOMANS.
The Ottomans underwent no considerable loss of territory till more than four centuries and a half after their first appearance in Asia, till more than
survival.

443
chap.
"-

three centuries after their passage into Europe.

stantinople has been

Con-

Ottoman

sixty years longer than

Toledo was Saracen.

in

The Ottoman, possessor represent way a rough J c<

1.

of the Eastern

Eome, does

Extent

the Eastern
^

Eoman

in the ottoman
dominion
coDpared with the

extent of his dominion.

dencies of the Sultans at
in,
all

The dominions and depen" the height of their power took

l^^f ^j^"

in Eastern Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, nearly

had formed part of the Empire of Justinian, with a large territory, both in Europe and Asia, which
that

Justinian had not held.

Justinian held nothing north

of the
lord,

Danube

Suleiman held, as sovereign or as over-

a vast dominion from

Buda

to Azof.

On

the

other hand, no part of the dominions of Justinian in

Western Europe, save one

city for

one moment, ever

in the

came under Ottoman

rule.

The Eastern Empire

The Eastern Empu^e,
century,

year 800 was smaller than even the present reduced

dominion of the Turk.

height
in

at its

the eleventh

held in

Europe a

dominion

far smaller

than the dominion of the Turk in

the sixteenth century, far larger than his dominion

now.

But

in the essential

feature of Byzantine geo-

graphy, the possession of Constantinople and of the

lands on each side of the Bosporos and Hellespont, the

Ottoman Sultan took the place of the Eastern Emperor,

and
r^

as yet

he keeps
.

it.

The
the

histoiT of the Eastern Empire, and that of the

in

Uttomans

connexion with

.1.
it,

irvi, was largely aiiectea by

1

Effects of

the

Mon-

goUan
advance.

movements of the Mongols

in the further East.

Mongolian pressure weakened the Seljuk Turks, and so

44:4

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

allowed the growth of the Nicene Empire.
invasions
also

'

CHAP,

Mongolian

'

led

indirectly
at a later

to

the

growth of the
it

Ottoman power, and

Origin of the Otto-

time they gave

,

its

greatest check.

The Ottomans grew out

,

of a Tm'kish

mans.

band who served the Seljuk Sultan against the Mongols.

As

his vassals, they

began to be a power

in

Asia and to

harry the coasts of Eurojoe.

They passed
far

into Europe,

and won a great European dominion

than they had
special

more quickly
This
is

won

their Asiatic dominion.

the

characteristic of the
it is

Ottoman power.

Asiatic
;

in everything else,

geographically European
its

most

of
Break-up and reunion
of the

its

Asiatic

and

all

African dominion was

/

won
the
i

from an European centre.

but not yet

Already a power in Europe,

i

m
,

possession or the
for a

imperial

city,

power.

new Ottoman power was

in pieces

moment
Mongol

utterly

broken

by the second

flood of

invasion.
is

That

the shattered dominion

came together again

an event

without a parallel in Eastern history.

The restored
it

Ottoman power then won Constantinople, and from

Constantinople, as representing the fallen Empire,
itspermanence.

won

back

tlic

lost domiuioii of the

Empire.

The perma-

nence of the Ottoman power, when Constantinople was

once won,
Asiatic,
is

in

no way wonderful. Even the unreclaimed

the

when he was once seated on the throne of New Eome, inherited his share of Eome's eternity.
The
first

First settle-

Settlements of the

Ottoman Turks were

theott'i

on the banks of the Saiigarios, which gave them from

the beginning a threatening position towards Europe.

"^*"

1299.

By

the end of the thirteenth century they were firmly

established in that region.

In the

first

half of the four-

teenth they became the leading power in Western Asia.

Conquest

Brusu, the Asiatic

capital,

won

in the last days of the


ORIGIN AND

'

GROWTH OF THE OTTOMANS.

445
chap.
'-^

Emir Othman, has a manifest eye towards Europe,

Nikaia and Nikomedeia followed, and the Ottoman
stepped geographically into the same position towards
the revived Greek Empire which the Nicene princes

1326-1330.

^Jdv?-'*

had held towards the Latin Empire. In the

the

Emir Othman

days of J^ISjss came their passage into Europe, and a Entry into
last

few more years saw Amurath

Hadrianople, completely

in his

European

capital of
in.

ism*.^'^'

hemming

Constantinople

conquest

The second
real

half of

th(j

fourteenth century was a time

"^
nopie'!

of the most speedy

advance

is

Ottoman advance, and the amount of by no means represented by the change

have seen in the case of Servia, of

ottoman
'^'^^'''^'-'^

on the map.
invasion

We

Greece, and of Hungary, that the course of Turkish

commonly went through

the time of

three stages.

There

was
age.

first

mere plunder.

Then came the

tributary stage, and lastly, the day of complete bond-

Under
title

Bajazet, the

the

of Sultan,

Ottoman prince who bore the immediate Ottoman dominion in

first

Bajazet

ussy-no?'

Europe stretched
took
in
all

fi^om the
all

^ga^an

to the

Danube.

It

Bulgaria,

Macedonia, Thessaly, and

Thrace, save only Chalkidike and the district just round

Constantinople.
states,

Servia and Wallachia were dependent

as indeed

was the Empire

itself.

Central and

southern Greece, Bosnia, Hungary, even Styria, were

lands open to plunder.

This great dominion was broken in pieces by the

victory of

Battle of
hoI?"^'^'

Timour

at

Angora.

It

seemed that the

empire of the Ottoman had passed away like the empire

of the

Servian.
his

The dominion of Bajazet was

the dis-

Break up of
nian power,

divided

among

sons and the princes of

possessed Turkish dynasties.

The

Christian states

had

a breathing-time, and the sons of Bajazet were glad to give back to the Empire some important parts of
its lost

446
territories.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

The Ottoman power came together again
;

under Mahomet the First

its

but for nearly half a century-

advance was slower than in the half-century before.

of

The conquests
Conquest
of Thessalonike. 1430.

Mahomet and

of

Amurath
lands.

the Second

lay mainly in the

Greek and Albanian

The Turk
Towards
the
its

now reached the

Hadriatic, and the conquest of Thessa-

lonike gave him a firmer hold on the ^gasan.

;

Servia and Hungary he lost and he won again he hardly

Mahomet
the Con-

conquered.

It

was the
finally

thirty years of

Mahomet

qu eror.
1451-1481.

Conqueror which

gave the Ottoman dominion

his first

Conquest
of Constantinople.
14 .).;.

European

position.

From

and greatest con-

quest of the

New

Eome, he gathered in what remained,

Greek, Frank, and Slave.

The conquest

of the

Greek

mainland, of Albania and Bosnia, the

Servia,

final

conquest of

made him master

of the whole south-eastern

peninsula, save only the points held

by Venice and the

unconquered height of the Black Mountain.

to sather in the

He began
first

Western

islands,

and he struck the

great

blow

to the Venetian

power by the conquest of

Around the Euxine he won the Empire of Trebizond and the points held by Genoa. The great
Euboia.

mass of the
Extent
his doof

islands

and the few Venetian points on the

Otherwise Mahomet the Conqueror

coast

still

escaped.

minion.

held the whole European dominions of Basil the Second,

with a greater dominion

in

Asia than that of Manuel

to theTanais

Komnenos.
it,

From

the

Danube

and beyond

he held a vast overlordship, over lands which had

obeyed no Emperor since Aurehan, over lands which

had never obeyed any Emperor

back the
Taking
1480.
of

at all.

At

last

the

Mussulman lord of Constantinople seemed about

Italian

to

win
In

dominion of

its

Christian lords.

his

last

days,

by

the possession of Otranto,

Mahomet

Otranto,

ruled west of the Hadriatic.

CONQUESTS OF MAHOMET AND SULEIMAN.

It

447
cloud
fast

might have been deemed that the

little

chap.
X.

which now hghted on Otranto would grow

as the httle cloud

as

which a hundred and

Kallipolis.

thirty years

before

had lighted on

But Bajazet the

Second made no conquests save the points which were

won from Venice.

.
. .

Selim the First, the greatest conqueror ^

.

Conquest
of Syria

of his hne agamst fellow Mahometans, liad no leisure,

and E^ypt.
1516-17.

while winning Syria and Egypt, to

Christian ground.

make any advance on

Conquests
of Sulei'='

But under Suleiman the Lawo-iver,

'

not only the overlordship but the immediate rule of

Constantinople under
its

y^fj^r..

Turkish Sultans was

spread
its

over wide European lands which had never obeyed

Christian Emperors.

Then too
first

its

Mussulman lords won

His African
ship.

back

at least the

nominal overlordship of that African

seaboard which the

Mussulmans had rent away

from the allegiance of Constantinople.

conquest of Suleiman was
also

The
;

greatest

made

in

made

the

^ga3an an Ottoman

sea.

Hungary but he The early years

of his reign saw the driving of the Knights from Ehodes,

and the winning of

last

their fortress of Halikarnassos, the

European possession on Asiatic ground.

His
;

last

days saw the annexation of the Naxian duchy

at

an intermediate stage Venice

strongholds.

lost

her Peloponnesian
Algiers,

In Africa the Turk received the com-

mendation of Algiers and of Tunis.

for Cliristendom
Sicihes,

But Tunis, won

xun^scon-

by the Imperial King of the

and won again,
Selim.
till
it

Two

chafes the
15.^1.'

was

lost

was

finally

won

for Islam

by the second
also

Jy-^joo/z'^,

granted

to the

Knights,

passed to Suleiman.
;

Under

1574.

Selim Cyprus was added

neither save nor recover

the fight of Lepanto could

it;

but the advance of the

Decline

Turk was stopped.

The conquests of the seventeenth T century were small compared with those of earlier
1 1

ottoman
power.

448

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

days, and, before that century

was

out, the

Ottoman

Terminus had begun

Greatest extent of the Otto-

to 2fO back.
last

Yet

it

was in the

half of

the seventeenth
its

man

century that the Ottoman Empire reached

geographical extent.
later

greatest

power. Conquest
of Crete.

Crete
all

was now won

a few years

1G41-1669.
of Podolia.

Kamienetz and

Podolia were ceded to the Turk

last

1C72-1676.

by Poland.
province.

This was not absolutely his

it

European

acquisition, but

was

his

last

acquisition of a great

The Otto-

man

fron-

tier falls

The Ottoman dominion now covered a wider space on the map than it had done at any earlier moment. Suleiman in all his glory had not reigned over Cyprus, Crete, and Podolia. The tide now turned for ever. From that time the Ottoman has, like his Byzantine predecessor, had his periods of revival and
recovery, but on the whole his frontier has steadily

back.

gone back.
Ottoman
loss of

The
of the

first

great blow to the integrity and independence

dealt in the

Hungary.
1683-1699.

Ottoman Empire was

war which was

have seen

ended by the Peace of Carlowitz.

We

how

Hungary and Peloponnesos were won back for Christen-

dom

so

was Podolia.

We have seen too how at the next

at

stage the

Turk gained

one end and

lost at the other,

winning back Peloponnesos, winning Mykonos

Tenos, but losmg on the Save and the Danube.

and

The
;

next stage shows the

in

Ottoman frontier again in advance

seen
it

our

own day we have

again

fall

back.

And
has,

the change which has given Bosnia and Herzegovina

to the master of Dalmatia, Eagusa,

and Cattaro

besides throwing back the frontier of the Turk, reUnion of

inland and

dressed a very old geographical wrong. the

first

Ever

since

maritime
Illvricum.

Slavonic

settlements,

the

inland
less

region of

northern Illyricum has been more or

cut
ofi"

thoroughly
its

from the coast

cities

which form

natural

DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN POWER.

outlets.

449
chap.
X.

Whatever may be the

fate of those lands, the

body

is

again joined to the mouth, and the

mouth

to

the body, and

we can hardly

fancy them again severed.

The same
'
'

arrangements which

transferred

the

administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the

King

of

Hungary and Dalmatia, have

Ottoman dominion
island of
to a

transferred another part Cypms.

of the

more

distant

European

power on terms which are

still less

easy to understand.
to

The Greek
but
it is

Cyprus has passed

held

Enghsh
to

rule

after a fashion

which may imply that the conis

quest of Richard of Poitou

not,

it is

be hoped,

by by

the

Queen of Great

Britain

and Ireland, but possibly

the Empress of India

as a tributary of the

Ottoman

Sultan.

During the former half of the eighteenth

centiu:*y Relations of
towards
Russia.

the shiftings of the Ottoman territory to the north were

all

on the

side of Austria

or Hungary.

But a new

enemy

Turk appeared towards the end of the seventeenth century, one who was, before the end of the
of the
eighteenth, to stand forth as his chief enemy.

Under

Peter the Great Azof was won by Eussia and 1 o Sixty years later great geographical changes took place

lost again. Loss and

1-11

11

recovery of Azof.

in the

same region.

By

the Treaty of Kainardji, the

Treaty of
Kainardji. 1774.

dependent khanate of Crim

the old Tauric Chersonesos

^

and the neighbouring lands

superiority of the
Sultan.

was

released from the dencrof

Russian
of Cri"m.'"

This was a natural step

towards

its

annexation by Eussia, which thus again

to the Euxine.

made her way

frontier
;

The Bug was now the

Eussian
it

presently,

by the

annexation of
fell

of.Jedi.san.

Oczakow and the land of Jedisan,

Dniester.

back

to the

By

the treaty of Bucharest the frontier alike of Bessa-

G G

450

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

of the dominion and of the overlordship of the Turk
fell

back to the Priith and the lower Danube.

the Treaty of Hadrianople she further
the
to

Eussia thus

gained Bessarabia and the eastern part oi Moldavia.

By

won

the islands at

mouth of the Danube. The Treaty of

Paris restored

Moldavia a small part of the lands ceded at Bucharest,

so as to keep the Eussian frontier

Treat}' of Paris,

away from the Danube.

But

This

last cession,

with the exception of the islands, was

1856;
Berlin, 1878.
.if

recovered by Eussia at the Treaty of Berlin.

changes of frontier in those regions no longer

affect the

dominion of the Turk.

9.
L.ands liberated from the Otto-

The Liberated

States.

The
at the

losses

which the Ottoman power has undergone

its

hands of

independent neighbours, Eussia,

dis-

man.

Montenegro, and Austria or Hungary, must be

tinguished from the liberation of certain lands from

Turkish rule to form

new

or revived European

states.
its

We

have seen that the kingdom of Hungary and

fairly

dependent lands might

come under

this

head,

and we have seen in what the circumstances of their

liberation differ

from the liberation of Greece or Servia

it

or Bulgaria.
that the

But

is

important to bear

in

mind
less

Turk had

to be driven

from Hungary, no
If the

than from Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria.

Turk

has ruled at Belgrade, at Athens, and at Tirnovo, he

has ruled at

Buda no

less.

All

stand in the same

opposition to Tzetinje, where he has never ruled.

As

the Servian people was the only one

among

the
its

south-eastern nations of which any part maintained

abiding independence, so Servian people was the

first

the

enslaved part of the

the subject nations

among


THE IONIAN ISLANDS.
to

451
chap.
^'-

throw

off the

yoke.

But the

first

attempt to form

anything hke a free state in south-eastern Europe was

made among

a branch of the Greek nation, in the so-

isiandT''^"

called Ionian Islands.

But the form which the attempt

its

took was no lessening of the Turkish dominion, but

increase.

By

the peace of Campoformio, the islands,

ceded
1797.

to

with the few Venetian points on the mainland, were to

pass to France.

By

the treaty of the next year between

septinsuiar

Russia and the Turk, the points on the mainland were

to

under ottolordsinp. 1798.

be handed over to the Turk, while the islands w^ere

to

form a commonwealth, tributary to the Turk, but

under the protection of Eussia. Thus, besides an advance

of the Turk's immediate dominion on the mainland, his
overlordship was to be extended over the islands, inclu- The v enetian outpo^stj

ding Corfu, the one island which had never come under
his

given

power.

The other

points on the mainland passed,

Turk.
Surrender
1819.

not so

much

to the Sultan as to his rebellious vassal All

;

of Joannina

but Parga kept

its

freedom

till

five

years

after the general peace.

Thus the Turk made

his last ah Albania and

continental

encroachment on Christendom, and held for a moment

the whole of the Greek and Albanian mainland.
islands meanwhile, tossed to

Greece
^'^^

and

fro during the

The war

""'^f lurk.

The Ionian

between France and England, were

at the peace again under

protection. 1815.

made

into a

nominal commonwealth, but under a form

of British protection

which

it is

not easy to distinguish

a nominally free
possibility of

from British sovereignty.

state

Still

Greek
Greek

was again

set up,

and the

freedom on a larger scale was practically acknowledged.

It

was only

for a very short

all

time that the Turk

The Greek
dependence.

held complete possession of

Greece.
the

Albania and continental

Two years after the betrayal of Parga began Greek War of Independence. The geographical
tlie

xtnt of
nation?^'^

disposition of

Greek nation has changed very

G G 2

little

452
CHAP.
X.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

since

the

Latin conquest
little

of Constantinople

it

has

changed very

since the later days of old Hellas.

At

all

these stages

some other people has held the

solid

mainland of south-eastern Europe and of western Asia,

while the Greek has been the prevailing race on the
coasts, the islands, the peninsular lands, of

both conti-

nents,
General
(

from Durazzo
at

to Trebizond.

Within this range the

Greeks revolted

every point where they were strong

all.

Ireek

revolt.

enough

to revolt at

But

it

was only

in the old

Kxtent
of the liberated
territory.

Hellenic mainland, and in Crete and others of the ..^llgsean

islands, that the

Greeks were able

to hold their ground.

1829-18S3.

Of

these lands

some

parts

were allowed by Western

Kingdom
of Greece.

diplomacy to keep their freedom.

Greece

Kingdom

of

was formed, taking

in Peloponnesos, Euboia,

the Kyklades, and a small part of central Greece, south

of a line

drawn from the gulf of Arta

Greek lands and

to the gulf of

Volo.

But the Turk was allowed

distant

to hold, not only the

more
Ionian
islands added to Greece. 1864.

islands, but

Epeiros,

Thessaly, and Crete.

The kingdom was afterwards

Eepublic

enlarged by the addition of the Ionian islands, whose

nominal

Septinsular

was merged

in

the

Treaty of
Berlin. 1878.

kingdom.

By

the Treaty of Berlin, Crete, which had

twice risen, was thrust back into bondage, but parts of

Thessaly and Epeiros were ordered to be set free and

Its pro-

to

mises
unfulfilled.

be added to the kingdom.

But even

this small instal-

ment of Greek emancipation has not yet been

out.

carried

First revolt and deliverance of Servia.

Between the

first

and the second establishment of

the Ionian commonwealth, Servia

had been delivered

first

1805-1812.

and had been conquered

again.

The
It

revolt

made

Second
revolt and deliver-

Servia a tributary principality.

was then won back

Its

by the Turk

and

again

delivered.

freedom,

DELIVERANCE OF SERVIA AND ROUMANIA.

modified by the payment of tribute and by the presence
of Turkish garrisons in certain towns, was decreed
the peace of

453

by
1817-1829.
^,^^~^^^^'

Akerman,and was

carried out

by the treaty
esta-

of Hadrianople.

Fifty years after

its

the second

blishment of the principahty,

practical

freedom was

5'^rki\^
fgj^^^"^-

made good by the withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons. The last changes have made Servia, under a native
.

dynasty, an independent state, released from

or vassalage.

all

tribute

Serviaindependent with an

a slight

The same changes have given Servia But the boundary is so increase of territory.
.
.

f^^'^^''^-

Servian
left to the,

drawn

as to leave part of the old Servian land to the

Turk.

Turk, and carefully to keep the frontiers of the Servian

and Montenegrin
the Servian nation

principalities apart.
is split

That

is

to say,

into four parts

Montenegro,
some under

free Servia, Turkish Servia,

and those Servian lands

which

are,

some under the

'

administration,'

the acknowledged rule, of the

King of Hungary and

Dalmatia.

While Servia and Greece were under the immediate rule of the Turk, the

The

Rouman
p^q?palities.

Eouraan lands of Wallachia

se-

and Moldavia always kept a certain measure of

parate being.
princes,

The Turk named and deposed but they never came under his direct

their
rule.

After the Treaty of Paris, the two principalities, being

again
first

allowed to choose for themselves,

took the
prince,

union of
ald^*^*^'""

step towards union

by choosing the same

Then followed

their complete union as the Principality

isgi.*^"*'

of Roumanian Paying tribute to the Turk, but otherwise free. The last changes have made Roumania,
n as well as Servia, an
11

mdependent

state,

/*

independence of

its irontier Roumania.

towards Eussia, enlarged at Pans, was cut short at

Berlin.

But

this last

treaty restored to

it

the land of

ftStk-r.

454

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Dohrutcha south of the Danube, thus giving
'

'

'

CHAP.

tlie

new
a

state a certain

Euxine sea-board.

Thus the Roumans,

still

the Romance-speaking people of Eastern Europe,

scattered

remnant

in

their older seats, have, in their

great colony on the Danube, place

won

for themselves a

among

the nations of Europe.

Lastly,

while

Servia

and

Eoumania have been

which

wholly freed from the yoke, a part of Bulgaria has been

raised to that position of practical independence
The Buistefano.

they formerly held.

The Russian

treaty of

San Stefano

dccrccd a tributary principality of Bulgaria, whose boundaries

cam most nearly to those of the third Bulgarian kingdom at its greatest extent. But it was to have, what
no Bulgarian
state

had had

before,

a considerable
effect of

^gean
would

sea-board.

This would have had the

sphtting the immediate dominion of the

also

Turk

in two. It

have had the real

fault of

adding to Bulgaria

some
Treaty of
Division of

districts

which ought rather

to be

added

to free to

Grcecc.
tlic

By the Treaty

of Berlin the

Turk was

keep

wliolc uorth coast of the -^gaean, while the Bulgarian

nation was split into three parts, in three different political conditions.

The

oldest

and

latest

Bulgarian land,

Free.

Danube and Balkan, forms, with the cxccptiou of the comcr ceded to Roumania, the tributary Principality of Bulgaria. The land immethe land between
diately south of the

Danube, the southern Bulgaria of

to the

history
Half-free.

northern Roumelia, according

Its

compass

name of Eastern Roumelia., name which would more naturally take in Constanrcccives the diplomatic
political

tinople.

condition

is

described as
it

'

ad-

ministrative autonomy,'

a half-way house,

would
in

seem, between bondage and freedom.

Meanwhile

TRIPLE PARTITION OF BULGARIA.

the old Macedonian land, the land for which Basil and

455

Samuel strove so

stoutly, the question

between Greek
Enslaved.

and Bulgarian
of the Turk.

is

held to be solved by handing over

alike to the

Greek and Bulgarian

uncovenanted mercies

We may
by taking
at

end our survey of the south-eastern lands

1

a general view of their geographical position

in their

General Survey.

some of the most important points At the end of the eighth century we Empire still stretching from Tauros
everywhere, save
in its

history.
soo.

see the Eastern

to Sardinia
;

but
has
It

solid Asiatic peninsula,

it

shrunk up into a dominion of coasts and

still

islands.

holds Sicily, Sardinia, and Crete, the heel and the

toe of Italy, the outlying duchies of

Campania, the outIn

its

lying

duchy

at the

head of the Hadriatic.

it

great

European peninsula

holds the whole of the

^gaean
far

coast, a great part of the coasts of the

Euxine and the

Hadriatic.

But the lord of the sea

;

rules

nowhere

from the sea

the inland regions are held, partly

by

the great Bulgarian power, partly

tribes

by smaller Slavonic
next century the

fluctuating

between independence and formal

the

submission.

At

end of the

900.

general character of the East-Eoman dominion remains

the

same, but

many

points of detail have changed.

;

Sardinia and Crete are lost

left

a corner

is

all

that

is

in Sicily; but the Imperial

power

is

acknowledged
;

along the whole eastern Hadriatic coast

the toe have
Italy
;

the heel and

all

grown

into the

dominion of

southern

all

Greece has been

But the Empire has

Turanian Magyar
is

won back to the Empire. now new neighbours. The

Russians,

seated on the Danube, and other

kindred nations are pressing in his wake.

456
CHAP.
Slaves that
is

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

under Scandinavian leadership, threaten the

X
1000,

Empire by
Sicily

sea.

The last year of the tenth century shows

but Crete and Cyprus

wholly

lost,

won back
;

Kilikia and Northern Syria are

won

again

Bulgaria

is

won and lost again; Eussian establishment on the Danube

is
is

put off for eight hundred years

the great struggle

going on to decide whether the Slave or the Eastern

in the south-eastern peninsula.

Eoman is to rule one moment in

c.

At
the

the

eleventh
at

century
its full

we

see

1040.

dominion of the

New Eome
its

height.

Europe

south of the Danube and

great tributaries, Asia to

Caucasus and almost to the Caspian, form a compact

body of dominion,
the

stretching from the Venetian isles to

cities.
;

old Phoenician
is

The
is

Italian

and insular

dominion
c.

untouched

it

enlarged for a

moment
fright-

1090.

by Sicihan conquest.
later,

Another glance, half-a-century

shows the time when the Empire was most

fully cut short

by old enemies and new.

The Servian

wins back his

own land

the Saracen wins back Sicily.

The Norman
to the
cities in

in Italy cuts

down

the Imperial dominion

last

nominal superiority of Naples, the

the West, as

of Greek

Kyme was

the

first.

For

moment he even
as

plants himself east of Hadria, and

rends away Corfu and Durazzo from the Eastern world,

Eome

rent

them away

thirteen centuries before.

;

c.

1180.

The Turk swallows up the inland provinces of Asia he and leaves to the Empire no Asiatic dominion beyond a strip of Euxine and ^gean coast. Towards the end of the twelfth century, the Empire is restored to its full extent in Europe
plants his throne at Nikaia,
;

Servia and Dalmatia are

looks like a vassal.

won

back,

Hungary

itself

In Asia the inland realm of the

Turk

is

hemmed

in

by the strong Imperial grasp of the


GENERAL SURVEY.
whole
coast-line,

'

457
chap.

Euxine, ^gaean, and Mediterranean,

the beginning of the final
is

At

the next
;

moment comes
before the

overthrow

century

out, the

distant

c.

1200.

possessions of the

Empire have

either fallen

away of

themselves, or have been rent

away by other powers.

Bulgaria, Cyprus, Trebizond, Corfu, even Epeiros and

Hellas, have parted away, or are in the act of parting

away.

Venice,

its

long nominal homage cast aside,

joins with faithless crusaders to split the

pieces.

Empire

in
;

1204.

the

The Flemish Emperor reigns at Constantinople Lombard King reigns at Thessalonike Achaia,
;

Athens, Naxos,
dynasties
;

give

their

names

to

more

abiding

Venice plants herself firmly in Crete and

Still

Peloponnesos.

the

Empire

is

not dead.

The

Frank, victorious in Europe, hardly wins a footing in

Asia.

Nikaia and Trebizond keep on the Imperial suc-

cession,
also,

and a third Greek power,

it

for a

moment

Imperial
islands.
1200.

holds

in

Western Greece and the

has
;

Fifty years later, the

Empire of Nikaia has become an

already outlived the Latin
it

European power
dominion

it

at Thessalonike
;

has checked the revived

power of Bulgaria
to the immediate

it

has cut short the Latin Empire

city.
is

neighbourhood of the Imperial

is

To

the north Servia

;

strengthening herself; Bosnia

coming into being

and fro among

the Dalmatian cities are tossed to

their neighbours.

Another glance

at the
1.300.

end of the thirteenth century shows us the revived East-

Eoman Empire
three seas of
its

in its

old Imperial seat,

still

in

Europe

an advancing and conquering power, ruling on the

own peninsula, established once more in

state,

Peloponnesos, a compact and seemingly powerful

as

compared with the Epeirot, Achaian, and Athenian

with the scattered possessions of Venice

principalities, or

458
CHAP,
^

THE EASTERN EMPIEE.

in
'

the Greek lands.

But the power which seems Europe has

all

so
in

firmly established in
Asia. There the

but passed

away

Turk has taken the place

as
earlier.

of the Greek,

and the Greek the place of the Frank,

they stood a

hundred years

And
is

behind the immediate

mightier
its

Turkish enemies stands that younger and Turkish power which

bours,
c.

to

swallow up

all

neigh-

Mussulman and

Christian.

In the central years

1354.

of the fourteenth century

in

we

see the

Empire hemmed
Asiatic,

between two enemies, European and

at

which

have risen to unexpected power

the same time.

Part of Thrace, Chalkidike, part of Thessaly, a few

scattered points in Asia, are left to the

Empire
;

in

Peloponnesos alone

is

it

an advancing power
fallen back.

every-

where

else its frontiers

have

The Servian

Tzar rules from the Danube to the Gulf of Corinth,

The Ottoman Emir has left but a few fragments to the Empire in Asia, and has already fixed his grasp on
Europe.
1400.

Before the century is ended, neither Constan-

tinople,

nor Servia, nor any other Christian power,

is

dominant in the south-eastern peninsula.

rules
in

The Ottoman
cut short to a

their stead.

The Empire

is

corner of Thrace, with Thessalonike, Chalkidike, and

the Peloponnesian province which
possession.

Instead of the great power of Servia,

principalities,

now forms its greatest we

Greek, Slavonic,

see a

crowd of small

and Albanian,

falling for the

most part under either

Ottoman or Venetian supremacy.

is
still

The Servian name

but
its

borne by one of them

;

prince

is

Turkish vassal

the true representative of Servian into

dependence has already begun

show itself among the

mountains which look down on the mouths of Cattaro

and the lake of Skodra.

Bulgaria has fallen lower

'

GENERAL SURVEY.
still
;

459
the
"

the

Turk's

immediate power reaches to

Danube.
hold out

Bosnia at one end, the Frank principahties

chap.

at the other end, the

;

Venetian islands in either

if

sea, still

but the Turk has begun,

not to rule over

them, at least to harry them.

Within the memory of

men who
was not

could remember

yet,

when the Empire of Servia who could remember when the eagles of
still

Constantinople

went forth

to victory, the

Ottoman
;

had become the true master of the South-Eastern lands

whatever has as yet escaped
as
his grasp

remained simply

remnants ready for the gleaning.

We
the
the

will take our next glance in

the later years

isoo.

of the fifteenth century, a few years after the death of

great

conqueror.

The momentary break-up of

All

power of the Ottoman has been followed by the

greatest of his conquests.

now

is

over.

The New
Trebizond,

Eome

is

the

seat

of barbarian

power.

Peloponnesos, Athens, Euboia, the remnant of independent Epeiros, Servia, Bosnia, Albania,
in.

all

are gathered
;

The

islands are
is

still

mostly untouched

but the
still

whole mainland

conquered, save where Venice

holds her outposts, and where the warrior prelates of

the

Black Mountain, the one independent Christian

to

power from the Save

their career of
tions, the

Cape Matapan, have entered on

undying glory. With these small excep-

whole dominion of the Macedonian Emperors

has passed into Ottoman hands, together with a vast

tributary dominion

beyond the Danube, much of which

had never bowed

century,

to either

Eome. At

the end of another

leoo.

we

see

all

Hungary, save a tributary remnant,

a subject land of the Turk.

We

see Venice shorn of

Cyprus and

all

her Peloponnesian possessions.

The

Dukes have gone from Naxos and the Knights from

460

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Rhodes, and the Mussulman lord of so

'

'

CHAP.

many

Christian

lands has spread his power over his fellow Mussulmans

in Syria,

1700.

Egypt, and Africa.

tide
is

Another century
still

passes,
;

and the
has

turned.

The Turk can

conquer

he

won

Crete aVidingly and Podolia for a moment.

for ever

But the crescent has passed away

and from the Western
isles
;

from Duda

it

has passed away for a

Peloponnesos.

1800.

moment from Corinth and end of another century we

possession
his

all

At

the

see the Turk's immediate

bounded by the Save and the Danube, and

His old but Austria

overlordship bounded by the Dniester.

rivals

Poland and Venice are no more

in his Slavonic provinces
;

hems

France struggles for

Eussia watches him
free

the islands off his western shore

from the peninsula so long held by the

1878.

Goth and

the

free

Greek.

Seventy-eight years more, and his

shadow of

overlord.ship ends at the

Danube,

his

shadow
Free

of immediate

dominion ends

at the Balkan.

Greece, free Servia, free

Roumania

reaching to her

but longing for

Bulgaria parted into reunion Bosnia, Herzegovina, Cyprus,

own
sea
three,

Montenegro again

held in a mysterious

way by neighbouring

or distant

European powers

all

join to form, not so

much

picture as a dissolving view.

tional state of things,

We

see in

them a

transi-

which diplomacy fondly believes

to be an eternal settlement of an eternal question, but

(jf

which reason and history can say only that we

not what a day

know

may

bring forth.

[Long

after this chapter

printed, afkcr a great part of

was written, after the whole of it was it was revised for the press, there ap-

peared the
Mir;/it7a

volume of the great collection of C. N, Sathas, InTopiac, Documents Inedits relatifs a In his preface CHiHtoire de la Grice au Moycn Age (Paris, 1880). M. Sathas insists on two points. One is the Greek character of the
first

r^c

FAXiji^u-^c

GENERAL SURVEY.
Eastern Empire throughout
side
its whole being; that it had a Greek no one ever thought of denying. He brings together a good many occasional instances, largely from unprinted manuscripts, of the use of "EXXtjv and 'EWctc through the whole period of the Empire. That the name came into rhetorical use by a kind of Renaissance about the thirteenth century is undoubted. I brought together some few instances in my Historical Essays, iii. 246, and the whole history of Laonikos Chalkokondylas is one long instance. M.

461
CHAP,
^-

Sathas brings several others from much eaiiier times. But they seem to me to be mainly cases of the rhetorical use of an antiquated name, such as is common among all nations. They do not seem to

name of the Empire and its people was always Roman. M. Sathas' other point is somewhat startling. It is that the Slavonic occupation of a large part of Greece, as to the extent of which there has been much disputing, but which I never before saAv altogether denied, is all a mistake. According to him the settlers were not Slaves, but Albanians, called Slaves by that lax use of national names of Avhich there certainly
affect the proposition that the regular national

are plenty of instances.

refute
I

cannot undertake either to accept or to

M.

Sathas' doctrine during the process of revising a proof-sheet.

can only put the fact on record that one

into the matter has

come

to this,

to

me

who has gone very deeply at least, altogether new

conclusion.]

46:i

THE BALTIC LANDS.

CHAPTER

XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

Our survey

of the two Empires

and of the powers

which sprang out of them has still left out of sight a large part of Europe, including some lands which

formed part of the elder Empire. It is only indirectly that we have spoken of the extreme north,
Qiiasi-

the

extreme
all

east,

or the extreme west, of Europe.

Imperial
position of certain
j)owera.

In

these regions powers have risen

and

fallen

The

British islands.

which might pass for shadows of the two Empires Thus in the north-west he two great isof Eome. lands with a following of smaller ones, of which the

Empire never held more than part of the greater island and those of the smaller ones which could
elder

not be separated from

of
its

it.

Britain passed for a world

own, and the

the

princes

who

rose to

quasi-

Imperial position within that world took, by a kind

of analogy,
Scandinavia.

titles

of Empire.^

In the extreme
theii-

north are a larger and smaller peninsula, with

attendant islands,

which lay wholly beyond the elder

later

Empire, and of which the

in
Empire
of Cnut.

Western Empire took

time.

only a very small part for a short

these

The
truly

momentary union of

two

insular

and peninsular

systems, of Britain and Scandinavia, formed

more

a third Empire of the North, fully the fellow of those

1

See above, pp. 160-1G2.


LANDS BEYOND THE EMPIRES.
of the East and West.^

463
chap.
-^

In

tlie

south-west of Europe

again lay another

fully

great peninsula, which

had been
^p*'"

incorporated

with

the

elder

Empire, parts of
belonged to the

which

at

two opposite ends

had

Empire of Justinian and

to the

Empire of Charles,

but whose history, as a whole, stands apart from that

of either the Eastern or the Western

Eoman

power.
sort

And

in Spain also, as being, like Britain, in

its

some

a world of

own, the leading power asserted an

rank. Imperial ^
Castile.

As Wessex had

its

Emperors, so had
J-

t;astiiian

'

Lmperors.

Britain,

Scandinavia, and Spain, thus form three

'-^

c;eoorraphical wholes, three cjreat divisions of marked ^ that part of Europe which lay outside the bounds of

History of the lands beyond the Empires.

either

Empire

at the time of the separation.

But the

geographical position of the three regions has led to

marked

differences in their history.

Insular Britain

is

wholly oceanic.

11 111 each an oceanic side but each has also a side towards one of the great inland seas of Europe Spain towards
;
. .

Peninsular Spain and Scandinavia have

oeograpM*^"^

coin-

parison of Scandi"'^^''^ ^"'^

Spain.

the Mediterranean, Scandinavia towards the northern

Mediterranean, the Baltic.

But

tlie

Baltic

side

of

Scandinavia has been of far greater relative importance

than the Mediterranean side of Spain. Of the three chief

Spanish kingdoms Aragon alone has a Mediterranean
historj^
;

position of

the seaward course of Castile and Portugal

r^

the Mediterranean.

was

oceanic.

Of
is

the

three Scandinavian kingdoms

Norway
lies

alone

wholly oceanic.
;

Denmark
life

is

more
position of

Baltic than oceanic

the whole historic

of Sweden

on the Baltic

coasts.

The Mediterranean

position thlVaUi^

of

Aragon

enabled her to win whole kingdoms as

her dependencies.
^

But they were not geographically

See above,
p. 163.


464
CHAP,
^'

THE BALTIC LANDS.

continuous,

and they never could be incorporated.

to cstabhsh

Sweden, on the other hand, was able

continuous dominion on both sides of the great northern

gulfs,

and

to

make

at least a nearer

approach to the

incorporation of her conquests than

Growth
and decline of Sweden,

Aragon could ever

make.

The

history of

growtli and the loss of

Sweden mainly consists in the ... her dommion in the Baltic lands
It is

out of her

own

peninsula.

only in quite modern

times that the union of the crowns, though not of

the kingdoms,

of

Sweden and Norway has created

and

a power
oceanic.
Eastern
western aspects of

wholly peninsular and equally Baltic

This castcm aspcct of Scandinavian history needs the

uiorc to bc insistcd ou, bccausc there
,
.

is

another side of
''

it

scandinavia:

with which

wc
is,

are naturally
*'

more

likely to

be struck.

Scandinavian inroads and conquests

quests,

that

from Denmark and Norway

inroads and conmake

Gaul and
Britain.
till

up a

large part of the early history of

this

When

phase of their history ends, the Scandinavian

to pass out of our sight,

kingdoms are apt

we

are

perhaps surprised at the great part which they suddenly

play in Europe in the seventeenth century.

But both

Denmark and Sweden had meanwhile been running

their course in the lands north, east,
Baltic.
is

and south of the

And

it is

this Baltic side of their history

which

of primary importance

in

our general European

view.
The Baltic
lands gene''^'ly-

It follows tlicu that, for the

purposes of our present

survey, while the British islands

and the Spanish pen-

insula will each claim a distinct treatment,

we cannot
at Scandi-

separate the Scandinavian peninsulas from the general

mass of the Baltic

lands.

We

must look

navia in close geographical connexion with the region

'

GENERAL ^^EW OF THE BALTIC LANDS.

which stretches from the centre
to the

465
chap.
XI.

extreme east of

Europe, a region which, while by no means wholly Slavonic,

is

best

marked

as containing the

seats of the Xoithera

Slavonic
landa.

northern branch of the Slavonic race. This region has a

constant connexion ^vith both
history.
It takes in
.

German and Scandinavian

Germanized
Slavonic
lands,
,

those wide lands, once Slavonic,

.

which have
not become

at

various

times

been

more

or

less

thoroughly incorporated with Germany, but which did

German without

vigorous efforts to

make

large parts of
oLU'

them Scandinavian.

In another part of

we have watched them join on to the Teutonic body; we must now watch them drop off from the Slavonic body. And with them we must take another glimpse at those among the Northern Slaves who
survey
''

^^-rtuem
Slaves

Yiunlarv
or Austria.

passed under the power of the Magyar, and of that composite

dominion which claims the Magyar crown among

others.

many

These North- Slavonic lands which have

passed to non-Slavonic rulers form a region stretching

from Holstein to the Austrian kingdom

of

Galicia
dis-

and Lodomeria and

tricts

to the Slovak

and Euthenian

of Hungary.

But above

all, this

Nortli-Slavonic

region takes in those two branches of the Slavonic race

which have

in turn lorded

it

over one another, neither

of

of which passed permanently under the lordship

either Empire, but one of

which owed

its

unity and

national

life

to settlers
it is

from the Scandinavian north.

ci.arac-

That

is

to say,

the land of the Pole and the Russian,

the land of the two branches of the Slavonic race which

.

poiaud and
Russia.

passed severally under the spiritual

elder

domimon

of the
The
nations.

and the younger Eome without passing under the temporal dominion of either. And within the same
region

we have

to deal

with the remnant that

is left

of

those ancient nations,

Aryan and non-Aryan,

wliich so Aryan

H H

46f)

THE BALTIC LANDS.

long refused
all

CHAP,
XI.
nations Prussians
;

obedience to either Church as well as to

either Empire.
lu
tlic

The region

at whicli

we now look

takes

land of thosc elder brethren of the European

anians.

family whose speech has changed less than any other

European tongue from the Aryan speech once common

all.

to

Alongside of the Orthodox Russian, of the Catholic

Pole, of the

Swede

first

Catholic and then Lutheran,

we we

have
FiTs.^'^^'^

to look

on the long abiding heathendom of the

Lithuanian and the Prussian.^

And
still,

at their side

have to look on older races

on the pras-Aryan

nations on either side of the Bothnian and Finnish gulfs.

The

history of the eastern coast of the Baltic

is

the

history of the struggle for the rule or the destruction of

these ancient nations at

tlie

hands of their Teutonic

and Slavonic neighbours.

!;f^lf'!n

The whole North-Slavonic

has a central character of

region,

north-eastern

Slavonic*^'

rather than central with regard to Europe in general,

still

its

own.

It

is

con-

nected with the history of northern, of western, and

of south-eastern

Europe.

many
Polish

Slavonic lands to

The Germany

falling
is

away of

so

of itself no small
this,

part of

German

history.

But besides

the strictly

and Russian area marches at once on the Western Empire, on the lands which fringe the Eastern
Empire, on the Scandinavian North, and on the barbarian lands to the north-east.

This last feature

is

characteristic both of the North-Slavonic region

Rarbarian
iieishbours

and of
>

thc Scandinavian peninsula.

'^

Norway, Sweden, Russia, j

^
^

amfscau
ilinavia.

^^^

^^
'

^^^^ Europcau powcrs whose land has always

for these closely allied nations
is

common name
Lettic
is

sometimes
of the

needed.

the n:ost convenient; Lett, with

the ndjittive

Lettish, is the special

name of one

of the obscurer

members

family.

'

THE NORTH-SLAVONIC LANDS.

and have marched on the land of barbarian neighbours, *=
'
.

467

therefore been able to conquer and colonize in barbarian

^^

XI.

chap.

lands simply

by extending

their

own
it

frontiers.

This

was done by Norway and Sweden

graphical position allowed
;

as far as their geo-

them but

has been done on

Russiau conquest
colo-

a far greater scale by Eussia.

nations have conquered

While other European

and colonized by

sea, Eussia, and

the one Euro])ean state of later times which has marched

nization by land.

upon

Asia, has found a boundless field for conquest

and

colonization

by

land.

She has had her India, her

Canada, and her Australia, her Mexico, her Brazil, her

Java, arid her Algeria, geographically continuous with

her European territory.

This fact

is

the key to

much
Heiationof
the Baltic lands to
the

in the later history of Eussia.

With regard ^
the Baltic

to the

two Empires, the lands round ^

.

show us

several relations.

In Scandinavia,

two

Norway
itself

stands alone in never liaving

had anything
forms.
;

to

Empires.

do with the

Eoman power

in

any of

its

Sweden

aiwayVinRelations

has always been equally independent

fiefs

but in later

times Swedish kings have held

within the Western

naturally caused

and

Den''-"

Empire.
it

The

position of

Denmark has
its

Enijiire.

to

have much more to do with

Eoman

or

German
others

neighbour.

In earlier times some Danish kings became

vassals of the

Empire

for the

Danish crown

made

conquests within the lands of the Empire.

In

later times

Danish kings have held

fiefs

within the

German kingdom and have been members of the more modern Confederation. The western parts of the Slavonic
region became formally part of the Western Empire.

But
oi a

this

was

after the
1

Empire had put on the character

T
1

//-<

German

state

these lands were not

drawn

to

it

irom
in

L-

The Empire
and the WestSlavonic

its strictly

Imperial side.

Poland sometimes passed

early days for a fief of the German

kingdom

in later

days

poiaud an

H H

468
CHAP,
XI.
the
it

THE BALTIC LANDS.

was divided between the two chief powers which Kussia, on the other hand, arose out of that kingdom.
Empire.

Empire.

the pupil of the Eastern Empire, has never been the

sLibject or the vassal of either

S^KussIa
Eastern

When

Eussia

had an external overlord, he was an Asiatic barbarian.

Empire/*"

The peculiar relation between Eussia and Constantinople, spiritual submission combined with temporal independeucc,
ideas
lias

Lnperiai
kussia.

Icd to the appearance in Eussia of Imperial

titles

and

with a somewhat different meaning. from

in

that with
Britain.

which they were taken

Spain and in

The Eussian prince claims the Imperial style

as

and bearings, not so nmch

holding an Imperial

position in a world of his own, as because the most

]jowerful prince of the Eastern
inherits

Church

the position of the Eastern

in some sort Emperor in the

general world of Europe.

<5

1.

The Scandinavmn Lands after

the

the

Separation of

Empires.

At
hardly

the end of the eighth century the Scandinavian

Baltic lands as yet

and Slavonic inhabitants of the

touched

one

another.

The

most

northern
still

Scandinavians and the most northern Slaves were

far apart; if

the two races anywhere marched on one

at the

another,
The Bainiaidy
earii./*^'^

it

must have been

extreme south-western
part of that
still

comcr
by
tlic

of the Baltic coast.

The greater

coast, all its

northern and eastern parts, was

held
But,

earlier nations,

Aryan and non-Aryan.

Eomiation
Scandi-

witlilu

two Scandinavian peninsulas, the three Scandinavian nations were fast forming. A number
the
of kindred tribes were settling

kSoms.

down

into the

kintr-

'

THE THREE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS.

doms
of

?69
chap.

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden,^ which,

sometimes separate, sometimes united, have existed

ever since.

Of these

three,

Denmark, the only one which

was naturally the

liad

a frontier towards the Empire,

first

to
Formation
Danish kingdom.

play a part in general European history.

In the course

of the tenth century, under the half-mythical

his successors
itself,

Gorm and
in after

Harold and Sven, the Danish kingdom

from other lands held

as distinguished

times

by

its

kings, reached nearly its full historical

extent in the two peninsulas and the islands between

them.

Ualland and Skane or Scania^

it

must always be
Danish

Denmark
northern
peninsula.

remembered, are from the beginninc: ^ "^

as

at least as

Zealand and Jutland, The Eider remained the frontier

Frontier
Eijer.

towards the Empire, save during part of the tenth and

eleventh centuries,
to

when

the Danish frontier withdrew

the

Dannewerk, and the land between the two

boundaries formed the Vanish

March

of the Empire,

'[^^l-^^

Under Cnut the old

frontier

was

restored.

93*-*io27

The name of Northmen,' which the Franks used in a laxer way for the Scandinavian nations generally, was
confined to the people of Norway.
into a single kinjrdom
_

These were formed

late in

Formation

under Harold Harfagra '^

kingdom of Xorway.

the ninth century.

The Norwegian realm

of that day

stretched far beyond the bounds of the later

^

Norway,

See above,

p.

130.
'

See Einhard, Annals a. 815, where we read, trans ^Egidoram fiuvium in terram Nordmannorum perveniunt.' So Vita
^
. . .

Dani ac Sueones quos Nortmannos vocamus,' and 14, Nortmanni qui Dani vocantur.' But Adam of Bremen (ii. 3) speaks But the of mare novissimum, quod Nortmannos a Danis dirimit.' name includes the Swedes as in i. 63 he Kays, Sueones et Gothi, vel, si ita melius dicuntur, Nortmanni,' and i. 16, Dani etceteri qui trans Daniam sunt populi ab historicis Frcuicorum omnes Nordmanni
Karoli 12
'

'

'

'

vocantur.'

470
CHAP.
XI.

THE BALTIC TANDS.

having an indefinite extension over tributary Finnish
tribes as far as the

White

Sea.

The

central part of

the eastern side of the northern peninsula, between

Denmark

to

the south

and the Finnish nations

to

the north, was lield

The
Swedes and
(luuts.

by two Scandinavian settlements

These were
strictly
last

which grew into the Swedish kingdom.

those

of the Swedes or Gauts.

so

called,

and of the

Gmtas
the

This

name

has naturally been

confounded with that of the Goths, and has given

title

of

King

of

the

Goths to

the

princes of

Sweden.

Gothland, east and west, lay on each side of

Lake Wettern.
entrance

Swithiod or Svealand, Sweden proper,

lay on both sides of the great

The
Swedish kingdom.
is

arm of the sea whose guarded by the modern capital. The union

of Svealand and Gothland

made up

the

kingdom of

Sweden.
Fluctuations

Its early

boundaries towards both

Denmark
farther to

and Norway were

to the north of

fluctuating.

Wermeland, immediately

towards

Lake Wenern, and Jamteland

Norway
and Denmark.

the north, were long a debateable land.

At

the beginfinally

nil.

ning of the twelfth century

to

Wermeland passed

Sweden, and Jamteland

for several ages to

Norway.

Bleking again, at the south-east corner of the peninsula,

was a debateable land between Sweden and Denmark

which passed to Denmark.

For a land thus bounded

the natural course of extension

Growth
to

by land

lay to the

north, along the west coast of the Gulf of Bothnia.

In

the north.

the course of the eleventh century at the

latest,

Sweden

began
land.

to spread itself in that

direction over Helsing-

Sweden had thus a better opportunity than Denmark

Western
expeditions
of
tlie

and Norway

for extension of her

own

borders by land.
to the west,

Meanwhile Denmark and Norway, looking

Danes and Northmen.

had

their great time of Oceanic conquest

and coloniza-

SCANDINAVIAN SETTLEMENTS.
tion in the ninth

471

and tenth

centuries.^

These two prolands,

cesses must be distinguished.

Some

hke the

-^

chap.

Northumbrian and East- Anglian kingdoms in Britain and

the

Conquests.

duchy of Normandy

in Gaul, received Scandinavian

princes

and a Scandinavian element

in their population,

without the geographical

extended.

area of Scandinavia being

as being exColonies.

But that area may be looked on

tended by colonies like those of Orkney^ Shetland^

Faroe^ the islands off the western coast of Scotland,

Man^
men.

Iceland^ Greenland.

Some

of these were actually

discovered and settled for the

first

time by the NorthSettle-

The

settlements

on the

east coast of Ireland,

also pass as outposts

ments

in

Dublin, Waterford, Wexford,

may

Ireland.

of Scandinavia on Celtic ground.

Of

these outlying
specially

Scandinavian

lands,

some

of

the

islands,
;

Iceland, have remained Scandinavian

the settlements

on the mainland of Britain and Ireland, and on the

islands nearest to them,

have been merged in the British

kingdoms or have become dependencies of the British

crown.
Against
is

this vast

range of Oceanic settlement there

Expedition
to the east.

as yet little to set in the

form of Baltic conquest on

the part of

Norway and Denmark.

Samland

Norway indeed
But there was
in

hardly could become a Baltic power.

a Danish occupation of

in Prussia in the tenth Danes

century, which caused that land to be reckoned

the kingdoms which
Cnut.^

among

950.

made up

the Northern Empire of

There

is

also

the famous settlement of the

Jomshurq Wikings ^

at the
.

mouth
.

of the Oder.

But the
later.

Jomsburg.
935-104.^.

great eastern extension of Danish

power came

Nor

did the lasting Swedish occupation of the lands

till

east of the gulf of Bothnia begin

*

the twelfth century.

See above,

p. 131, 150.

472
CHAP.
XI.
Swedish
conquest of Curland.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

But there
is

no doubt

that, long before this, there

were

Swedish inroads and occasional Swedish conquests in

other parts of the Baltic lands.
to

Thus Curland

is

said

have been won

for a while by Sweden, and to have

its

been again won back by

own

Lettic people.^

The

ninth century indeed saw a wonderful

extension of

Scandinavian dominion far to the east and far to the

south.

But

it

was neither ordinary conquest nor

ordi-

nary settlement.
planted, as in
Scandinavians in

No new

Scandinavian people was

Orkney and Iceland.

in Ireland.

Nor were ScandiBut Scandinavian

navian outposts planted, as

princes,

K iissia.

who

in three generations lost all trace of their

Scandinavian origin, created, under the

the greatest of Slavonic powers.
their establishment

name of Russia, The vast results of

on the history and

have been
;

results

geography of the Slaves

it

on Scandinavian geography
Still it

had no

direct effect at

all.

forms a connecting

link

between the Scandinavian lands west and north of

the Baltic and the Slavonic region to the east and south
of that sea.

2.

The Lands East and South of the Baltic Separation of the Empires.

at the

Slaves

At

the beginning of the ninth century the inland

little

between Elbe and

Dnieper.

region stretching from the Elbe a

beyond the

Dnieper was continuously held by various Slavonic

nations.
at

Their land marched on the

German kingdom

one end, and on various Finnish and Turkish nations

at the other.
Their lack
of seaboard.

But

their sea-board
off

was comparatively
of the Baltic,

small.

Wholly cut

from the Euxine, from the

irreat fjulfs
iv. 16.

northern Ocean, and from the

^

See

Adam

of

Bremen,

THE GREAT SLAVO>^IC GROUPS.

fheir only coast "^

473
chap.
XI.

was that which reaches from the modern

haven of Kiel to the mouth of the Vistula.

Slavonic coast was gradually brought under
influence

And
end

this

German
fully

and dominion, and has been

in the

incorporated with the

German

state.

It follows

then

that, in tracing the history of the chief Slavonic

in this region,

powers

of Bohemia, Poland, and Eussia,

we

are

dealing with powers which are almost wholly inland.

At

the time of the separation of the Empires, there was

in

no one great Slavonic power

such, with

these parts.

One
a
Bohemian
kinfjdom
of Samo.

Bohemia

for

its

centre,

had shown

itself for

moment in the seventh dom of Samo, which,

and Russia,
princes.^

century.
if

This was the king-

its

founder was really of

Prankish birth, forms an

also Slavonic

exact parallel to Bulgaria

powers created by foreign

arose
GreatMoravia. 88 1.

The next considerable power which

nearly on the same ground was the Great Moravian

kingdom of Sviatopluk, which passed away before the

advance of the Magyars.
Before
to
its

fall

the Russian
far to

power had already begun

north-east.

form

itself

the
Slavonic sruups.

Looking

at the

map

just before the be- Four

gmnmg
main

of the

momentary Moravian and

There

.-,,,.
fall

the lastmg
into four

Russian power, the North-Slavonic nations

historical groups.

are, first, the tribes to Xorth1 1 1

the north-west, whose lands, answermg roughly to the

western group

modern Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and

Saxony, have been thoroughly Germanized.
Secondly,
thorou^-hiy
nized.

there are the tribes to the south-west in Bohemia,

Moravia,

and Lusatia, which were brought under

or

German dominion
^

but from supremacy, ^

*'

which

southwestern group umier

German
supremacy

The origin of Samo and the chief seat of his whether Bohemia or Carinthia, is discussed by Professor Fasching of Marburg (Austria) in the Ziveiter Jahresbericht cler kk. Staatsdominion,
Oberrealschule in Marburg, 1872.

474
CHAP.
^

THE BALTIC LANDS.

Slavonic nationality has not in the same sort passed

'

away.

Silesia,

connected

in

different

ways with both

third

these groups, forms the link between

Central

them and the

tribes of the

(Troup.
.

This
.

Is

formed by the central

whole

group;
Polish.

region, lying

between the Magyar

the
north,

to the south

and the

Prussian
Eastern
Ku.ssian.

to

whose miion made up the

Lastly, to the east lie the
state.

Original Polish

kingdom.

tribcs wliiclijoined to

form the original Kussian

Looking

at

these groups in our

first

own

time,

we may
third,

say that from the

of

them

all signs

of Slavonic

nationality have passed away.

The second and

grown

speaking

roughly, keep nationality without

political

independence.

The

fourth group has

into the
is

one great modern power whose ruling nationality

Slavonic.

With regard
trace

to the first

group,

we have now

to

from the Slavonic side the same changes of frontier

slightly glanced at

which we have already

from the

German
sented

side.

In the land between the Elbe and the

Oder, taking the upper course of those rivers as repre-

by

their tributaries the Saale

and the Bober,

we
Poiai>ic

find that division of the Slaves

which

their

own
fall

historian

marks

off

as

Polahic}

These again

group.

under three groups.

Sorabi.

First, to the south, in the

modern

Saxony, are the Sorabi, the northern Serbs, cut off

for ever

from their southern brethren by the Magyar

Leuticii.

inroad.

To

the north of

them

lie

the Leuticii, Weleti,

Weleiahi, or Wiltsi,
Baltic in

and other

tribes stretching to the

modern Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania.

In the north-west corner, in Mecklenburg and eastern

Obotrites:

Holstciu, wcrc the Obotfites, Wagri, and other tribes.

'

See Schafarik, Slnwische Alterthilinc?;

il.

503.

'

THE POL ABIC SLAVES.

Through the
relations

475
cuap.

ninth, tenth,

and eleventh centuries the

between these lands and the Western Empire

was not unhke the relation of the southern Slaves Only to the Eastern Empire during the same ages.
the Western
their

tionstothe Empire.

Emperors never had such a

rival

on

immediate border as the Bulgaria of Simeon

The Slavonic tribes on the north-eastern border of the Western Empire were tributary or independent, according as the Empire was strong or
or Samuel.

nuctuatribute

and

weak.

Tributary under Charles the Great, tributary

dence.

921-968.

again under the great Saxon kings, they had an inter-

mediate period of independence.

minion, which
century,
fell

The German do-

back

in the latter part of the tenth

was again asserted by the Saxon dukes and margraves in the eleventh and twelfth. Long before
the end of the twelfth century the

Final

work was done.

it

The German dominion, and with

religion,

the Christian

had been forced on the Slaves between Elbe

to

and Oder.

The Serbs between Elbe and Saale seem

been the
earliest

have

Conquest
of the
Sorai)i.

and the most thoroughly conquered.

their full independence after the

They never won back

victories of the first

Saxon kings.

The Serbs between

Elbe and Bober, sometimes tributary to the Empire,

were

also

sometimes independent, sometimes under the

superiority of kindred powers like Poland or Bohemia.

The lands included

in

in

the

mark

of Meissen

were

Meissen.

thoroughly Germanized by the twelfth century.

the

But
the
firm
Lusatia.

lands included in the

mark of Lusatia
still

Slavonic speech
hold.

and

nationality

keep

The Leutician land

over and over again. O"

to

the north was lost and

won

The
Leuticians.

Brambor, the German Branden-

927-1157.

476
hurg^

THE BALTIC LANDS.

was often taken and retaken during a space of two
years.
its

hundred
land

Late in the tenth century the whole

freedom.
In the eleventh
last,
it

won back

came

under the Polish power.

1134-1157.

At

the reign of Albert

the Bear finally added to

was

to contain the latest

Germany the land which German capital, and made

that

Brandenburg a German mark.

In the land lying on
Baltic

narrow part of the

which bore the

special

name

of the Slavonic

Gulf^ the alternations of revolt and submission, from

the ninth century to the twelfth, were endless.

Here
^

we
Kintrdom
of Sclavjnia.

can trace out native dynasties, one of which has

to

lasted

our

own

day.

The mark

of the Billungs

alternates with the

kingdom of Sclavi7iia,
alternates

Sind the king-

dom
last

of

Sclavinia

between

heathen

and

Przemj'slaf.

Christian princes.

At

last, in

the twelfth century, the

first

1161.

heathen

King of the Wends became the

House of
Mecklenburg.

Christian Duke, the founder of the house of Mecklen-

burg.

Part of this rep-ion, Western Pomerania and

of
Rilgen, became,
special

the island
later
Riigen

both in

this

and

in

times,

borderland of

Germany and

Scandinavia.

Eligen and the neighbouring coast bepossession in the twelfth century, and

under

Denmark.
1168-1325.

came a Danish
so

remained into the fourteenth.

The kingdom of

1214-1223.

Sclavinia itself

became Danish

for a short season.

in the

Scandinavian power appeared again

in

same region

the seventeenth century.

With

these exceptions,

the history of these lands from the twelfth century

onward,

is

that of

members

of the

German kingdom.

It

was otherwise with the second group, with the

Slaves

who dwelled within

>

the fence of the Giant

p. 198.

Moun-

See above,


BOHEMIA AND MORAVL\.
tains,

'

477
on
'

and with

their neie^hbours to the north-east,

,

chap.
XI.

the upper course of the Oder as well as on the

Wag and

the northern Morava.

Here a Slavonic kingdom has ^

it
it

ofBohemia.

^v.'","^'""

lived on to this day, though

early passed under Ger-

man

supremacy, and though

kings.

has been for ages ruled

by German
Sviatopluk,

Bohemia^ the land of the Czechs^

tributary to Charles the Great, part of the

kingdom of
fief

became

definitely a

German

through

928.

the wars of the Saxon kings.

But

this did

not hinder

Bohemia from becoming,

dominion, like those of
east of the

later in

the century, an ad-

vancing and conquering power, the seat of a short-lived

Samo and

Sviatopluk.

To

the
JJ^'^J''*''''^'^

Czechs of Bohemia

lie

the Moravians

and

s^^^-'^^-

Slovaks, that branch of the Slavonic race which formed

the centre of the kingdom of Sviatopluk, and which bore

the main brunt of the

Magyar ^''
fell

invasion.

A large o part of
i

Magyar
coiK^uest of

the Slaves of this region

rule
;

permanently under Magyar

a season.

Hl^^^'^^'

so did

Moravia

itself for

Since then

Bohemia and Moravia have usually had a common

destiny.
"^

Later in the century the Czechish dominion

_

Advance
of Bi)hemia

reached to the Oder, and took in the Northern Chrohatia

9^3-099.

on the upper

Vistula.

This dominion passed

with the great growth of the Polish power.

itself for

away Bohemia

Boi.emia

a moment, Moravia for a somewhat longer

Moravia
under
Poland.

time,

became Polish dependencies, and the Magyar won

between the

a further land

Wag

and the Olzava.

in

iooa-io29.

Later events led to

another growth of Bohemia,

more

forms than one, but always as a

member

of the

Eoman

Empire and the German kingdom.

While our second group thus passed under German
dominion without ceasing
third
to

be Slavonic, among the

group a

great

Slavonic

power

arose

whose

478
CHAP.
XI,

THE BALTIC LANDS.

adhesion to the Western Church

made

it

part of the

general Western world, but which was never brought

The
Polish

kingdom.
Its relations to

under the lasting supremacy of the Western Empire. Large parts of the old Polish lands have passed under

GermaDv.

German
ized.

rule;

some

parts have been largely

as a whole, has never

Germanrule.

But Poland,

been either

Germanized or brought under

lasting

German

Holding the most central position of any European

state,

Poland has had to struggle against enemies from

every quarter, against the Swede from the Baltic and

the

Turk from the Danube.

its

But the distinguishing

its

feature of
Eivalry of

history has been

abiding rivalry with

of
it.

Poland and
Russia.

the

Slavonic

land to the

east
is

The common
at the

history of Poland and Eussia

a history of conquest

and

partition,

wrought by whichever power was

time the stronger.

The Lechs
or Poles.

Our first glimmerings of light in these parts show us a number of kindred tribes holding the land between Oder and Vistula, with the coast between the mouths
of those rivers.

East of the Vistula tliey are cut off

;

from the sea by the Prussians

but

in the

inland region

they stretch somewhat to the east of that river.

the west the

To
the

Oder and Bober may be taken

as their
is

boundary.

But the upper course of these

rivers

home
White
Chroliatia.

of another kindred people, the northern branch

of the

Chrobatians or Croats, whose land of White

stretched

Chrobatia
thians.

on

both

sides

of

the

Carpa-

These Slaves of the central and lower Oder

to

and Vistula would seem

Polish
tribes

be best distinguished as

Lechs

Poland

is

the

name

of the land rather than of

the people.
Schlesien

Mazovia^ Cujavia, Silesia

the

German

with

the sea land, Pomore, Pommerr}., or

different
districts

Pomerania, mark

held by kindred

'

THE LECHS OR POLES.

tribes.

479
chap.

In the tenth century a considerable power arose

first

for

the

time in these regions, having

at
.

its

centre

between the Warta and the Vistula,

Gniezno or

of "the Polish

Gnesen, the abiding metropohtan city of Poland.

extent of the

The

kingdom
at Gnesen.

new power under

Silesia.

the

first

Christian

931-992.
of Poland.

prince Mieczislaf answered nearly to the later Great

Poland, Mazovia, and

But the Polish duke

Tributary

became a

vassal

of the

Empire ^
.

for his lands west of Empire.

963.

Warta, and sufiered some dismemberments

vantage ^ of Bohemia.
rose to

to the ad-

973.

Under

his son Boleslaf,

Poland
as

conquests
of Boleslaf.

the

same kind of momentary greatness

996-1025.

Moravia and Bohemia had already done.

minions of Boleslaf took
times,
in,,

The do-

for

longer or shorter
Silesia,

Bohemia, Moravia, Lusatia,

Pomerania,

Prussia, part of Kussia,

and part of that middle Slavonic

land which became the

tricts

mark

of Brandenburg, the dis-

of

Bamim

and Custrin.

Of
the

this great

dominion

some

parts fell

away during

life

of Boleslaf, and
less estabKfr<-<:tsof

other parts at his death.

lisned

But he none the

Poland as a power, and some

or Ins conquests

were abiding. Western Pomerania,

Custrin,

Silesia,

Bamim and
;

were kept

for a longer or shorter time

and
curobatia
fAuie

Chrobatia north of the Carpathians

fell

to the

Magyar

at his death

remained,

the

southern part

under the
all.

name
It

of Little Poland, as long as Poland lasted at

its

supplied the land with

this

second capital, Cracow.

From

time Poland ranked sometimes as a kingdom, Constant divisions

sometimes as a duchy.^

among memits

internal
'*"*'^'^-

bers of the ruling house, occasional admissions of the

outward supremacy of the Empire, did not destroy

'

The Poles claim Boleslaf the First as the first king. But Lambert (1067), who strongly insists on the tributary condition of Poland, makes Boles^laf the Second the first king. The royal dignity was certainly forfeited after his death.

480

THE BALTIC LANDS.

national unity and independence.
lived on.
it

Polish state always

And from

the end of the thirteenth centiury,

took

its

place as an important European kingdom,

holding a distinctive position as the one Slavonic power

at

once attached to the Western Church and indepen-

dent of the Western Empire.

To
Relations of Russia
to tlie Ea.st&rn

the east of the Lechs

and Chrobatians lay that

great group of Slavonic tribes whose distinctive historical character

is

that they stood in the

same

relation to

Eastern Cliristendom in which Poland stands to Western.

Disciples of the Eastern Church, they

Church.
Teutonic
influence

were never vassals

of the Eastern

Empire.

The Western Slaves were

which implied submisSlaves were also

among
eastern and

brought under Christian and under Teutonic influences

western
Slaves.

by the same
sion, or

process, a })rocess

attempted submission, to the Western Empire

its

or to

some of

princes.

The Eastern

brought under both Christian and Teutonic influences,

but in wholly different shapes.

The Teutonic

influence

came
Russia
created by the Scan-

first.

It

did not take the form of submission to

;

any existing Teutonic power

it

was the creation of a

Chris-

new

Slavonic power under Teutonic rulers.

tianity did not

come

till

those Teutonic influences had

dinavian
settlement.

died away, except in their results, and, coming from

tlie

Eastern centre of Christendom,

its

it

had the

effect of

keeping

disciples aloof

from both the Christian and

the Teutonic influences of the West.

A group

of Sla-

vonic tribes, without losing their Slavonic character,

grew up
The name
Jttissian.

to national unity,

and took up a national name

and
rulers, the

from Scandinavian

settlers

Warangians

or Russians of the Swedish

1

})eninsula.^

to the

There can be no doubt that the Russian name strictly belongs See Scandinavian rulers, and nut to the Slavonic people.

"

ORIGIN OF RUSSIA.

481
the Scandinavian
chap.

The Eussian power began by

the dominion of the most northern

leaders obtaining, in the latter half of the ninth century,

Slavonic race, the Slaves of

members of the Novgorod on the Ilmen.

East

"s|^a.^
^'!^"

Thence they pushed

''
'-

their

dominion southwards.

^S^"^

^^

, Novgorod.

and north-east of the Lechs and Chrobatians lay J a

'^^^^'^^^

advance.

crowd of Slavonic
as far as the

tribes stretching

beyond the Dnieper

Cut
off off

Extent of
the eastern Slavonic
lands.

course of the Oka. upper ^ ^

Letts, they

from
from
first

the Baltic

by the Fins and

were cut

the Euxine

by various Turanian

races in turn,

Magyars, then Patzinaks.

To

the south-east, from the

Dnieper to the Caspian, lay the Chazar dominion, to

which the Slaves which

east of

Dnieper were tributary.

the north-east lay a crowd of Finnish tribes,

is

To among
Union of
slaves.

only one Finnish power of historic name, the

kingdom of Great or White Bulgaria on the Volga.

Within
this

region, in the space of fifty

,
,

various Slavonic tribes

... joined

years, the

862-912.

in different

degrees of

unity to form the

new power, called Russian from its Scandinavian leaders. The tribes who were tributary
to the Chazars

Advance
against ^^^^-^^^

were

set free,

and the Eussian power ^

on the Upper

and Fin

was spread over a

Volga and
Bielo.
its

certain Finnish area

tributaries, nearly as far north as

Lake
NovSecond
centre at
Kief.

The

centres of the
T7-'

new power

were,

first

gorod^ and then Kief on the Dnieper.

How
is

early the

Scandinavian rulers of the

.'

new

The

became themselves practically Slavonic power Slavonic ^ i

rulers of Russia I'ecome Slavonic. 9.^7-972.

shown by the name of the prince Sviatoslaf, of whom we have already heard in the Danubian Bulgaria.
Already had Eussian enterprise taken the direction
.

Russian
enterprise.

Scnafarik,

i.

65

Historical Essays,

iii.

386.

The
name

case

is

parallel

Euxine.

to that of the Bulgarians and the Franks, save that the

is

name Rus

said to be, not a Scandinavian name, but a

applied to the

Swedes by the Fins.

I I

482
which
it

THE BALTIC LANDS.

took in far later days.
It

was needful

for the de-

velopement of the new Eiissian nation to have free access

to the Euxine.
fate for nine

From

this

they were cut off by a strange

hundred

years.

But from the very begin-

ning more than one attempt was

made on

Constanti-

nople, though the Tzargrad^ the Imperial city, could

be reached only by
Conquests
Caspian,

sailing

down

the Dnieper through an

cucmy's couutry.
in the lands

Sviatoslaf also appears as a conqueror

by the Caucasus and the Caspian, and

first

Vladimir
Cherson.
Isolation of Kussia.

Vladimir, the

Christian prince,

won

his

way

to

baptism by an attack on the Imperial city of Cherson.

The

oldest Eussia

was

thus,
state
;

hke the
but
it

oldest Poland,
'

emphatically an

inland

was

far

more
it

isolated than Poland.

Its ecclesiastical position

kept

from sharing the history of the Western

geographical position kept
Russian lands west of Dnieper,
'-'

Slaves.

Its

it

from sharing the history

of the Scrviaus and Bulgarians.

forgottcu that the oldest Eussia

And

it

must not be

was formed mainly of

White

lands which afterwards passed under the rule of Poland

and Lithuania.
Russia,

Little
all

Russia, Black Russia,

Red

Russia,

came under

foreign rule.

The
off,

Dnieper, from which Eussia was afterwards cut

was the great central

river of the elder Eussia

of the

Don and

the Volga she held only the upper course.

The

northern frontier barely passed the great lakes of Ladoga

and Onega, and the Gulf of Finland

to

itself.

It

seems not

have reached what was to be the Gulf of Eiga, but

Eiissian princes held a certain

some of the

supremacy

over the Finnish and Lettish tribes of that region.

Russian
ties.

In the coursc of the eleventh century, the Eussian

state,
,

hke that of Poland, was divided among princes of

.
. . . . .

1054.

the reigning family, acknowledging the superiority of

of

S^*^^ the great prince of Kief. In the next century the chief power passed from Kief to the northern Vladimir on of the


DIVISION OF RUSSIA.
the Kiasma.

'

483
chap.
XI.
"^
'

Thus the former Finnish land of Susdal

tributaries of the

on the upper
of the

Volga became the cradle

second Eussian power.

Novgorod

the

Great
its

viadimir,
susdai

meanwhile, under elective princes, claimed, like

neighbour Pskof, to rank among commonwealths.

Its crmmTn-

dominion was spread

north and east
;

far

over the Finnish tribes to the Novgwo?

the White Sea, and, far

more precious,
It

the Finnish Gulf,

had now a Eussian seaboard.

was

out of Vladimir and

future

Novgorod

that the Eussia of the xheprmciprinci-

was

to grow.

Meanwhile a crowd of

palities,

Polotsk,

Smolensk, the Severian

Novgorod,
Dnieper. Common,

Tchernigof, and others, arose on the

Duna and

wealth of

Far

to the east across the

frontiers of

commonwealth of

Viatka,

and

viatka.

on the
1

Poland and Hungary arose the princi-

pality of Halicz or Galicia,

.,
.

which afterwards grew

1

for

Haiicz or
Galicia.

a while mto a powerful kingdom.

nss.

Meanwhile
enemies,

in

the

lands on the Euxine the old The

Patzinaks

and Chazars, gave

way

to

the

lu-i.

Cumans^ known in Eussian history as Polovtzi and Parthi. They spread themselves from the Ural river to
the borders of Servia and Danubian Bulgaria, cutting
off Eussia

from the Caspian.

In the next century

allies

Eussians and
the advance

Cumans
of the

momentary
Mongols,

fell

before

1223.

commonly known

in Mongol
"^^^^'

European history
in the lands

as Tartars.

Known
fifty

only as ravagers

more

to the west, over Eussia they

years.

become
Russia
t^thJ^"^^

overlords for two hundred and

,

All that

escaped absorption by the Lithuanian became tribu.

tary to the Mongol.

Still

the relation was only a

Mongols.

tri-

butary one

Eussia

was never incorporated

and Bulgaria were

in the

Mongol dominion,
porated in ^
the

as Servia

incor-

1240.
^"''"'^

Ottoman dominion.
'

But Kief was

represented
rod.^"""^"'

See above pp. 36.5, 436.

I

484
CHAP.
XI.

TTIE BALTIC LANDS.

overthrown

Vladimir became dependent; Novgorod

in the

remained the true representative of free Eussia

Baltic lands.

But besides the Slaves of Poland and Eussia, our

Tlie e.irlier races on

survey takes in also the ancient races by which both

the Baltic.

Poland and Eussia were so largely cut

Baltic.

off

from the

Down

to the

middle of the twelfth century,

Polish

notwithstanding

occasional
still

or

Scandinavian

occupations, those races

kept their hold of the

whole Baltic north-eastwards from the mouth of the

i'ins in

Vistula.

The non-Aryan
still

Fins, besides their seats to

Livland

and
Esthland.

the north,
in Latin

kept the coast of Estliland and Lifiand^

shape Esthonia and Livonia, from the Finnish

Gulf to the
The Lettic
nations.

Duna and

slightly

beyond, taking in a small

strip of the opposite peninsula.

The inland part of the Of

later

Livland was held by the Letts, the most northern

settlers in this region.

branch of the ancient Aryan

Ciirhmd.
Samogitia.
Lithuania.

this family

were the

tribes of

Curland

in their

own

peninsula, of Samigola or Semigallia, the Samaites of

Samogitia to the south, the proper Lithuanians south

of them,
tlie

Jatwages, Jatwingi

in

many

spellings

forming a Lithuanian wedge between the Slavonic lands

I'riissia.

The Lithuanians, strictly so called, reached the coast just north of the Niemen from the mouth of the Niemen to the mouth of the Of these Vistula the coast was held by the Prussians.
nations,

of Mazoviaand Black Eussia.

Aryan and non- Aryan, the Lithuanians alone

in historic

founded a national dominion

history of the rest
is

times.

The

simply the history of their bondage,

sometimes of their uprooting.

Survey

iH

Taking a general survey of the lands round the

'

THE ELDER RACES.

Baltic about the middle of the twelfth century,

485

we

see

chap.

the three Scandinavian kingdoms, the

,
.

first fully

formed

states in these regions, ail living

n T

and vigorous powers,

the twelfth century.

but with fluctuating boundaries. Their western colonies

are
still

Scandinavian.

East and south of the Baltic

isolated

they have not got beyond

enterprises.

and temporary
the middle Elbe
;

The Slavonic nations on

its

have

fallen

under German dominion

to the south

Bohemia and
divided and
frontier,

dependencies keep their Slavonic

nationahty under

German supremacy.
longer

Poland, often
still

no
its

conquering,

keeps

its

and

position as the one independent Slavonic

to the

power belonging

Western Church,

Eussia, the

great Eastern Slavonic power, has risen to unity and

greatness under Scandinavian masters, and has again

broken up into

states

connected only by a feeble

tie.

The submission
later than our

of Eussia to barbarian invaders comes

;

immediate survey

but the weakening of

is

the Eussian

power both by division and by submission

state of things

an essential element in the

begins.

which now
Teutonic

This

is

the spread in different ways of Teu-

tonic dominion,

German and
still

Scandinavian, over the

German'
andScandinavian.

southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic, largely at the

expense of the Slaves,

more

largely at the expense

of the primitive nations,

Aryan and non- Aryan.

3.

The German Dominion on

first

the Baltic.

In the
power,

half of the twelfth century, no Teutonic

German

or Scandinavian, had any lasting hold Time

its gulfs,

of

on any part of the eastern coast of the Baltic or

southern coast.

STqS.

nor had any such power made any great advances on the
Early in the fourteenth century the

486

THE BALTIC LANDS.

whole of these coasts had been brought into
degrees of
different

submission

to

several Teutonic

powers,

German and Scandinavian. German has been the more abiding. Scandinavian dominion has now wholly passed away from these coasts,
influences the

Of the two

and
that

it it

is

only in the lands nortli of the Finnish Gulf

lasting.

can be said to have ever been really

But German influence has destroyed, assimilated, or brought to submission, the whole of the earlier inhabitants,

from Wagria to Esthland.

isle

In our

own day

the whole coast, from the

(Ifiiiian

of Eiigen to the head of

the gulf of Bothnia,

is

in the possession of

two powers,

influence abiding.

one German, one Slavonic.

abides beyond the bounds of

But German influence

German

rule.

Not only
in

have Pomerania and Prussia

sense, but Curland, Livland,

become German

every

and Esthland, under the

spoken of as German

dominion of Eussia,
provinces.

are

still

This great change was brought about by a singular

union of mercantile, missionary, and military enterprise.

Beginninj
of Swedish conquest in

Finland.
1155.

The beginning came from Scandinavia, when the , Swcdlsh King Samt Eric undertook the conquest and
.

-,

conversion of the proper Finland, east of the Gulf of

Bothnia.

/-<

i/.

<?

Here, in the space of about a century, a

great province was added to the Swedish kingdom, a

province whose eastern boundary greatly shifted, but

the greater part of which remained Swedish

down

to

the present century.

To

the south of the Gulf of Fin-

land the changes of possession have been endless.

settled

The
later

dominion of Sweden in those lands comes

Danish occupation, though longer, was only temporary.

German
conquest in Livland.

Soou
jg^jj^j

after the

beginning O O of Swedish conquest in Fin.1

bcgau the work of German mercantile enterprise,


SCANDINAVIAN AND GERMAN ADVANCE.
followed
fifty

487
chap.
-

years later by

German conquest and

lands.

conversion, in Li viand

and the neighbouring

in the

^-^

on

This hindered the growth of any native power on those

coasts.

Even Lithuania

cut off from the sea.

days of its greatness was Whatever tendencies towards

its effect

and Russia.

Eussian supremacy had arisen in those parts were hin-

dered from growing into Eussian dominion. The Knights

of the

The
Orders.

Sword

in Livland

were followed by the Teutonic

Knights in Prussia, and the two orders became one.

Further west, the
latter part of the twelfth

and the beDanish

ginning of the thirteenth century saw a great, but mostly

short-lived, extension of Danish

power over both German

coasts are thus changing The
Scandinavian kingdoms.

and Slavonic

lands.

While the

hands, the relations of Scandinavian kingdoms to one

another are ever

1

shifting.
1

Poland

is

ever losing
1
1

tory to the west, and,

its

-n
stiii

more

alter the

beginnmg of
it

terri- Polish f gains and

losses.

connexion with Lithuania, ever gaining

to the east.

And, alongside of princes and sovereign

time
is

orders, this The

first

marked by the appearance of the

germs

of the great

German commercial

league, which, with-

out becoming a strictly territorial power, exercised the

greatest influence on the disposal of
its

power among

all

neighbours.

In Scandinavia

itself

the chief strictly geographical

scania Swedish. 1332-136O.

change was a temporary transfer to Sweden in the

fourteenth

century of tne Danish lands within the

northern peninsula.

At

the end of that century

came
of

the union of Calmar, the principle of which was that

the three kingdoms, remaining separate states, should uniou
1

be joined under a

common

sovereign.

But

-r

Calmar.

this

union

i396.

was never firmly

established,

and the arrangements of

the three crowns were shifting throughout the fifteenth

488

THE BALTIC LANDS.

century
-

CHAP,

a lasting state of things came only with the

final

breach of the union in the sixteenth century.

separated,

FroHi that time, Sweden, under the house of Vasa,

Denmark
and Nor-

lorms ouc powcr

way united.
1520.

Denmark and Norway, under

more

the

house of Oldenburg, form another.

Loss of oceanic
colonies.

With regard

to the

three kingdoms, this period

distant relations of the

is

marked by the gradual

withdrawal of Scandinavian power from the oceanic

Iceland
land united
to

The union of Iceland and Greenland with Norway was the union of one Scandinavian land with
lauds.

Norway.

1261-1262.

another.
land,

But Greenland, the most distant Scandinavian

from history about the time of the

vanishes

Calmar union.

The Scandinavian
all

settlements in and

about the British Islands

ireiand.

passed away.

The

Ost-

niGn oi Ireland were lost in the mass of the Teutonic

settlers

The
isies.^
1264.

who

passed from England into Ireland.

The

Western
Scottish

Isles

were sold

to Scotland

Man

passed under

and English supremacy.

to the Scottish

Orkney and Shetland

;

piedg^^.

were pledged

crown

and, though never

formally ceded, they have become incorporated witli

the British kingdom.
Swedish
riniTnd.''^

East of the Gulf of Bothnia Swedish rule advanced.

Attempts
failed,

at

conquest both in Eussia and in Esthland

but Finland and Carelia were fully subdued, and

1248-1293.

the Swedish power reached to Lake Ladoga.

Denmark
end

Esthland
12^8-1346.

Hiadc a morc lasting, but

Esthland.
of the

still

short-lived, settlement in
at the other

The growth
lands

of

Denmark
earlier

Baltic

began

and was checked

to become. the

Short-lived
of Den-^^

sooucr.

But

at the beginning of the thirteenth century

if

things lookcd as
chief

Denmark was about

the Baltic coasts.

power on

all

South of the boundary stream of the Eider the

Hoistein.

lands which

make up

the

modern Holstein formed three

'

MOMENTARY GREATNESS OF DENMARK.

settlements,

489

two Teutonic and one Slavonic. To the west

In the middle
'

lay the free Frisian land of Ditmarschen.

XI.

chap

were the lands of the Saxons beyond the Elbe

Holtscetan

with Stormarn
kingdom of

the

marschen.
Hoistein.

immediately on the Elbe.

On

the Baltic side lay the Slavonic land of Wagria,

at the

wagria.

which

beginning of the twelfth century formed

Sclavinia, a

part of the

kingdom
at the

stretching

from the haven of Kiel to the islands

the Oder.

mouth

of
Danish
conquest of

Denmark
Sclavinia

In these lands began the eastern advance of ^ in the latter half of the twelfth century. All

^legl^^Jg

was won, with

at least a

supremacy over the

Pomeranian land
Danish conquests,

as far as the

Eiddow.

Thus

far the

won mainly

over Slaves, continue the

chain of occasional Scandinavian occupation on those

coasts,

from the tenth century

to the nineteenth.

In

another point of view, the Christian advance, the over-

throw of the chief centre of Slavonic heathendom

EUgen,
carries
^

in

on the work of the Saxon Dukes.

But
Danish
arlvance in

in the first years of the

occupation of
itself,

German were won a claim was

;

next century began a Danish D ground. Hoistein, and Liibeck

set
J.

Germany,

up

to the free land of

Ditmarschen

; '

and

all

these conauests were confirmed

by an Imperial
title

grant.^

The Danish kings now took

the

1214.

of Kings of the Slaves, afterwards of the Vandals

or Wends.

But

this

dominion was soon broken up

by the

captivity of the Danish king

Waldemar.

The

Fail of the

Eider became again the boundary.

Of her Slavonic

\^.^\^^^

dominion Denmark kept only an outlying fragment,

^

BrehoUes' Historia Diplomatica Friderici Secundi,

This document, granted at Metz in 1214, will be found in It reads i. 347.

like a complete surrender of all Imperial rights in both the

German

and the Slavonic conquests of AValdemar. It may be that it seems to have that meaning only because the retreating of Terminus was deemed inconceivable.

490
CHAP.
tlie

THE BALTIC LANDS.

isle

XL
Denmark
keeps
Riigen,
till

of Eiigeri and the neighbouring coast.

This

remained Danish for a hundred years longer, nominally

for a

hundred years longer

still.

ceded

The next changes tended

diately

to

draw the lands immepart of the Daniigh

1325, 14S8.

on each side of the Eider into close connexion

with one another.

The southern

peninsula, from the Eider to the Aa,

became a distinct fief

of the Danish crown, held by a Danish prince under the

Duchv
South
Jutland.
1232.

of

name
Jutia.

of the duchy of South- Jutland

Jutia or Sunder-

In the next century this duchy and the county

United with
Holstein. 1325.

of Holstein are found in the hands of the same prince,

and

it is

held that his grant of the Danish duchy conit

tained a promise that

should never be united with

the Danish crown.

Duchy
of

Henceforth South-Jutland begins

to

Sleawick.

be spoken of as the duchy of Sleswick.

But of the
fief

lands held together, Sleswick remained a

Fluctuations of

of Den-

mark, while Holstein remained a

fief

of the Empire.

Sleswick

and
Holstein.

The duchy was

again granted

several times united to the

out.

crown and

At one moment
as a

of union the

1424.

Koman King Sigismund

expressly confirmed the union,

and acknowledged Sleswick

1448.

Danish land.

At the

next grant of the duchy,

the crown
is

its

perpetual separation from

alleged to have been again

confirmed

by
1460.

Christian the First.

Yet Christian himself, already

king of the three kingdoms,, was afterwards elected

Duke

of Sleswick and Count of Holstein.

The

election
princi-

was accompanied by a declaration that the two

palities,

though the one was held of the Empire and

In the same reign an Imperial grant raised the

the other of the Danish crown, should never be sepaDuchy of Holstein. 1474.

rated.

counties of Holstein and Stormarn with the land of

Ditmarsh to therankof a duchy.

its

But the dominions of

from

duke were not a continuous

territory stretching

'

DUCHIES OF SLESWICK AND HOLSTEIN.

sea to sea.

491

To

the west, Ditmarschen

*-

a renewed Imperial grant

remained
<-'

notwithstanding
free
;

to the east,
'

~-

chap.

Freedom
'^ O't-

some

districts

of the old Wagria formed the bishopric of ^

for the first time the

marscnen.
J/lj^^^^^

Liiheck.

But now

same prince

in the threefold character of reigned

King of Denmark,

Denmark,
Sleswick,

Duke

of the Danish
fief

fief

of Sleswick, and

Duke

of the

and
Holstein

Imperial

of Holstein. Endless shiftings, divisions, and ^H^^^^ reunions of various parts of the two duchies followed.

In the partitions between the royal and ducal lines

Royai and
lines.

Oldenburg, the several portions of the Kings of Denmark and of the Dukes of Gottorp
of the house of

1580.

paid no regard to the boundary of the Eider, but each

was made up of detached parts of both duchies.

MeanConquest ofDit"l^'g^^^^en.

while the freedom of Ditmarschen came to an end.

and the old Frisian land became part of the royal share
of the duchy of Holstein.

And,

as

we began our

story

Acquisition

of Danish advance with the settlement in Esthland,

we

and

o'esei.

have to end

it

for the present with the acquisition of

the islands of

Dago and

Oesel

ofi*

the same coasts.

After the loss of Riigen, Detimark had

. .

little

to
.

do

Effect of the Danish

with the Slavonic lands, except so far as the possession of

Holstein carried with
it

advance on theSlavonic lands.

the possession of the old SlaStill

vonic land of Wagria.

at the

the advance of

Denmark

end of the twelfth century had a

lasting efiect

on the Slavonic lands by altogether shaking the Polish

dominion on the
Baltic.

But

it

shook

it

to the advan-

tage, not of Scandinavia, but of

Germany.

Between the
all its

twelfth century and the fourteenth Poland lost

western dominions.

Pomore^

Pommem^ Pomerania, the

is strictly

Pomerania
from
Poland.

seaboard of the Lechish Slaves,

the land be-

tween the mouth of the Vistula and the mouth of the

Oder

but the

name had already spread

further to the

492
CHAP.
XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

West. After the
fall

of the Danish power on this coast,

fell

Pomerania west of the Eiddow altogether

Duchj- of
Slavia.

away

from Poland.
like

As

the duchy of Slavia^

it

became,

Mecklenburg, a land of the Empire, though ruled

princes.

by Slavonic
1298-1305. Loss of western
territory

But the eastern part of Pomethe beginning

rania, Cassuhia

and the mark of Gdansk or Danzig,

till

remained under Polish superiority

of
fell

by Poland.

the

fourteenth

century.

Then the greater part

away, partly for ever, to the Pomeranian duchy

of Wolgast, partly, for a season only, to the Teutonic

1220-1260.

Knights.
after

To

the south Barnirn. and Custrin passed,

to

some

shiftings,

the

mark
divided
fell

of Brandenburg.

Silesia.

Further to the south,

the house

Silesia,

among

princes of

1289-1327.

of Piast, gradually

under Bohemian

supremacy.

Thus the whole western part of the Polish

into the

kingdom passed
realm.

hands of princes of the Empire,

and was included within the bounds of the German

The
on, as
as

fate of Silesia brings us again to the history of

the inland Slavonic land of the Czechs.

Bohemia went
fief

duchy and kingdom,^ ruled by native princes

of the

vassals

Empire.

Moravia was a

of

Bohemia.

In the
till

end Bohemia passed to German

it

kings, but not

had become again the centre of

a dominion which recalls the fleeting powers of

Bohemia and
Ottocar 1269-1278.

Samo

and Sviatopluk.

Ottocar the Second united the long-

severed branches of the Slavonic race by annexing

the

His

German
Vratislaf,

lands which lay between them.

Lord of
and Carfirst

German
dominion.

Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Styria, Carinthia,

who reigned from 1061

to

1092,

is

called the

king

of Bohemia, but his royal dignity

was only personal. The succession of kings begins only with Ottocar the First, who reigned from 1197
to 1230.

THE BOHEMIAN KINGDOM.

niola, the

493

Czech king reigned on the upper Oder and

the middle

Danube

as far as the Hadriatic.

The same

'

chap.

lands were in after times to be again united, but from

the opposite side.

The
-ri
.

successors
TTV/r

of

iiohemia and Moravia.

Bohemian crown passed

Ill
to the

T^i'i Jiarly in the next century the

house of Luxemburg.

Ottocar

reigned

only

over Luxemburg kings

of

Bohemia.
i308.

Under them Bohemia became

a powerful state, but a state

becoming more and more German, less and less Slavonic.

The gradual extension

Silesia led to its

of

Bohemian

superiority over

siiesia,

formal incorporation.

In the same
Lnsatia.^ 1320-li)70.

century Lusatia, High and Low, was

won from Bran-

The mark of Brandenburg itself became for a while a Bohemian possession, before it passed to the burggraves of Niiruberg. The Bohemian possession of the Upper Palatinate lies out of our Slavonic range.
denburg.

Branden1373-1417.

1353.

Among
the
that of
prince.

the revolutions of the fifteenth century,

at

we find

Bohemian crown
Hungary,
at

one time held conjointly with

another time held by a Polish

conquests^
Corvinus,'

Later in the century the victories of Matthias

Silesia,

Corvinus took away Moravia,

the

and Lusatia, from

1478-1490.

Bohemian crown.

But

it

was the fourfold dominion

of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, which finally Bohemia

passed to the House of Austria, to be shorn of

its

Austria.

northern and eastern lands to the profit,

first

of Saxony,

leU!'"''^^

and then of Brandenburg or Prussia.

1740.

Thus

far the

Teutonic advance, both on the actual

Baltic coast and on the inland Slavonic region, had

been made to the

profit, partly of the

Scandinavian

kingdoms, partly of the princes of the Empire.

But
corpora-

there were two other forms of Teutonic influence and German

dominion, which

fell to

the share, not of princes, but of

^^^^^-

494
CHAP.
XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

corporate bodies, mercantile and military or religious.

The Hanseatic League was indeed

The
Hansa.

power

in these

regions, but

it

hardly has a place on the map.

Second
foundation
of LUbeck. 1168.

before the second foundation of

Even Llibeck by Henry the

Gradually, in

Lion,

German

mercantile settlements had begun at

Novgorod,

in Gotland,

and in London.

the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,

the League
Extent of
the League,

into

which the union of the merchant

towns

of

Germany
close tie

grew

spread

itself

over

the

Baltic, the

Westfalian, and the Netherlandish lands.

A
ish
Nature of
the union.

specially

bound together the

of
a
its

five

Wend-

towns,

Liibeck, Rostocl%

Wisinar, Stralsund, and

Greifswald.

But the union

necessarily

town with the

political

Hansa did not

tion.
It

affect

posi-

might, at least in

the

later stages

of the

League, be a free city of the Empire, a town subject

to

some prince of the Empire, or a town subject

beyond
its

to a prince

bounds.

Not only the Pome-

ranian and Prussian

cities

under the rule of the Knights,

but Eevel in Esthland under Danish rule formed part

The Hansa
not a
territorial

of the League.

The League waged wars, made

set

peace,
;

power.

overthrew and
territorial

up

kings, as suited
strictly

its

interests

but
its

dominion,

so

called,

was not
into

object.

Still in

some
;

cases privileges

grew
Thus

some-

thing

like

dominion

in others military

occupation
in the isle

might pass for temporary dominion.

The Hansa of
in

Gotland and
Scania.

Gotland the Hansa had an ascendency which was

overthrown by the conquest of the island by the Danish

king Waldemar, a conquest avenged by a temporary
Hanseatic occupation of Scania.

1361.

1368-1385.

In fact the nature ot

the League, the relations of the cities to one another,

geographical as well as political, hindered the Hansa

from ever becoming a

territorial

power

like Switzerland

THE HANS A AND THE KNIGHTS.

and the United Provinces. In the history of the Baltic lands it takes for some ages a position at least equal
to that of

495
chap.
XI.

any kingdom.
its

But

it is

only casually and

occasionally that

triumphs can be marked on the

map.

The other

great

German
and

corporation was not com-

mercial, but military

religious.

The conquests of

xheSwordandThe
Order.

the Order of Christ and of the Order of Saint

better

Mary

known

as the Sword-brothers
essentially territorial.

and the Teutonic

These orders beBaltic coast,

Order-were

came masters of a great part of the

and

wherever they spread their dominion, Christianity and

German
bhshed.

national

life

were, by whatever means, esta-

As both
/.

the chiefs of the Order

and the

Their

Livonian prelates ranked as princes of the Empire, the

conquests oi the iinights were
of the bounds of the Empire.
1

T7-

m some sort an extension

with the Empire,

Yet we can hardly look

on Livonia and
and

Prussia

as

coming

geographically

within the Empire in the same sense as Pomerania

Silesia.

But whether

strictly

an extension of the

Effects of

Western Empire or
world, and the

not, the conquests of the

Knights

were an extension of the Western Church, the Western

German

nation, as against both heathenall

dom and
The

Eastern Christianity, as against

the other

Baltic nationalities,
first

non-Aryan and Aryan.

I

settlement

egan in Livland.
.

In

the The
in

Sword-

beginnintr of the thirteenth century, the Knights of the

.

Liviand. 1201.

Order of Christ were

x^alled in as

temporal helpers by

Bishop Albert of Eiga, and they gradually

won

the
city.

dominion of the lands on the gulf called from his

For a while they had a partner

which held part of Esthland.

in the

Danish crown,

xhe

But the

rest of Esthland,

?Smi.

496

THE BALTIC LANDS.

Livlaud in the narrower sense, Curland, Semigola, the
special Lettish land,

and the Eussian territory on the

Livonian dominion, which was
isles

Duna, made up
Dlgr'and
^^'^^'

this

afterwards enlarged

by the

of

Dago and Oesel and

Esthiand.
1346.

by the Danish portion of Esthland. Eiga and Revel bccamc great commercial cities, and Riga became an
.
.

ecclesiastical

metropolis

under a prince-archbishop.

The

natives

were reduced to bondage, and the Eussian

effectually

powers of Novgorod and Polotsk were

kept

The
orderin
1226.
*

away from The dominion

the gulf.
of the Knights of Saint Mary, the

Tcutouic Order, in Prussia and in a small part of

Lithuania, began a
little

later

than that of the Sword-

brothers in Li viand.

Invited by a Pohsh prince, Conrad

of Mazovia, they received fi'om

Union of
*'"'

him

their first Polish

possession, the palatinate of Culm.

Eleven

ye;irs later

1237/
Purchase of
1311.

the Prussian and Livonian orders were united.

Their

domiuiou grcw.

The

acquisition

of Pomerclia, the

eastern part of the old Po7nore, immediately west of

Conquestof
1384.

the lowcr Vistula, cut off Poland from the sea.

in the century, Lithuania

Later

was equally cut

isle

off

by the
was

of'^oSLnd!

cession of Samogitia.
foi"

The

of Gotland was held

of Brandenburg

The New
J!ie5ed to
*^'^"

^ whllc

the

New Mark
to

pledged by King Sigismund.

The whole

coast from

1402."^

Narva on the Finnish gulf

Pomeranian coast

the point where the

the un-

Their coast

trends south-west formed

broken sea-board of the Order.

Losses

Of the two
^^"

seats

of the Order the northern one

Prussian
'^

provcd thc strougcr and more lasting. Li viand remained untouched long after Poland had won back
her
lost

Samositia
Lithuania,
1410.

grouud from the Prussian Knights.

The

battle

of Tanneuberg

won back

Samogitia for Lithuania, and

again parted the Livonian and Prussian lands of the

'

GROWTH OF THE TEUTONIC

Order.

ORDER.

497
chap.
Peace of

By

the peace of
short.

Thorn

its

Prussian dominion

was altogether cut

Culm, and Pomerelia, with

. .

the cities of Danziq and Thorn, went back to Poland. Tbom.

And

1646.

a larcre

part of Prussia

itself,

the bishopric

of
still

Ermeland, a
Prussia was

district

running deep into the land

to Poland.

cessions of the Order to Poland,

left to the knights, left to

was added

The

rest of vassaiage
order.

the Order as a Polish

fief.

The
It

thirteenth century

was the
itself

special time

when
to Advance
tiauity.*

Teutonic dominion spread

over the Baltic lands.

was

also the time

when heathendom gave way

Christianity at nearly every point of those lands

it still

where

held out.

But, while the old creeds and the old

races were giving way, a single one

forth for a while as
state,

among them

stood
Lithuania

an independent and conquering

the last heathen

power

in Europe.

While

all heathen
pow6r.

their kinsfolk

and neighbours were passing under the

lands from

yoke, the Lithuanians, strictly so called, showed themselves the

mightiest of conquerors in

all

the Baltic to the Euxine. the JNiemen

to advance
1

-XT'

11 they began,

From
T
1

their

own

land on
Tv/r

Advance
c. i-.'2o.

of

under

their

pnnce Mendog,
and was

Lithiumia.

at

the expense of the Eussian lands to

Christianity,
Mendog
1252!

the south.

Mendog embraced
to

crowned King of Lithuania, a realm which

now
But

Duna heathendom again won

stretched from the

beyond the Priepetz.

the upper hand, and the next

century

saw the great advance of the Lithuanian

Christendom and over Islam.

power, the momentary rule of old Aryan heathendom

alike over

Under two

conquests
Russia,

conquering princes, Gedymin and Olgierd, further conquests were made from the surrounding Eussian lands. The Lithuanian dominion was extended at the expense

1345-1377'

1315-1360.

of NovfTorod and Smolensk

the Lithuanian frontier

K K

498
CHAP.
XI.
'

THE BALTIC LANDS.

stretched far

beyond both the Dima and the Dnieper

Kief was a Lithuanian possession.

Volhynia

Gahcia

lost

The kingdom of Volhynia and Podolia, which became a

These

and
Podolia.

land disputed between Lithuania and Poland.

last

conquests carried the Lithuanian frontier to the

Dniester,
Perekop.
1363.

and opened a wholly new

set of relations

among

the powers on the Euxine.

By

the conquest

of the Tartar dominion of Perekop, Lithuania, cut off

from the
Consolidation of

Baltic,

reached to the Euxine.

collection of

Meanwhile Poland, from a

dated and powerful kingdom.

duchies

Poland. 1295-1320.

under a nominal head, had again grown into a consoli-

The western

frontier

had

been cut short by various German powers, and the Teutonic

Order shut

off the

kingdom from the

;

sea.

Mazovia

and Cujavia remained separate duchies

Little
Conquests of Casimir the Great. 1333-1870.

but Great and

Poland remained firmly united, and were ready

Casimir the

to enlarge their borders to the eastward.

Great added Podlachia, the land of the Jatvingi, and in

the break-up of the Galician kingdom, he incorporated

Red
Russia. 1340.

Ped Russia
as
it

as being a former possession of Poland. But,

Annexed to Hungary, 1377.

had

also

been a former possession of Hungary,^

Lewis the Great, the

Poland, annexed
it

common

sovereign of

Hungary and

to his southern

kingdom.

Union of Poland and

Lithuania.
1386.

The two powers which had thus grown up were now to be gradually fused into one. The heathen
Lithuanian prince Jagiello became, by marriage and
conversion, a Christian

King of Poland.

He

enlarged

Volhynia and
Podolia

the

kingdom

at

the expense of the duchy, by incor-

porating Podolia and Volhynia with Poland, making

added to
Poland.

Poland as well
of Eussian

as Lithuania the possessor of a large extent

Recovery
of

soil.

Red

Russia. 1392.

Eed

Eussia,

The older Eussian territory of Poland, was won back from Hungary Moldavia
; '

See above,

p.

437.


UNION OF POLAND AND LITHUANIA.
began
to transfer
;

'

499
to
"-

its

fleeting allegiance

from Hungary

chap.
'-

Poland

within

Hungary itself

part of the county oi Zips

was pledged

to the Polish

crown.

The

Polish duchies

'piedg7of
i|?|'

now began to fall back to

course.

the kingdom. Cujavia

came

in

early in the fifteenth century,

and parts of Mazovia

in its Recovery
?^^l^^ duchies. ^^^^*

Of the

relation of the

kingdom ~
.

to the Teutonic

order

already spoken. Lithuania meanwhile, as / ^ part of Western Christendom, remained, under its sepa,

we have

1463-1476.

rate grand dukes of the

now royal

house, the rival both

of Islam and of Eastern Christendom.

the advance on Eussian ground

Under Witold
ever.

Conquests
of Witold. 139-^-1430.

was greater than

;

Smolensk and

all

Severia became Lithuanian

Kief was

in the heart of the

grand duchy

Moscow

did not seem

presently cut
its

far

from

its

borders.

Lithuania was

Loss of
1474.

short further to the

south by the loss of

Euxine

dominion.
1 1

At
T

the beginning of the sixteentli century

1

closer union of
I'oian.ian.i

Poland and Lithuania were united

under a

as distinct

states

Lithuania.

common

sovereign.
in

But by that time a new

the lands on the

i'<)i-

state of things

had begun

Duna

and the Dnieper. While the military orders had thus established
themselves on the Baltic coast, and had already largely
given

way to the combined Polish and Lithuanian power behind them, a new Russia was growing up behind them all. Cut off from all dealings with
Western Europe, save with
neighbours, cut off from
its its

Revival of

immediate

western

own

ecclesiastical centre

by
of

the advance of

Mussulman dominion, the new power Moscow was schooling itself to take in course of
power of
Kief.

Power of

time a greater place than had ever been held by the

elder

the Russian principalities in

The Mongol conquest had placed much the same position

K K 2

500
CHAP.
XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

as

that

througli

whicli

most of the

south-eastern

lands
Kussian
princes de-

passed before they were finally swallowed

up

by the Ottoman.
pendent
(lu

The princes of Eussia were dedominion of Kiptchak, which

north-eastwards

pendent on the Tartar

stretched

the

Golden Horde.

from

the

Dniester

over

boundless barbarian lands as far as the lower course of

the
Jenisei.
Its

capital,

the

centre

of the

Golden

Horde^ was at Sarai on the lower course of the Volga.

Homage
of

Even Novgorod, under

relation

its

great

prince

Alexander
dependent

Novgorod.
12;V2-1263.

Nevsky, did homage to the Khan.

did
not,
like

But

this

the Lithuanian

conquests to

the west, affect

the geographical frontiers of Eussia.

at the

The Eussian centre

time of the Mongol conquest

was the northern Vladimir.

INIoscow the new
centre,
c.

Towards the end of the

next century

thirteenth century, Moskva, on the river of that name,

grew
it

into

importance, and early

in the
life.

lo28.

became the centre of Eussian

Kaiiie of

or

Moscow comes

the old

name

of

From Moskva Muscovy, a name

what France
and
to

Muscovy.

which

historically describes the

growth of the second

to Eussia

Eussian power.

Muscovy was
was
to the

in the older sense

whole land which came

to Eussia
It
all,

to bear that

name.

Moscow was
was

more than

all,

that Paris

to France.

was

Moscow

as the centre that the separate Eussian princi;

palities fell in

it

was from Moscow

as the centre that

the lost Eussian lands were

Other
K'ussian
.states.

won

back.

Besides Novero-

rod, there

still

were the separate

states of Viatka, Pskof,

till

Tver, and Riazan.

Disunion and dependence lasted

Decline of the Mongol power.

late in the fifteenth century.

But the Tartar power had

the end of the

already begun to
fourteenth,

grow weaker before

and the invasion of Timour, while making

Eussia for a

moment more completely

subject, led to

the dissolution of the dominion of the older Khans.

'

GROWTH OF MUSCOVY.
In the course of the fifteenth century the great

501
chap.

power of the Golden Horde broke up into a number of smaller khanats. The khanat of Crim the old
Tauric Chersonesos

'-.-

stretched

^the""^
JJ^ei?^

from

its

peninsula in-

wards along the greater part of the course of the Don. cdm^^ ^^ The khanat of Kazan on the Volga supplanted the of Kazan,
1438
;

old

kingdom of White
lower
course

Bulgaria.

Far to the

east,

on

the

of the

Obi,
itself

was the khanat of

Siberia.

The Golden Horde

was represented by
its
,

of Siberia
of Astra-

the khanat of Astrakhan on the lower Volga, witli

capital at the

khan.

mouth

of that river.

Of

these

Crim and

Kasan were immediate neighbours of the Muscovite

state.

The yoke was

^

at last

broken by Ivan the Great.

*'
. .

Deliverance of Russia.
i^"-

Seven years

later

he placed a tributary prince

title

on.

the

throne of Kazan, and himself took the

of Pi^ince
^-'i'"
'^<^-

of Bulqaria.
^

"^

By
'

this

time the khans of Crim had

Sultans, the begin^ o
^

pendent on
*^ *^"'^-

become dependents of the Ottoman ^

ning of the long
in Europe,
strife

man.

between Russia and the Turk

But before Muscovy thus became an independent

.

power,

it

Till

had taken the greatest

or steps

towards grow-

of

Advance Moscow

in Russia,

ing into Kussia.

rival

Novgorod

the Great, the only Eussian Annexa-

of

Moscow^

first lost its

northern territory, and

Novgorod.
of vi'atk..,
^/-j-^^j.
^'^^'^'

then

itself

became part of the Muscovite dominion. The

Viatka^ the principality of Tver, and

commonwealth of

some small appanages of the house of Moscow followed. The annexation of what remained, as Pskof and Riazan,
was only a question of
reign.
full

Reign of
ivanovitch,

time,

and

it

came

in the next

Of the three works which were needful for the growth of the new Russia, two were accomplished.
state

Annexa-

psLfaud
^^^^1
IJfjJ.pif."''

The Russian

was one, and

it

was independent.

And

the third work, that of winning back the lost

Russian lands, had aheady begun.

'^^"'^

502
CHAP.
^~
'

THE BALTIC LANDS.

Thus, at the end of the fifteenth century,
held the Baltic coast.
fj-Q^j^

five

powers

Survey at the end

of the

Sweden held the west coast

'

^hc Daulsh frontier northward, with both sides

gulf of

clnurrv.

^^ ^^^ g^^^^ ^^ Bothnia and both sides of the

Finland.

Denmark held
isle

the extreme western coast

and the

of Gotland.

Poland and Lithuania had a

small seaboard indeed compared to their inland extent.

Poland had only the Pomeranian and Prussian coast

which she had just won from the Knights.

Lithuania

barely touched the sea between Prussia and Curland.

To

the west of the Polish coast lay the

lands of

west lay

now Germanized Pomerania and Mecklenburg. To the norththe coast of the German military Order, under
its

Polish vassalage in Prussia, independent in

possessions.

northern

Thus almost the whole Baltic coast was

;

held
lie

by Teutonic powers

the Slavonic powders

still

mainly inland.

The

Polish frontier
to the limit

towards the

Empire has been cut down

till

which

it

kept

the end.

Pomerania, Silesia, a great part of the

mark

of Brandenburg, have fallen

away from the Polish

its

realm.

On

the other hand, that realm and

confederate

Lithuania have grown wonderfully to the east at the

cost of divided
to fall

and dependent Eussia, and have begun

and Lusatia, has entered so
as almost

back again before Eussia one and independent.

Silesia

Bohemia, enlarged by
thoroughly into the
out of our sight.

German world

to pass

Changes of
the last

4.

The Growth of Russia and Sweden.

last

Thc work of the

after a vast

four centuries on the Baltic

fourcentunes.

coast has bccn to drive back the Scandinavian power,

momentary advance, wholly

to the

west of

'

RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA.

the Baltic
sia

503

to give nearly the whole eastern coast to Eus-

to

make

the whole southern coast German.

first

These

of

chap.

changes involve the wiping out,

military Order,
last

of the

German
Growth
creation of Prussia.

aud then of Poland and Lithuania. This

change involves the growth of Eussia, and the crea-

tion of Prussia in the

different

modern

sense, a sense so strangely

from

its

earlier

meaning. These two have been

the powers
cut short,

by which Sweden and Denmark have been

In this
Still

by which Poland and Lithuania have been

last

swallowed up.

work they indeed had a

But

third confederate.

the share of Austria in the

overthrow of Poland was in a manner incidental.

the existence of such a Polish and Lithuanian state

as stood at the

end of the

fifteenth,

or even of the

seventeenth, century was inconsistent with the existence

of either Eussia or Prussia as great European powers.

The period with which we have now

in only the

to deal takes

former stage of

this process.

Eussia adinto being.

all
;

vances

Prussia in the
is

modern sense comes

But Sweden
and,
if

still

the most advancing

power of

Greatness

Denmark falls back, it is before the power of Sweden. The Hansa too and the Knights pass away; Sweden is the ruling power of the Baltic.
The
sixteenth century

saw the

fall

of both branches
fall

of the Teutonic Order.

Out of the

of one of

them came the beginnings of modern Prussia. ^ two branches of the Order were separated
Livonian lands had an independent Master.
'-

The
;

separation
of the

the

Before

Prussian and Livonian

knights. i5i5.

long the Prussian Grand Master, Albert of Brandenburg, changed from the head of a Catholic rehgious
,

Beginning

of prmce, holdmg order into a Lutheran temporal * ^ the Duchy Prussia. 1^25. That hereditary duchy of Prussia as a Pohsh fief.

504
CHAP,

THE BALTIC LANDS.

duchy had so strange a
'

frontier towards the

kingdom
or else
WJjeii

'

that

it

could not

fail

sooner or later either to be swal-

caT^tioii
Union
of

lowed up by the kingdom which

^^

hemmed

it in,

makc

its

way out

of

its

geographical bonds.

-""^

Brarden

the Prussiau duchy and the

into the

len!

hands of

mark of Brandenburg came one prince, when the dominions of

by the union of Brandenburg

that prince were enlarged

and Pomerania, the second of these solutions became

Prussia
iruleptTi-

only a question of time.

it

dent of
1G47.

was the release of the

Prussia

The first formal step towards duchy from all dependence on

distinct state,

Poland.
essentially

became a

one

now

German, but lying beyond the bounds of

the Empire.

As the rights of the Empire had been formally cut short when Prussia passed under Pohsh vassalage, they
were
also formally cut short

by the

dissolution of the

northern branch of the Teutonic order.

Fall of the Livoiiian

The

rule of

tlic

Livouiau Kuights survived the secularization of the

*-'

^/'^^-

Prussian duchy by forty years; their dominion then

asunder.

fell

As

in the case of Prussia, part of their terri-

Duchy

of

tory,

Curland and Semigallia, was kept by the Livonian

Master Godhard Kettler, as an hereditary duchy under

klHionr^
ofLivonia.

Denmark
takes ihino

The rest of the lands of the order were parted out among the chief powers of the Baltic. ^ Livouiau kingdom under the Danish prince Magnus / ta was Dut Tor a moment. Denmark m the end received
Polish vassalage.
i
i

Sweden
E^sthiand.

^'^^

islauds of JJago

and

Oesel,

her

last

conquests east
of the Finnish

of thc Baltic.

Swcdcu advanced south

^'oelTo^

gulf, taking the greater part of Esthland.

fell

Northern
Poland.

RuS.^^ Livland
All Livland Polish. 1682.
''

to Eussia, the southern part to

later all Tjivland

Twenty years
''

became a Polish pos'

session.
"^^is acquisitiou of

Baltic ex-

Livland and of the superiority

FALL OF THE TEUTONIC ORDER.

over Prussia and Curland raised the united power of

505
chap.
'

Poland and Lithuania

Baltic coast.

to its greatest

extent

on

the

Meanwhile the union of Lublin joined

Poland and
of

the

kingdom and the grand duchy yet more

closely union

together.
tier of

But, long before this time, the eastern fron-

\'^qI'^'

The central Lithuania had begun to fall back. D revived advance of Eussia to the west had begun.

Russian advance.

state,

such as Russia was at the end of the fifteenth

it

century, must advance, unless

be

artificially

hindered

and the new Russian

state

was driven

to

advance

if it

its causes.

was

to exist at
;

all.

It

had no sea-board, except on the

White Sea

it

did not hold the

mouth of any one of

its

great rivers, except the Northern Dvina, a stream tho-

roughly cut

off"

from European

life.

The dominions
off*

of

Sweden, Lithuania, and the Kniglits cut Russia

the Baltic and from central Europe.
east she

from

To

the south and

was cut

off

from the Euxine and the Caspian,

from the mouths of the Don and the Volga, by the powers which represented her old barbarian masters.
Russia

was thus

not

only driven

to

advance, but

driven to advance in various directions.

She had

to

win back her

and

lost lands

she had,
to

if

she was really to

to the

become an European power,

Baltic
to the Euxine.

win her way

equally needful to win her

made

it

unavoidable that

over the barbarian lands

Her position made it almost way to the Caspian, and she should spread her power Of these to the north-east.
^
*

Advance
to the north-east.

several fields of advance the path to the

Euxine was
T

the longest barred.

First, at the end of the fifteenth

1

century, began the recovery of the lost lands, a

work

Order of Russian
advances.

spread over the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth

centuries.

Then, in the sixteenth, came the eastern

extension at the cost of the

now weakened Mongol

506
CHAP.
XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

enemy.
Strictly Baltic extension
;

was

in the sixteenth

century merely momentary

The Euxine
reached
lust.

it

did not become lasting

till

the beginning of the eighteenth.

But Eussia had

been established on the Caspian for more than two

centuries, she

had become a Baltic power

for

more than
oldest

two generations, before she made her way to the

scene of her seafaring enterprise.
Recovery
of the lands con-

The recovery
Ivan the Great
the Severian

of the lands which had been lost to

quered by Lithuania.

Lithuania began before the end of the fifteenth century.

won back
Basil

Severia, with Tchernig of a,nd

territory of

Novgorod and part of the

Smolensk

1514.
1563.

Smolensk.

Under

itself

followed

under Ivan the Terrible Polotsk again became Eussian.

Recovery
of

lensk
1582.

Smoby

Then the tide turned newly-won territory

for a season.
in

Eussia

first lost

her

Livland.

The recovery of

Poland.

Smolensk by Poland was followed by the momentary

Polish conquest of independent Eussia, and the occupation of the throne of

I'nlish

conquest of Russia,
1606.

Moscow by

a Polish prince.
;

The
to

Muscovite state came again to

life

but

it

was shorn of
be

Second
revival of Russia, and

a large part of the national territory,

which had

second advance.
Cessions to

won

again by a second advance.

Smolensk, Tchernigof,

and the greater part of the Lithuanian conquests be-

Poland.

yond the Dnieper, were again surrendered

Polish and Lithuanian state.

to the united

In the middle of the cen-

Lands

re-

covered by the Peace

of Andraszovo, 1667.

tury

came the renewed Eussian advance.

fifty

The Treaty

of Andraszovo gave back to Eussia most of the lands

which had been surrendered

years before.

Recovery
of Kief. 1686.

the last advance in the seventeenth century Eussia

By won

back a small territory west of the Dnieper, including her

ancient capital of Kief.

Superiority over the

At the same time Poland

finally

Ukraine
Cossacks.

gave up

to Eussia the superiority

over the Cossacks

of Ukraine, between the

Bug and

the

Lower Dnieper.
still

But, with this exception, Poland and Lithuania

ADVANCE OF RUSSIA AND SWEDEN.

kept
all

507
chap.
.

the Russian lands soutli of Diina and west

of Dnieper, with some districts beyond those rivers.

--

Nor was Russia the only power to which Poland had In this to give way on her south-eastern frontier. the Ottoman for the last time won a new quarter '
...

i^nj^J

sun

y^lul
l<5st

Podoiia to the

province from a Christian state by the acquisition of

Turk.

Kamienetz and

all

Podoiia}

But Poland had during

at other points also.

this

period to give

way
Growth of Sweden and Russia
compared.

This was the time of the great

*

The contrast between growth of the Swedish power. ^ growth the o growth of Sweden and the contemporary ^
i.

<-)

of Eussia

is

instructive.

The revived power of Moscow

its

was partly winning back

own

lost lands, partly

ad-

vancing in directions which were needful for national

growth, almost for national being.

The growth of
a
it
^

many directions was almost wholly growth beyond her own borders. Hence doubtless ^
Sweden
in

so

"f

Russian advance
lasting.

came
has
,

that the advance of Russia has been lasting, while

the advance of
lost

Sweden was only for a

^

season.

Sweden
. ;

advance temporarv.

by

far the greater part

or her

conquests

she

has kept only those parts of them which went to complete her position in her

own

peninsula.

On
which

the Swedish conquest of Esthland followed a

series of shiftings of the frontiers of

Sweden and Russia

During the
.

lasted into the present

'

century.

Advance
under and
atier

which we reign and the period of Gustavus Adolphus, X r might almost call the continuation of his reign after his o
^^

Gustavus
Adoiphus. 1611-1060.

death,

Sweden advanced both

in her

own

peninsula and

east of the Baltic, while she also gained a

wholly new

footing on

German ground, both on

'

the Baltic and on

See above,

p.

448.

508
tlie

THE BALTIC LANDS.

Ocean.

long period of alternate war and peace,

for a
far

a time in

which Novgorod the Great passed

Swedish hands, was ended, as

moment
Stalbova.

into

as

Sweden and Eussia were concerned, by the peace of

The Swedish

frontier thus fixed took in all

Carelia and Ingermanland, and wholly cut off Russia

from the Baltic and

not
fail

its gulfs.

Such an advance could

advance, though
at

to

lead to further

the

expense of another enemy.

Swedish
conquest of Livland,
l;21-l(j'25;

The long war between

Sweden and Poland gave to Sweden Eiga and the greater Her conquests in this region were part of Livland.
completed by winning the islands of Dago and Oesel

of

Dago

and Oesel,
1645.

from Denmark.
This
last acquisition,

Advance Sweden
against

geographically connected with

of

the Swedish conquests from Eussia and Poland,

politically

was

IJenmark and Xorway.

part

of an equally great advance which

cost of the rival Scandinavian

Sweden was making at the

Along with the two eastern
of Gotland for ever

power, the united realms of Denmark and Norway.

Conquest of
(Gotland

islands,

Denmark lost
for

the

isle

and
Born holm.
Iti45.

and that of Bornholm

a moment,^

and the Norwegian provinces

further enlarged

east of the mountains,

Of

.Tiimte-

land.

Jdmteland and Hertjedalen. The treaty of Eoskild yet

Sweden

at the

expense of Norway.

Of Troiidhjemliin.

By

the cession of Trondhjemldn the

split

Norwegian kinglost,

1658.

dom was
Sweden
of

asunder

the ancient metropolis was

and Sweden reached

Of Bohuslan,

to the

Ocean.

With Trondhjem

and

also received Bo/msldn, the southern province

Scania. &c.

of Norway, and,

more than

all,

the ancient possessions

Denmark

in the northern peninsula,

with her old

metropolis of Lund.
Trondhjem
restored to

Here comes

in the application of

the rule.
'

In annexing Trondhjem Sweden had overshot

Norwav.
1060.

Ceded

Conquered by Sweden 1643, restored to Denmark 1645. to Sweden 1G58, but recovered the same year.

509
chap.
XI.

GREATEST EXTENT OF SWEDISH POWER.

her mark
:

it

was restored within two

years.

It

was

otherwise with Bohusliin, Scania, and her other conquests

within
;

what might seem

to

be her natural

borders

they have remained Swedish to this day.

acquisition

The Swedish

of the eastern lands

of

Lands held
in Ger-

Denmark was made more necessary by the position which Sweden had now taken on the central mainland. The peace of Westfalia had confirmed her in the
^

nianv,

Pomerania and Riigen,

Bremen
and
Jg^g'""-

possession
Baltic,

of liiigen and Western Pomerania on the

bishoprics of

and of the

Bremen and Verden

Tliese lands
;

which ma'le her a power on the Ocean.

were not
strictly

an addition to the Swedish realm

tlie

they

were

fiefs

of the Empire held by

Swedish king. Here

again comes

in the geogi-aphical law.

The Swedish

possession of the

part of the

German lands on the Ocean was short German lands on the Baltic was kept into

the present century.

The peace of
of

Eoskild, which cut short the kingdoms

in the

Denmark and Norway

in the

northern peninsula, also

marks an epoch

controverted history of the

duchies of Sleswick and Holstein.

L^T-ve
.

up the sovereiqnty of the Gottorp

.

duchies.
his

Even

if

...

The Danish king

Denmark
gives up

/-i

districts

of the

that cession implied the siurrender of ^

thesovereignty of theCiJttorp
lllIKIS.

own

feudal superiority over the Gottorp districts of

^^''^

Sleswick, he could not alienate any part of the Imperial

rights over Holstein.
consisted,

This sovereignty, in whatever

it

riuctuathe duchies.

was

lost

and won several times between king

and Duke before the end of the century.

tlie

Meanwhile

Danisii

Danish crown became possessed of the outlying

balanced the Swedish possession of Bremen and

oroiden"
igts.'

duchies of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst^ which in some

sort

Verden.

510
CHAP.
XI.
r-^

THE BALTIC LANDS.

The wars and
-

'-

treaties

which were ended by the

, .

peace of Ohva fixed the boundaries of the Baltic lands

for a scason.

after the
o^fva.*'

They

fixed the

home

extent of
off

Sweden
itself,
it.

down
save

to the present century.

They cut

Denmark,

its

one outpost of Bornholm, from the Baltic

as distiuQ-uished o

from the narrow seas which lead to

They

fixed the extent of Poland

down

to the partitions.

What

they failed to do for any length of time was to

cut off Russia from the Baltic, and to estabhsh

Sweden
Sweden

on the Ocean.

But

for the present

we

leave

ruling over the whole western and the greater part of

the eastern coast of the Northern Mediterranean, and

holding smaller possessions both on

its

southern coast

and on the Ocean. The

coast of the Baltic
is

rest of the eastern

and southern
fief

divided between the Pohsh

of Curland, the dominions of the

common

ruler of Poin

merania and Prussia,

his

eastern

now an independent prince duchy, and the small piece of

invitingly

Polisli

coast
his

placed

between the

two parts of

dominions.

In her

own

peninsula

Sweden has

reached her natural frontier, and has given back what

she
this

won
vast

for a

moment beyond
of coast

it.

While Sweden has

comparatively
little

extent

with

extent inland, the vast inland region of Poland and

Lithuania has hardly any seaboard, and the

inland region of Eussia has none at
all in

still

vaster

Europe, except
of

on the White Sea.

this period is

Thus the most

also

strikini^ feature

the' advance of

Sweden; but we have

seen that

it

was

a time of great advance on the

part of Russia.

It

was a time of yet greater advance

dominion where Russia had no

on that

side of her
rivals.

European

'

EASTERN ADVANCE OF EUSSIA.

In the case of Eussia, the only European power

511
chap.
'

which could conquer and colonize by land

in barbarian

regions/ her earlier barbarian conquests were absolutely

necessary to her existence.

advance of

No hard

line

can be drawn

between her
the
first

earliest

and her

latest conquests,
last

between

advance of Novgorod and the

conquests in

Turkestan. But the advance which immediately followed

the deliverance from the Tartar yoke marks a great epoch.

The

smaller khanats into which the dominion of the

still

Golden Horde had been broken up

from the Euxine and the Caspian.

kept Eussia
conquest
of

on

the Volcra, "^

Ivan the
reached.

The two khanats Kazan and Astrakhan^ were subdued by Terrible. The coast of the Caspian was now
*^
_

Kazan

and Astrakhan.
i5o2-u5-i.

But the khans of Crim remained, unsubstill

dued and dangerous enemies,

from the
Euxine.
Yet,

cutting off Eussia

this

superiority

even

in

direction

an

Don
i'''7.

Cos-

sacks.

advance was made when the Eussian supremacy was

acknowledged by the Cossacks of the Don.

quest of the Siberian khanat, with
its

The conTobolsk,

nepinninjc
conquest.

capital

next followed, and thence, in the course of the next

century, the boundless extent of northern Asia was
1592-1700.

added

to the Eussian dominion.

5.

The Decline of Sweden and Poland.

last

In the

section

we

traced

out

the greatest

advance of Sweden and a large advance of Eussia, both

made

at the cost of

Poland, that of Sweden also at the

cost of

Denmark.

We

saw

also the beginnings

of a

power which we
Prussia.

still

called

Brandenburg rather than

to trace the

In the present section, describing the work

of the eighteenth century,

'

we have

growth

Growth
Prussia.

of

See above, p. 467.

512
CHAP,

THE BALTIC LANDS.

of this last power, which

Sweden.

-"

Prussian Prussian
_

now definitely takes the name, and which we have to look at in its
character.

Decline of

The period
^

is

marked by the
''

Extinction

decUnc of Sweden and the utter wiping out of Poland

and Lithuania, Eussia and Prussia

Kingdom
of Prussia. 1701.
.
.

in different degrees

being chief actors in both cases. At the beginning of the *"

period Prussia becomes a kingdom
i

sign of advance,

though not accompanied by any immediate increase

of territory.
Empire
^'"^^-

A
liis

little later

the ruler of Eussia, already

of

Imperial in

own

tongue,^

more
all

definitely takes the

the Russias.

Imperial style as

Emperor of

This

might

})ass as

a challenge of the Eussian lands. Black,

still

White, and Eed, which were

held by Poland.

But more pressing than the recoveiy of these lands

was the breaking down of the barrier by which Sweden

Kus<ia on the Baltic.

kept Eussia away from the Baltic.

/

To
-r>

a very slight
'
"^

extent this was a recovery oi old Kussian territory

but the position

Wars
of

now won by

Eussia was wholJy new.

The war with Charles

Baltlc powcr,
'^

the Twelfth

made Eussia

a great
>

and Peter.
1700-1721.

'

and Peter the Great, early

Foundation
Petersbl.r-

^^t

up the gTcat trophy of

his victory in the foundation

...

in the struo-gle, r^Hi

^f his

ucw

Capital of Saint Petersburg

on ground won

Cession of

^^^m Swcdeu.
i^i

The peace

of Nystad confirmed Eussia

&c!'bv''

t^^^

possession of Swedish Livland, Esthland, Inger-

Sweden.

niaiiland, part of Carelia,

itsclf.

and a small part of Finland

Further
Russia.

Aiiothcr War. ended

,

by

the Peace of

Abo, gave
1

Eussia auotlicr small extension in Finland.

.

1741-1743.

Sweden
men^^eV-

At

the

Same time Sweden was cut short

m her other

outlyittg posscssioiis.

Of her German

fiefs,

the duchies

' There is no doubt that the title oi" Czar, or rather Tzar, borne by the Russian princes, as by those o Servia and Bulgaria in earlier times, is simply a contraction of Ccesar. In the Treaty of Carlowitz Peter the Great appears as Tzar of endless countries, but he is not

called Imperator,

though the Sultan

is.

'

WESTERN ADVANCE OF
of
to

RUSSIA.

513
chap.
XI.
' '

Bremen and Verden

Hannover.

passed,
.

first to
.

Denmark, then

But her Baltic possessions were only

partly lost, to the profit of Brandenburg.

The

frontier
.

partot
Poinerania.

of Swedish Pomerania
Stettin,

fell

back to the north-west, losing

but keeping Stralsund, Wolgast, and Rugen.

Denmark meanwhile advanced in the debateable land The Danish occupation on her southern frontier. but of Bremen and Verden was only momentary
;
^

Danish
conquest of the ciuttorp
lands. i"io-i7i:..

*'

the Gottorp share of Sleswick and Holstein was con-

quered, and the possession of

all

Sleswick was guaFrance.

ranteed to
the

Denmark by England and

'

But
fief,
'

iho
lan'i'^i"

Gottorp share of Holstein, as an Imperial I A

to
its

Holstein
'estore.i.

was given back

of Gottorp

Duke.

Lastly,

when

the

house

Thev

pass
in

had mounted the throne of Eussia, the

to

Den-

mark

portion of Holstein was ceded to Denmark Gottorp ^

in

exchange
for

^ which exchano;e ' O for Oldenburg o and Delmenhorst, were at once given to another branch of the family.

Olden<

^urs1

767-17

3.

In the
three

latter

part of the eighteenth century the

First partition of

partitions of

Poland brought about the

all

but

pojand.

complete recovery of the lands which the Lithuanian

dukes had

won from
kept

llussia.

The
all

first

partition

Russian
share.

gave Russia Polish Livland, and

the lands which

Poland

still

beyond Duna and Dnieper.

thus

The
back.
^""are."*"

greater part of

White Russia was

of

won

At
its

the same time the house

HohenzoUern gained
union of

great territorial need,

the geographical

^'""'^'^j

the

kingdom of Prussia with the lands of BrandenO burg and Pomerania, now increased by nearly all Silesia. This union was made by Poland giving up
West Prussia

Prussia

geographi-

^^^^^

Danzig remaining
L L

an outlying city of

Poland

and part of Great Poland and Cujavia, known

514
CHAP.
XI.
Austrian
share.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

The Austrian share, the newkingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, was a kind of
as the

Netz District}

commemoration of the conquests of Lewis the Great

but, wliile
it

^
:

Kingdom
of Galicia

did not take in

all

Red

Russia^

it

took in

and LodoRussian
territory

part oiPodolia and o^ Little

Poland

south of the Vistula,

making Cracow a

frontier city.

Austria thus became

held by Austria.

possessed of a part of the old Eussian territory, most

of which she has kept ever since.

Second
j)artition.

The
it
still

Polish state

was thus maimed on

all sides

but

1793.

kept a

considerable territorial

extent.

The

second partition, the work of Eussia and Prussia only,

could only be a preparation for the
Russian
share.

final

death-blow.

It

gave to Eussia the rest of Podolia and Ukraine, and

Little

part of Volhynia and Podlasia.

Russia mid White

Russia were thus wholly

frontier
Prussian
sliare.

won
was

back, and the Eussian

was advanced within the old Lithuanian duchy.

all

Prussia took nearly

state, the rest of

that

left

of the oldest Polish

Great Poland and Cujavia, and part

of Mazovia, forming the South Prussia of the

new

nomenclature.

Gnesen, the oldest Polish

capital, the

metropolis of the Polish Church,

now

passed away from

Poland.

The remnant
greater part

that was left to Poland took in the

of Little

Poland, part of Mazovla, the

greater part of the old Lithuania with the fragment

still

left

of

its

Eussian

territory,

Samogitia and the

Third partition.

fief

of Garland.
years.

The

final division
all

was delayed only

joined.

1795.

two

This
all

time

three partners

Russian
share.

Eussia took
its

Lithuania east of the Niemen. with

also

capital

Vilna,

Curland and

Samogitia to
to the south.

the north,
Austrian
share.
1

and the old Eussian remnant

all

Austria took Cracow, with nearly

See above,
p. 212.
^

the rest of Little

g^e above, pp. 319, 437.

THE PARTITIONS OF POLAND.

Poland, as also part of Mazovia, by the name of
Galicia.

515

New

chap.

Prussia took

small piece of Little

Danzig and Thorn, as also a Poland to improve the frontiers of

perhaps without thinking

XL
Prussian
share.

South Prussia and

Silesia,

that this last process

was an advance of the Eoman

Terminus.

The

capital
strip of

Warsaw, with the remnant

of

Mazovia and the

Lithuania west of the Niemen,

of Poland and Lithuania

also fell to Prussia.

The names

now

passed

It is

away from the map. important to remember that the three

partitions no

original

gave no part of the original Polish realm to Eussia.

Eussia took back the Eussian territory which had been

territory

Russia hi
tions.

long before

won by

Lithuania, and added the greater

part of Lithuania
the north.

itself,

with the lands immediately to

of Poland

The ancient kingdom

was divided

riie old

between Prussia and Austria, and the oldest Poland of all

fell

divided letwei-ii

to the lot of Prussia.

Great Poland,

Silesia,

Pome-

I'l-"*-'"

ami Aust'''-'-

rania, the Polish lands

which had passed

to

the

mark

of Brandenburg, once united under Pohsh rule, were

agam

united under the power to

111

I'll which they

passes to Prussia,

had gra-

dually fallen

away. Austria or Hungary meanwhile took

of the former part, and also the

the rest of the northern Chrobatia, seven hundred years chrohaUa

after the acquisition

Eussian land which had been twice before added to

the

Magyar kingdom.
Meanwhile Eussia made advances
in other quarters Advance to
theEiixine.

of nearly equal extent.

As

the remnajit of the Saracen at

Granada cut

off the Castilian

from

his southern coast or

the Mediterranean, for

more than two hundred

his

years, so

did the remnant of the Tartar in Crini cut off the Eussian
for as long a time

from

southern coast on the Euxine.

his

<

Peter the Great

j5rst

made

way,

if

not to the Euxine,

516
CHAP.
XI.
Occupation
of Azof.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

at least to its inland gulf,

by the taking of Azof.

After
First

But the
seventy

new conquest was

years
109G-1711.

only temporary.

more the work was done.

came the
then
at

Independence of
(Jrim 1774.

nominal independence of the Crimean khanat,

its

incorporation with Eussia.

The work

which

Aunexation of

Megarian and Genoese colonists had laboured was

Cnni.
i78;i.

now done
for

the northern coast of the Euxine

was won

The road through which so many Turanian invaders had pressed into the Aryan contiThe next advance, the nent was blocked for ever.
Europe.^
limit of Eussian

Conquest
of Jedisan. 1791.

advance made

strictly at the

expense

of the barbarian as distinguished from his Christian

vassals, carried the

Eussian frontier from the

Bug
in

to

the Dniester.
i>ussian cojiquests

The

chief Asiatic

acquisition

of Eussia
It

the

from
I'ersia.

eighteenth century took a strange form.

quest beyond
Caspian.
Persia,
tlie sea,

was con-

17-27-173-1.

though only beyond the inland

to

Turk and Eussian joined

for

dismember
coast

and

some years Eussia held the south

in the

Superiority

of that great lake, the lands of Daghestan, G/iilan, and

over
(Jeorgia.

Mazanderan. Later
the earnest of

century the ancient Christian

superiority,
sides of

1783.

kingdom of Georgia passed under Eussian

Superiority over the
Kirghis. 1773.

Caucasus.
steps

much Eussian conquest on both And nearly at the same time as

acquisition of Crim,

the

first

towards the

the

Eussian

dominion was spread over the Kirghis hordes west of

the river Ural, winning a coast on the eastern Caspian,

the sea of Aral, and the Baltash lake.

'

It is

however
the

to

names
places.

into these regions, they

be regretted that, in bringing back tlie old have been so often applied to wrong
Sebastopol answers
elsewhere.
to the

Thus

new
is

old

Cherson,

while the new Ci.erson

The new Odessa has nothing

to do with the old Odessos,

and so

in other cases.

RESULTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

Thus, by the end of the eighteenth century, the

517

Swedish power has

the Baltic
is

fallen back.
it

Its territory

east of

-r^
teenthcen-

chap.

less

than

was

at the beginning of the thelndof

sixteenth century.

Denmark, on the other hand, has

in
is

grown by an advance
duchies.
all

the

debateable
to the

southern
;

All Sleswick
is

added

Danish crown

Holstein

held by the Danish king.

Poland has
the

vanished.

The

anomalous
it

power

on

middle
still

Danube, whose princes,

must be remembered,

wore the crown of the Empire, has

thrust itself into the

very heart of the old Polish land.

But the power

If part of her an-

which has gained most by the extinction of Poland has

been the new kingdom of Prussia.
nexations lasted only a few years, she
coast continuous for ever.
alike,

made her

Baltic

But Prussia and Austria

state of the

by joining

to

wipe out the central

whole region, have given themselves a mighty neighbour.

Russia has wholly cast aside her character as a

mere inland power, intermediate between Europe and

Asia.

She has won her way,

after so

many

ages, to

much more. She has a Baltic and an Euxine seaboard. Her recovery of her old lands on the Duna and the Dnieper, her conquest of new
her old position and
lands on the Niemen, have brought her into the heart
of Europe.

And

she has opened the path which was

also to lead her into the heart of Asia,

and

to establish

her in

the intermediate mountain land between the

Euxine and the Caspian.

6.

The Modern Geography of

territorial

the Baltic

Lands.

The

arrangements of

Northern

and

TiieFie.uii
re vol u-

Eastern Europe were not affected by the French revolu-

tionary

518
CHAP,

THE BALTIC LANDS.

tionary wars
'

till

after the fall of the

Western Empire.

At

that

moment
what

the frontier of

Germany and Denmark

Only now the

was

still

it

had been under Charles the Great

Imperii."

" Eidora

Eomani terminus

Danish king ruled to the south of the boundary stream

in the character of a prince of the Empire.
Hoistein incorporated with
I

of the -Empire put an end to this relation,

*'

The and

fall

the

)enmark,

duchy of Holstein was incorporated with the Danish ^

realm.

.indSwe-

Pomenmiawith
(iisii

In the like

sort, '

the Swedish

was kingdom &

i:

Sweden.
'''^'^"-

extcudcd to thc central mainland of Europe, by the

'
-^

incorporation

of

the

Pomeranian dominions of the

last

Swedish king. Before long, the

ihissian

war between Sweden

and Eussia was ended by the peace of Eriderikshamn,

Finland,
J

whcu Swcdcu gavc up

.

all

her territory east of the

.

809,

gulf as far as the river Tornea, together with the

Grand
Finland.

isles

of Aland.

Thcsc lands passed

to the Eussian

Emperor

as a Separate

and privileged dominion, the Grand Duchy

of Finland.

Thus Sweden withdrew

to

her

own

side

of the Baltic, while Eussia at last became mistress of

the
Union
of

whole eastern coast from the Prussian border

northward.

The general peace

left
.

this

arrangement

S^veden

and Nor1814-181.5.

untouched, but decreed the separation of

Norway from
Norway
Den,

Denmark

and. its union with Sweden.

This was carried

out BO far as to effect the union of Sweden and

Swedish Pomerania
passes to

as independent
^
.

kingdoms under a ^
. ,

single king. ^
calls

mark got
scrap of

in

compensation, as diplomacy
old Slavonic realm, Eiigen

it,

its

and Swedish

Exchanged
Prussiafor Lauenburg.

Pomerauia.

These detached lands were presently exfor a land adioining Holstein, the
,

with Prussia chaugcd

Saxony.^

duchy of Lauenburg.) the representative of ancient

Denmark kept
the

Iceland, but the Frisian island

coast

Heligoland
passes to

of Heligoland off
1

of

Sleswick passed to

England.

See above, p. 208.

'

CHANGES
England.
.

IN SCANDINAVIA.
kinof

519

Thus the common

of

Sweden and
.

chap.
XI.
>

Norway reigns over

had
affected

the whole of the northern peninsula

it.

and over nothing out of

the

No

such great change

since

Scandinavian

kingdoms

the

union of Calmar.

Meanwhile the king ^ of Denmark, remaining the

_

Hoistein

independent sovereign of
.

wick, entered the

German

and LauenDenmark, Iceland, and Sles- burgjoiu theGerConfederation for his duchies "^an Con.

federation.

of Hoistein and Lauenburg.

Disputes and wars

made

Disputes
the

no geographical change

till

the war which followed the

Du-

accession of the present king.

then followed have been told

to the transfer to Prussia of

The changes which elsewhere.^ They amount

Transfer of

andHoU
Lauenburg
1864-1866.

Lauenburg, Hoistein, and

Sleswick, with a slight change of frontier and a redistri-

bution of the smaller islands.

conditional engas^e-

ment

for the restoration of northern Sleswick to

fulfilled,

Den-

mark was not

and has been formally annulled.

In the lands which had been Poland and Lithuania,

the immediate
creation of a
result

Losses of
isoe.

of the
;

French

wars was

the

new
its

Polish state

their final result

was a

great extension of the dominion of Eussia.

to

Prussia had

surrender

whole Polish

territory,

save

West
Biaiystok

Prussia.^

small Lithuanian territory, the district

or Biaiystok^

was given

to Eussia

-r

Danzig became a

7-k

added

to

Russia,

The rest of the Prussian share of Poland formed the new Duchy of Warsaw.
separate commonwealth.

common^

This
oldest

state

was

really
''

of the no bad representative ^

Silesia

ttuchvot

Warsaw

Poland of
in

all.

was gone

but the

new
Jiniarged by part or

duchy took

Great Poland and Cujavia, with parts of

Mazovia, and Lithuania.
It

Little Poland,

took in the
at

oldest capital at
1

Gnesen and the newest

p.

Warsaw,

p^nj'"'
^^^"

See above,

228.

See also

p.

222.

520
CHAP.
XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

The new
state

was presently enlarged by the addition

of the territory added to Austria

by the

last partition.

Cracow, with the greater part of

"Kxtent of the Duchy

Little Poland,

was

again joined to Great Poland.

Speaking roughly, the

duchy took
and Eussian
Arrange-

in

nearly the whole of the old Polish kingSilesia,

dom, without

but with some small Lithuanian

territory added.
state

It

was the Poland thus formed, a

which an-

ments of
1815.

swered much more nearly to the Poland of the fourteenth than to the Poland of the eighteenth century,

which, by the arrangements of the Vienna Congress,

first

received a Eussian sovereign.

off

Prussia

now

again

Danzig find Posen

restored to Prussia.

rounded

her West-Prussian province by the recovery

of Danzig and Thorn, and she rounded off her south-

ern frontier by the

recovery of Posen and Guesen,

which had been part of her South-Prussian province.

Cracow a

commonwealth.

Annexed by Austiia.
1846.

Kingdom
of

The Grand Duchy of Posen became again part of the Prussian state. Cracow became a republic, to be annexed by Austria thirty years later. The remainder of the Duchy of Warsaw, under the style of the Kingdom of Poland, became a separate kingdom, but
with the Eussian Emperor as
its

Poland

united to
Russia.

king.

Later events
its

1831-1863.

have destroyed,
being
;

first its

constitution, then

separate

Russia takes old Polish

territorj-

and now

all

ancient Poland, except the part of

Little

Great Poland kept by Prussia and the part of

for the first

time.

Poland kept by Austria,

Empire.

is

merged

in the

Eussian
strictly

Thus the Eussian

acquisition

of

Polish, as distinguished from old-Eussian

and Lithu-

anian territory, dates, not from the partitions, but from

the Congress

of Vienna.

It

was

to

the behoof of
that

Prussia

and Austria,
Piasts

not

of Eussia,

the

old

kingdom of the

was broken

in pieces.

THE NEW laNGDOM OF POLAND.

of The changes o
to the lands

521
chap.
XJ.

the nineteenth century with recfard

*^

'^.

on the European coasts of the Euxine

-'

have been told elsewhere.^

They amount, ^

as

far as

riuctuation of the

the geographical boundaries of Eussia are concerned,

to her
partial

^"^^-^"^
'V-^^^

advance to the Pruth and the Danube, her

'

withdrawal,

her

second

partial

advance,

Moldavia. ^^^^-is/s.

Meanwhile the

Eussian

advance in the nineteenth

Advance
in the

century on the Asiatic shores of the Euxine and in

the lands on and beyond the Caspian has been far
greater than her advance during the eighteenth.
is

Caucasus,

It

own century that Eussia has taken up her commanding position between the Euxine and the
in our

Caspian

seas,

one which

in

some

sort

amounts

to an en-

largement of Europe
frontier

at the

expense of Asia.

The

old

on the Caspian, which had hardly changed

the boundary

since the conquest of Astrakhan, reached to the Terek.

The annexation of Crim made the Kuban

on the
side of the

incorporaCxeorgia.

Euxine.

The

incorporation of the

Georgian kingdom gave Eussia an outlying territory

south of the Caucasus on the upper course of the Kur.

Next came the

the

acquisition of the Caspian coast from Advance

mouth

of the Terek to the

mouth of
for a

the Kur, the

Caspian.

land of Daghestan and Shirwan, including part of the

territory

which had been held

few years

in the
Advance
and
cirin

The Persian and Turkish wars gave Eussia the Armenian land of Erivan as far as the
eighteenth century.

Araxes, Mingrelia and

cession

Immeretia, and the nominal

1^29.

of the Euxine coast

between them and the

thirty years
fully

older

frontier.

But
have
'

it

was

before the

mountain region of Circassia was

last

subdued.

The

isoo. isrs.

changes

extended
See above,
p.

the
449.

Trans-Caucasian

522
CHAP,
XI.

THE BALTIC LANDS.

frontier of Eussia
'

^-

to

the

soutli

by the addition of
"^

Batoum and Kars.

I^
of
tlic

Advance

in

lands east of

tlie

Caspian the

new province
Khokand
Eussian

1853-18(38!*

Turkestan gradually grew up in the lands on the

Jaxartes, reaching southward to Samarkand.

to the south-east followed, while
i7r).

Khiva and Bokhara^

immediately east of

the lands on the Oxus, liave passed under

influence.

TJie

Turcoman

tribes

the Caspian have also been annexed.

The Caspian
Hardly any-

has thus nearly become a Eussian lake.

thing remains to Persia except the extreme southern

coast
Advance
Asia.
1858.
in

which was once

to

for a

moment

Eussian.

Far again
territory
-^

the east, Eussia has added a large

on the Chinese border on the river Amoor.

couqucsts

Extent and
of the

All

thcsc

fomi

the

greatest

continuous

extent of territory by land which the world has ever

sccu, uulcss duruig thc traiisicut

dominion,

dominion

or the old

Mongols.

No

other European power in any age has, or

could have had, such a continuous dominion, because

no other European power has ever had the unknown

barbarian world lying in the same

way at

its side.

No-

where again has any European power held a dominion

so physically

unbroken

as

that wliich stretches from

the gulf of Eiga to the gulf of Okhotsk.

part
of the
Asiatics

The

greater

dominion of Eussia belongs to

that part of Asia which has least likeness to Europe.

It is

only on the Frozen Ocean that

seas, islands,
is

we
its

find a kind

of

mockery of inland

and peninsulas.
leading cha-

Massive unbroken extent by land

racter.

And

as this character

extends to a large part

is

of European Eussia also, Eussia

the only European

land where
ends.

there can be any

doubt where Europe

The barbarian dominion of other Eiu'opean

'

ASIATIC
States, a

ADVANCE OF
sea,

RUSSIA.

523

dominion beyond the

has been a dominion

The barbarian dominion of Rnssia in lands adjoining her European territory is a dominion forced
of choice.

>

chap.

on her by geographical necessity.

The annexation

of

Kamtschatka became a question of time when the

successors of Ruric

first

made

their earliest tidvance

towards

the Finnish north.

n..,T-,. I'T ana Asia, the Kussian occupation oi territory in a third

.

Alongside of

this

continuous dominion in Europe

^
. .

Kussian America.

continent, an occupation

made by

sea after the

manner

of other Europeac powers, has not been lasting.

The

Eussian territory in the north-west corner of America,

the only part of the w^orld where Eussia and England

marched on one another, has been

States.

sold to the United

To

return to Europe, the events of the nineteenth

Final

century have, in the lands with which

carried on the

we

are dealing,
furtlier

work of

the eighteenth

by the

aggrandizement of Eussia and Prussia.

The Scandi-

navian powers have withdi-awn into the two Scandinavian peninsulas and the adjoining islands, and in the
southern peninsula the power of
cut short to the gain of Prussia.

Denmark has been The Prussian power

meanwhile, formed in the eighteenth century by the

union of the detached lands of Prussia and Brandenburg, has in the nineteenth

grown

into the imperial

power of Germany, and has, even as a local kingdom, become, by the acquisition of Swedish Pomerania, Holstein, and Sleswick, the dominant power on the
southern Baltic.

The

acquisition of the duchies too, not

only of Sleswick and Holstein, but of Bremen and Verden

also, as parts

of the annexed

kingdom of Hannover, have

524
CHAP,
--^-^-^

THE BALTIC LANDS.

'

given her a part of the former oceanic position both of

Denmark and Sweden.

position

Eussia has acquired the same

on the gulfs of the Baltic which Prussia has on

itself.

the south coast of the Baltic

tiie

The

acquisition of

new

Poland has brought her frontier into the very

;

midst of Europe

it

has

made her
has

a neighbour, not

merely of Prussia as such, but of Germany.

sharer
in

The

third

the

partition

drawn back from her

northern advance, but she has increased her scrap of

Eussia, her scrap of Little Poland, her scrap of Moldavia,^

by the suppression of a

free city.

The southern

advance of Eussia on European ground has been

during this century an advance
of influence.
less

of territory than
is

The

frontier

of

1878

the restored

frontier of 1812.

It is in the lands

out of Europe that

Eussia has in the meanwhile advanced by strides which

look startling on the map, but which in truth spring

naturally from the geographical position of the one

modern European power which cannot help being

Asiatic as well.
^

See above,

p.

441.

525

CHAPTER

XII.
ITS

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

COLONIES.
in

The

great peniDsiila of the

.

West has much

common
-

with the great peninsula of the North.

^
I-

Save Sweden

Analogy

^
XII

chap.

has had so and Norway, no part of Western Euroi^e i

httle to

J^etween

do with the

later

Empire

as Spain.

And m no

Spain and Scamiislight reiations with the Em-

land that formed part of the earlier Empire, save our

own

island,

is

the later history so completely cut off

from the

earlier history.
still less

The modern kingdoms

of

Break beearlier
tory.

Spain have

claim to represent the West-Gothic

an d

kingdom than the modern kingdom of France had to The history of Spain, represent the Frankish kingdom.
as

an element

in the

European system, begins with the

For a hundred years before that Modem
tlie

Saracen invasion.
time
all

trace of

dependence on
later

elder

Empire had

history

passed away.

With the
do

Western Empire Spain

Their claims over a

with the Saracen

conquest.

had nothing

to

after the

days of Charles the Great

and

his

immediate successors.

small part of the country passed

to the kincfs of Karolingia.

away from
tlie

the

Empire
which

With
grew out

the Eastern
or
n

CI

it

opam

11 has the
him.

Empire and
closest

states

Anaio^Ty

between

connexion

in the Spain and

edstem
comparieffects of

way of
tially

analogy.

Each was a Christian land conquered

from the Mussulman.

Each has been wholly or parBut the deliverance of

its

won back from

south-western Europe was mainly the work of

own

and de-

520
CHAP.
XTI.

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

people, and
its

ITS COLOxXIES.

deliverance was nearly ended

when

the bondage of south-eastern

ning.
fully
The
Spanish
nation

Europe was only begin-

Again, in south-eastern Europe the nations were

formed before the Mussulman conquest, and they

it.

have lived through

In Spain the Mussulman conquest

formed by
the war with the

cut short the West-Gothic

into a

power
;

just as

it

was growing
nation

new Romance
The

nation

the actual

Eomance
is

Mussulmans.

of Spain was formed

the invaders.

by the work

of withstanding

Analogy
between Spain and
Kussia.

closest analogy of all

between
its

Spain and Russia.

people.

Each was delivered by

own
had

In each case, long after the main deliverance

after the liberated nation

had been wrought, long

begun again
land was
still

to take

its

place in Europe, the ransomed

a fragment of
its

cut

off,

by

old enemies,

from the coasts of

its

own

southern sea.

Extent

of

The Saraccu dominion

|3y tlie first

in the

West, as established

the West-

Gothic and
dominions.

conquerors, answered very nearly to the

as
it

Wcst-Gothlc kingdom,

then stood

but

it

did not

exactly answer to Spain, either in the geographical or

in the later

Roman

sense. ^

When
still

the Saracen came,

Isles,

the Empire, not the Goth,

held the Balearic

and

the fortresses of

Tangier and Ceuta on the Maureta-

nian side of the

strait.

On

the other hand, the Goth

did not hold quite the whole of the peninsula, while

his

dominion took

in the

Gaulish land of Septimania.

Strictly speaking, the conquest was one, not of Spain

geographically, but of the West-Gothic dominions in

and out of Spain, and of the outlying Imperial possessions in their

neighbourhood.
.

It

was from the lands

i

Two
centres of
rieiive-

which hindered both the West-Gothic and the Saracen

dominion from exaztiy answering to geographical fepam
^

See above,

p.

154.


BEGINNINGS OF DELIVERANCE.
that deliverance came, and
it

'

527
chap.
XII.
--

came

in

two forms. From

the land to the north-west, whicli held out against both

Goth and Saracen, came that form of deliverance which

was
strictly native.

pendTnV
^jj^

At the other end, the Frank

first

won
and

back for Christendom the Saracen province

in Gaul,

dom'inion.
'^-~^''^"

then carried his arms into the neighbouring corner of

Spain.

Thus we get two centres of deliverance, two

purely Spanish, which

778.

groups of states which did the work. There are the northwestern lands, whose history
is

simply withstood the Saracen, and the north-eastern

lands,

which were

first

won from
class are

the Saracen

by

the

Frank, and which gradually freed themselves from their

dehverer.

The former

represented in later

Represenraiiy

Spanish history by the kingdoms of Castile and Portugal,

the latter by the kinsjdom of Araoron. Navarre lies " between the two, and shares in the history of both.
^
.

by

Portugal,

and by Aragon.

The former

start geographically

from the mountain

latter start

region washed by the Ocean,

The

geoora-

phically from the mountains which divide Gaul and

Spain, and

which

stretch

westward

to

the Mediter-

ranean.

The geographical
which
first

position of the regions foreIt

shadows

their later history.^

was Aragon, looking

in

Later bisAra-<,n.

to the East,
affairs,

played a grpat part

Emopean
It

and which carried Spanish influence and doSicily, Italy,

minion into Gaul,

Portugal

and Greece.
to

was
ofCastiie
ai.

and

Castile,

looking

the West,

which

established an Iberian dominion

beyond the bounds of

Castile in the
fif-

Europe.

The

fact that

Queen of

teenth century married a King of Aragon and not a King of Portugal has led us to speak of the peninsular kingdoms as ''Spain and Potiugal.'^ For some ages Spain and Aragon would have been a more natural
'
' '

See above,

p.

155.

See above,

p. 4.

528
CHAP.
XII.

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

division.

ITS COLONIES.

But the very difference

in the fields of action

of Castile
sition.

and Aragon hindered any such strong oppoCastile

Between
to both.

and Portugal, on the other

field

hand, a marked rivalry arose in the

which was

common
The more
strictly

Of

these

two

centres,

one purely Spanish, the other

less

native centre foremost in the work of

deliverance.

brought for a long time under a greater or

of foreign influence, the

degree

more

strictly

native region
deliverance.

was foremost

in

the

work

of national

How
Spain

far
is

western Spain stood in advance of eastern

Relations of Castile

shown by the speaking fact that Toledo, so much further to the south, was won by Castile a generation before Zaragoza was won by Aragon. But both Castile and Aragon, as powers, grew out
of the

and Aragon towards

Navarre.

break-up of a momentary dominion

in

the

land which lay between them, and whose later history

is

much

less

illustrious

than

theirs.

In the se-

cond quarter of the eleventh century the kingdom of

Pampeluna or Navarre had, by

realm, risen to the
first

the energy of a single

his little

man, the Sviatopluk or Stephen Dushan of

place

among

the Christian

powers of Spain.
with
kingly

Castile
till

and Aragon do not appear

the

rank

both had passed under

momentary
seemed
so

rule of a neighbour

which

in after times

small

beside

either
as

of them.

And

the

name

of Castile^

whether

county,

kingdom, or

empire, marks a comparatively late stage of Christian

advance.

We

must here go back

for

moment

to

those early days of the long crusade of eight hundred

years at which

we have
1

already slightly glanced.^

154.

See above,

p.

NAVARRE AND THE SPANISH MARCH.

529

The Foundation of

the

Spanish Kingdoms.

^xn.^"

We
into the

have seen liow the union of the small indepen-

Foundiug

dent lands of the north, Asturia and Cantabria,

grew

kingdom
753.

kingdom,

first

of Oviedo and then of Leon.

Gallicia, on the

one

side, representing in

some

sort the

^^^

old Suevian kingdom, Bardulia or the oldest Castile^

the land of Burgos, on the other side, were lands which

were early inclined

^

to fall
_ _

away.
"^

The growth of the

'-'
^

christian advance.

Christian powers on

tliis

side

was favoured by internal

events

among
left

the Mussulmans,

by famines and
was

revolts

which

a desert border between the hostile powers. The

emirate, afterwards caliphate,
th*^

The Ommiad
Septimania.
the Great,
1

estab-

emirate.
756.

lished almost at

moment
1

of the Saracen loss of

Then came

the Spanish

March
^

/-M

I'll which brought

part
of

of.

northern

Spam once

of Charles The Spa 1Man h. o

''''^

778-xoi.

more within the bounds

tlie

new Western Empire,

as the conquests of Justinian

had brought back part

greatest extent, took in
at the other,

of southern Spain within the bounds of the undivided

Empire.

This march, at
at

its

its extent.

Pampeluna
Sobrarbe.

one end and Barcelona

lands
of Aragon.,

with

the intermediate

Ripacurcia^ and

But the Frankish dominion soon passed

away from Aragon, and still sooner from Pampeluna. The western part of the march, which still acknow1

itsdivi-

edged the superiority of the Kings of Karolingia,

split

up into a number of practically independent counties,

which made hardly any advance against the common

enemy.

Meanwhile the land of Pampeluna became,

powerful kingdom.
stretched

at the

beginning of the eleventh century, an independent and

The Navarre

of Sancho the Great

;

some way beyond the Ebro

to the west

Navarre under it sancho tha

M M

530
CHAP.
XII.
(Ireat.

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

ITS COLONIES.

took in the ocean lands of Biscay and Guipuzcoa^ with

the original
Castile
;

to

the east

it

took in

A ragon,

1000-1035,

Ripacurcia, and Sobrarbe.

The two

Christian king-

doms
Spain.
itself

of Navarre and

Leon took

in all north-eastern

The Douro was reached and

was not
far

crossed

the Tagns
;

from the Christian boundary

superiority of the
still

but

the states which

owned the
call

power

which we may now

lower Ebro.
Break-up
of the

France were

far

from the

At the death of Sancho the Great

dominion broke up.
of the

his

momentary
These two
in

kingdom of Navarre (1035), and

of the

Seven years earlier the dominion

Ommiad

caliphs

had broken up

also.

Ommiad
caliphate (1028).

events, so near together,

form the turning-point

Instead of the one

the

history of the peninsula.

Ommiad

Small

Mussuhnan caliphate,
states.

there arose a

crowd of separate Mussulman

call for

kingdoms, which had to

Invasion of the

help to their Mussul-

Almoravides.

man brethren in a new African

new
over
all

Africa.

This led to what was really

conquest of Mussulman Spain.

The

1080-1110.

deliverers or

conquerors spread their dominion

the

Mussulman powers, save only Zaragoza.

This settlement, with other later ones of the same kind,

gives a specially African look to the later history of

Mahometan
Use
of the

Spain, and has doubtless helped to give

the Spanish Mussulmans the

common name

of Moors.

nume
Moors.

But

their language

and culture remained Arabic, and

settlers

the revolution caused

the ruins of
so

by the African the Western caliphate was

the

among

for

from being

great

as

revolution

caused

by the Turkish

settlers

among
tlie

the ruins of the Eastern caliphate.

New

kingdoms,
Castile,

Out of

break-up of the dominion of Sancho

came out

the separate

kingdom of Navarre, and the

Aragon, and Sobrarbe 1035.

new kingdoms
these the two

of Castile, Aragon, and Sobr^arbe.

last

Of

were presently united, thus be-

'

THE NEW KINGDOMS.

ginning the advance of Aragon.

531
to

Thus we come

four of the live historic kingdoms of Spahi

Castile,

Navarre,
.
.

brarbe. 1040.

chap.

Aragon, and Leon, whose unions and divisions Amgon

are endless.
Castile

The

first
;

king Ferdinand of Castile united

.

and Leon

Castile,

Leon, and Gallicia were

shiftincs

again for a

moment
has

separated under his son.

Aragon
Pre-

and

i.eou!

and Navarre were united for nearly sixty years.

sently Spain

XO65-1073
lore-iis-t.

an Emperor

in

Alfonso of Castile,

Leon, and

Gallicia.

But Empire and kingdom were

Castile

roi-AiEJ
1 13.5.

spht asunder.

Leon and

became separate king-

j^^-"

doms under the sons of Alfonso, and they remained Their final union separate for more than sixty years. ^ created the great Christian power of Spain.
.
.

"*'

F>"ai union Castile

1230^'*^'''

Navarre meanwhile, cut short by the advance of

Castile,

Decline of Navarre,

shorn of
all

its

lands on the Ocean and beyond

in
i_>;;4.

the Ebro, lost

hope of any commanding position

It

the peninsula.

passed to a succession of French

it

kings, and for a long time

had no share

in the

geo(jrowtiiof
"'^'

graphical history of Spain.

But the power of Aragon

to the east.

grew, partly by conquests from the Mussulmans, partly

by union with

the French

fiefs

The

first

ii^n-on witii

Barcelona.

union between the crown of Aragon and the county

of Barcelona led to the great growth of the power of

"-'^i-

Aragon on both
theEhone.^

sides of the

Pyrenees and even beyond

1213.

This power was broken by the overthrow

of King Pedro at Muret.

But by the

final

arrange-

Settlement
Frani^e.

ment which
from
all

freed Barcelona, Roussillon,

to

and Cerdagtie,
of
foreign

1258.

homage

France,

all

trace

superiority passed

independent kingdom

away from Christian Spain. The of Aragon stretched on both

reminder of the days of

sides of the Pyrenees, a faint

the West-Gothic kings.

'

See above,

p.

335.

M M

532

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

ITS COLCfNIES.

On
rate

the

other

side

of

the

peninsula
to

the

lands

between Douro and

state.

Minho began

form a sepa-

The
Castile
its

county of Portugal was held by

princes of the royal house of France, as a fief of the

crown of

and Leon. growth cut

off

The county became a

Leon, as distinguished

kingdom, and

from
mans.

Castile,

from any advance against the Mussuloff already.

Kavarre was cut

Castile,

But the three

all

kingdoms of

Aragon, and Portugal were

ready for the work.

restored

Western Christendom

was growing up
Beginning
of tlie great

to balance

the falling

away

in the

East.

The

first

great advance of the Christians

in

Christian advance.

Spain l)cgan about the time of the Seljuk conquests

The work of deliverance was not ended till the Ottoman had been for forty years established in the New Rome.
from the Eastern Empire.

The
heavy
Sixth,
Conquest
of Toledo. 1085.
liattle of

Christian

powers

however were

disunited,

while the Mussulmans had again gained, though at a

price,

the

advantage of union.
the powers of Castile

Alfonso the

commanding
far

and Leon,

pressed

to

the

south,

and won the old Gothic

advance was checked

capital of Toledo.

But

his further

Zalacca.
1086.

by the African invaders

at the battle of Zalacca.

The

Advance
of the

Almoravide power was too strong

pendent Mussulman
of

for
;

any present hope

Alnaoravides.

of conquests on the part of Castile

state at

but the one indeto the

Advance
Aragon.

Zaragoza lay open

Zaragoza
itself

Christians of :the north-east.

was taken

Conquest of Zaragoza.
1118.

Of Tarragona.

by the king of Aragon, and Tarragona by the Count Both these powers advanced, and the of Barcelona.
conquest of
Tortosa

Of Tortosa.
1148.

made

the

Ebro

tlie

Christian

Advance
Portugal.

boundary.
of

As

the

power of the Almoravides weak-

ened, Castile and Portugal again advanced on their


THE CHRISTIAN ADVANCE.
side.

533
chap.
-^-'
of Lisbon. 1147.

The

latter

kingxlom made the great acquisition

it

of

its

future capital Lisbon^ and a generation later,

-"

reached the southern coast bv the conauest of Silvas

in Algarve.

Castile

meanwhile pressed

to the

Guadiana
about

of

siivas.

and beyond, counting Calatrava and Badajoz among

its cities.

^^^^nceof
iflJ^igtj

The

line of struggle

had advanced

in

a century from the land between

Douro

andi

Tagus to

the land between Guadiana and Guadalquivir.

This second great Christian advance in

tlie twelftli

century was again checked in the same

way

in

which

the advance in the eleventh century had been.

A
invasion
Aiin..ha.ks.

new settlement of African conquerors, the Alinohades^ won back a large territory from both Castile and The battle of Alarcos broke for a while Portugal. *= the power of Castile, and the Almohade dominion To the east, the stretched beyond the lower Tagus.
, . .

isatiieof Alarcos.

use.

lands south of

Ebro remained an independent MussidDecline

of the

man

state.

But, as the Almohades were of doubtful

their hold

Mahometan orthodoxy,

on Spain was weaker

Tlieir

Almohades.

than that of any other Mahometan conquerors.

power broke up, and the

battle

of Navas de Tolosa Battkof

Navas de

ruled that Spain should be a Christian land.

All three

Toiosa.

kingdoms advanced, and within

forty years the Mussulto a

man power
vival.

in the peninsula

was cut down

Isles
.

mere
,
.

surConquest of
the Balearic isies.

Aragon won the Balearic

.

smd formed her

kingdom of
_

Valencia.
^

But

as

Castile,
.

by the
*'

incor-

1228-12.^6.

poration of Murcia, reached to the Mediterranean, any of

further

va-

advance

in

the peninsula was forbidden to

1237-130.5.

Aragon.
lost

On

the eastern side Portugal

won back her

all

5^2^203.'
p^J^^''^^"^ 1217-125';.

lands, reached

her southern coast, kept

the

land west of the lower Guadiana and some points to

the east of
the
it.

To

the

kingdom of Portugal was added

Kingdom
^'*

kingdom of Algarve.

hM
CHAP.
.

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

ITS COLONIES.
faster

But the central power of Castile pressed on

'

still.

Under
cities
,.
,

Saint Ferdinand began the recovery of the great

ot^oistL
inider Saint

Ferdinand,
of Cordova. 1236.

along the Guadalquivir. Cordova, the city of the r p n i ,i r caliphs, was wou Jaen lollowed then more famous
; ;

Seville

and

Cadiz,
she

eldest
first

of Western

cities,

passed world,

Of Jaen. 1246.
1248.

again, as Avhen

entered the

Roman

from Semitic into Aryan hands.

Nibla and Tarifa
at last
n ^'

The conquest of

made

the completion of the

OfNibla.
1257.
1285^"'^^"

work only
-^o

a question ot time.
^^^

^.

^^

^^^^

middle of the twelfth century could

live

have dreamed that a Mussulman power would

Kingdom
of Granada. ^238.

on

in Spain

till

the last years of the fifteenth.

This was

the

kingdom of Granada, which began, amid the

was able
its

-lueredfrom
(

couqucsts of Saint Ferdinand, as a vassal state of Castile.

Yet, sixty years later,
it

'Mstile.

i2i*8.

to

win back

a con-

by

Castlie.

siderable territory from

^^^'^

overlord.
;

Part of the land

i43o!

gained was soon

lost

again

but part, with the city

far into the

Gibraltar

of IJuascar, was kept

r-c

by the Mussulmans
.

and won.
lost

fifteenth

century.
*'

Meanwhile, on the
'
_ _

strait

between

1309.
1333.

the ocean and the Mediterranean, Gibraltar was

won

^^^-

by

Castile, lost,

and won again.

Geographi
cal position of the four

Thus, iu the latter part of the thirteenth century,

"^ ,

''

Kingdoms.

peninsula of Spain was very unequally divided ^ J J between one Mussulman and four Christian states.
^
'^

the

Aragon on the one

side,

Portugal on the other, were

line

kingdoms with a coast

their extent inwards.

out of

all

proportion to
triangle,

Aragon had become a

Portugal a long parallelogram, cut off on each side

from the great trapezium formed by the whole peninsula.

Castile,

Between these two lay the central power of with Christian Navarre still separate at one
still

corner and Mussulman Granada

separate at another.


THE FIVE KINGDOMS.
Of
these five

5B5

kingdoms, Navarre and Arasjon alone ='

^.

marched to any considerable extent on any state beyond

the peninsula.
Castile barely

chap.
XII.
^

'

touched the Aquitanian

dominions of England, while Navarre and Aragon, both

stretching north of the Pyrenees,
siderable
frontier

had together a conand

France.

towards

Aquitaine

Navarre and Aragon again marched on one another,

while Portugal and Granada marched only on Castile,
the

common neighbour

of

all.

The
at

destiny of

all

was

written on the map.

Navarre

one end, Granada at

the other, were to be swallowed up by the great central

power.
tion,

Aragon,
to

after

gaining a high European posi-

was

be united with Castile under a single

sovereign.

Portugal alone was to become distinctly a

rival of Castile,

but wholly in lands beyond the bounds

of Europe.

Of

the five Spanish powers Castile so far outtopped

its

tuio

of

the rest that lands as

sovereign was often spoken of in other

Spaiiu'

King of Spain. But Spain contained more kingdoms than it contained kings. Castile, Aragon, and

Portugal were

all

n/ni formed by a succession of unions and

c
1

The lesser
kingdoms.

conquests, each of which

commonly gave
power was
still

their kings a

new

title.

The

central

the power of

Castile

and

Leon., not of Castile only.

Leon was made

Castile took

up of the kingdoms of Leon and

in Castile

Gallicia.

proper or Old

Castile,

with the principality of

the Asturias, and the free lands of Biscay., Guipuzcoa.,

and Alava.

To

the south

it

took in the kingdoms

each marking a stage of advance

Castile^ of Cordova., Jaen., Seville.,

of

Toledo or

New
The

and Murcia.

sovereign of Portugal held his two kingdoms o^ Portugal

and Algarve.

The sovereign of Aragon, enlarged kingdom of Aragon and his

besides his

counties

of

536
CHAP. XIL
1262.

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

Catalonia^ Roussillon, and

ITS COLONIES.

Cerdagne, held his king-

dom
Isles

of Valencia on the mainland, while the Balearic

formed the kingdom of Majorca.

This

last, first

granted as a vassal kingdom to a branch of the royal

1349.

house, was afterwards incorporated with the Aragonese

state.

2.

Growth and Partition of Monarchy.

the

Great Spanish

Little geoL'raphical

After the thirteenth century the strictly geographical

ciiange
after the

changes within the Spanish peninsula were but few.

of the

thirteenth century.

The boundaries
tlieir

kingdoms changed but

little

towards one another, and not

much towards

France,

only neighbour from the fifteenth century onwards.

five

But the

kingdoms were gradually grouped under

under one only.

two
Territories

kings, for a while

The

external

geography, so to speak, forms a longer story.

to trace out the acquisition of territory within
first

We have
Europe,

beyond the
peninsula.

by Aragoii and then by

Castile,

and the acquisition

of territory out of Europe,

Castile.
tile

first by Portugal and then by The permanent union of the dominions of Cas-

and Aragon, the temporary union of the dominions

The great
Spanish

of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, formed that great

Monarchy.

Spanish Monarchy which in the sixteenth centiu-y was

the

wonder and

terror of Europe,

which
in

lost

important

possessions in the sixteenth

and

the seventeenth
in

century,

and which

was

finally

partitioned

the

beginning of the eighteenth.

1410-1430.

Within the peninsula we have seen

first

Castile, in the

half of the fifteenth century, win back the lands

lost

which had been

to

Granada

at the

end of the

'

CONQUEST OF GRANADA.
foitrteenth.

587

The

last

decade of the fifteenth saw the

ending of the struggle.

Men

recovery of Granada balanced the

nople.

But the

last

Moorish prince
^
_

...
this
last

fondly deemed that the

loss of Constantistill

Xll.
of

chap.

Grauadl
1492.

kept for a
i-

moment
and
it

a small tributary dominion in the Alpui arras. End

'J
'

Mussulman

of was the purchase ^

remnant which

^"^i"
Spain.

finally put

an end to the long rule of the Mussulman in

Spain.

The conquest of Granada was the

joint

work

of a

queen of Castile and a king of Aragon.

But the
i^eg.

marriage of Ferdinand and Isabel did not at once unite

their crowns.

That union

may be

dated from the begin-

cal^tiie

and

ning of Ferdinand's second reign in Castile.

Roussillon and Cerdagne

Meanwhile

isoc.

had been,

after thirty years'

J'ecoveryof
1462-149.'

French occupation, won back by Aragon.

i-

Then came

the conquest of Navarre south of the Pyrenees, which ^ J

left

f'onquestof Mavarre.
^^^^

only the small part on the Gaulish side to pass to

the French kings of the

House of Bourbon.
on the peninsula

Portugal

was now the only separate kingdom

and the tendency
to look

in the peninsula, as

made up
for sixty Annpxation

of Spain and Portugal was of course strengthened.

But
back

later in the century Portugal itself

"r

was
.

and

years united with Castile and Ara^^on.

. .

Portugal
.

won

its

independence

and the Spanish dominion was

separation of Portugal. i'^8i-i640.

by the final loss of Roussillon. The Pyrenees were now the boundaiy of France and Spain,
further cut short

ofirours^t
i659.

except so far as the line

may

be held to be broken by

the French right of patronage over

Andorra}

Since

the Peace of the Pyrenees, the peninsula itself has seen

hardly any

strictly

geograj)hical

cliange.

Gibraltar

Gibraltar

has been for nearly a hundred and eighty years occupied by England. '^
^
*

^{^^l^'^nio

The

fortress
p.

of Oliverca has been

343.

oiiverca. 1801.

See above,

538
CHAP,
Minorca.

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

yielded by Portugal to Spain.

ITS COLONIES.

And

during the

last

century Minorca passed to and fro between Spain and

England more times than

Advance of Aragon beyondthe
peninsula.

it is

easy to remember.^

Thc
.

acquisitiou of territory
.

beyond the peninsula

.
.

naturallv bej^au witli Arasfou.

.

The

acquisition of the

Balearic
sular

isles

may
;

pass as the enlargement of a penin-

kingdom
lost

but before that happened, Aragon had

won and
Union of
and
Sicily,

what was practically a great dominion

north of the Pyrenees.

tinuous witli
its

But

this

dominion was con-

Spanish territory.

The
sea

real beginning

of Aragoucsc domiiiion

beyond the

was when the

12821285

war of the Vespers

Second

for a

Aragou and the

insular Sicily.

moment united the crowns of Then the island crown

princes,

Arapon
and
Sicilj'.

was held by independent Aragonese

and
n^^

lastly

1409.

was again united

nciital

to the

Aragonese crown,
_ _

ine

conti-

Union of Aragon aud continentai

Sicily.

Maffuanimous, a b
'

1442-1458. Continen''"^

during the reign of Alfonso the king with Aragon and the & & island. Then the continental kingdom was save during o cd
Sicilv -^
_

had,

common

und'er

the

momentary French occupations

till

held by Aragonese

pr^incer^^

priiiccs

the

final

union of the crowns of Aragon

Meanwhile a war of more the Two Sicilies. if AL^m," and than a hundred years gave to Aragon the island of siciiie^
War
of

Sardinia as a new kingdom.

^^ Castile and Aragon,

Thus, at the

final

union
it

i309-T4'28.

Aragon brought with

the

outlying crowns of the

1530.

Two

Sicilies

and of Sardinia.

The

insular Sicilian

kingdom was

slightly lessened

by
the

the grant of Malta and Gozo to the Knights of Saint

John.
1557.

The

continental

kingdom was increased by

addition of a small Tuscan territory.

Conquered by England 1708. Ceded 1713. Recovered 1756. Ceded to England 17G3. Recovered 1782. Conquered by England 179. Recovered 1802.
1

'

'

THE GREAT SPANISH MONARCHY.

The outlying possessions of Aragon were tlius strictly PvCquisitions made by the Kings of Aragon on behalf of
tlie

539
chap.

crown of Aragon.
.

But the extension of

Castile passed to
'

Castilian between
to
the outlying possesions of

dominion over distant parts of Europe was due only

the fact that the

crown of

an Austrian

Aragon and those

"fCastiie.

prince

who had

inherited the greater part of the do-

minions of the Dukes of Burgundy.

But thereby the

and went

gundianini504.

Netherlands and the counties of Burgundy and Charolois

became appendages

to Castile,

to swell
Duchy
1535.
of

the great Spanish Monarchy.

too, in
it,

whatever character the

The duchy of Milan Emperor Charles held

it

became a Spanish dependency when

passed to his

1.555.

son Philip.

The European
,
.

possessions of the Spanish

.

Monarchy

thus took m, at the time of their greatest extent, the

Extent of theSpanish Monarchy.

whole peninsula, the Netherlands and the other Burgundian lands of the Austrian house, Eoussillon, the
Sardinia,
Sicilies,

and Milan. But

this

whole dominion was never

held at once, unless for form's sake

we count

the United

Loss of the

Netherlands as Spanish territory

.

till

the Twelve Years'

,

Netherlands. ^'~'*-

Truce.

Holland and

its

fellows

had become
But

practically
''

1009.

independent before Portugal was won.

till

it

was not
Lands
lost

after the loss of Portugal that

Spain suffered her

great losses on the side of France,

when

the conquests

ifioo-io??.

of Lewis the Fourteenth cost her Eoussillon, Cerdagne,

Charolois, the

County of Burgund}^, Artois, and other

parts of the Netherlands.

lands, with Milan

The remainder of

the Nether-

and the three outlying Aragonese

till

kingdoms, were kept

the partitions in the beginning

of the eighteenth century.

The

final results of so

much
the
to

Partition

fighting and treaty-making

was

to take

away
Castile,

all

Spanish
1713.

outlying possessions of both

confine the Spanish

Aragon and

and

kingdom

to the peninsula

and the

540

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

Balearic
less
isles, less

ITS COLONIES,

Portugal and Gibraltar for ever, and

Since then Spain has never

Minorca

for a season.

won back any

Kecovery
of Sicilv. 1718, 1735.

part of the lost possessions of Castile

lost posses-

but she has more than once won back the

sions of

Aragon^ insular
if

Sicily twice, continental Sicily

Spanish kings of theTAvo

Sicilies.
1

once.

And

the Sicilies were not kept as part of the

Spanish dominions, they passed to a branch of the

of

73.0-1860.

Duchy
Parma,

Spanish royal house, as the duchies of

Parma and

1731-1860.

Piacenza passed to another.

3.

The Colonial Dominion of Spain and Portugal.

distinction between. Spain a ndi Portugal
is

The
Character
of 'the

most

strikingly

marked

in the

dominion of the two powers

Portugal led the

beyond the bounds of Europe.

way

Portuguese dominion
out of

among European
out of Europe.
call so to do.

states

to

conquest and colonization

historical

Europe.

She had a geographical and

Her dominion out

of

Europe was not

it

indeed a matter of necessity like that of Eussia, but

stood on a different ground from that of England,

France, or Holland.

It

was- not actually continuous

territory,

with her
it,,

own European

but

it

began near to

and

it

was a natural consequence and extension of

her European advance.

The

Asiatic

and American

dominion of Portugal grew out of her African dominion,

and her African dominion was the continuation of her

growth

m her own peninsula.

the

When

Moor was
him

driven out of Spain,

it

was

natural to follow

across the

narrow

seas into a

land which lay so near to Spain, and which in earlier

Portugal
fully

geography had passed

Castile
late in

as a Spanish land.

But

as far as
till

formed in
the thirteenth century.

was concerned, the Moor was not driven out

the fifteenth century; as far as Portugal was

'

PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION.
concerned, he was driven out in the thirteenth.
Por-

541
chap.
XII.

tugal had then reached her full extent in the peninsula,

and she could no longer advance against the misbelievers

by

land.

One

is

tempted to wonder that her advance

It

beyond sea did not begin sooner.

teenth century,

came

in the

fif-

iier

when

fifty

years of conquest gave to

the Sea,

conquests,

Portugal her kingdom of Algarve beyond

an

The
"'^''^^'

African dominion older than the Castilian conquest of

Granada.

The king of Portugal and

pillar of

the

Algarves thus

held the southern

the northern.

Hercules, while Castile held

part of this African kingLo.-.st.f

The greater

dom was

lost after the fall of Sebastian.

Ceuta remained

ioiniiiion,
1.'.78.

a Spanish possession after the dominion of Portugal, so ceuu

that Spain

now

holds the southern pillar and England

'^'^'"^
"

'

the northern.
to

Tanqier too once passed from Portuoid

.
.

Tangier
KnglLsh.
i'i<i-'-i<;83.

England

as a

marriage

gift,

and was presently

for-

saken as

useless.

II liad

But before the kingdom of Algarve beyond the sea

passed away,
1

its

1T11 establishment had led

1T1

Advance
'" Africa

to the dis- and

the

islands.

covery of the whole coast of the African continent, and

to the

growth of a

vast

Portuguese dominion
first

in various
Madeira,
1419.
-'Azores and Cape Verda
^''''"_^'';,

parts of the world.

session, followed

Madeira was the

insular uos-

by the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. '

Gradually, under the care of

Don Henry, the Portuguese

power spread along the north-west coast of Africa.

The work went on

Vasco de

Gama made
;

his

great Cape
i-^^^.

of

-,

Good Hope,

discovery of the Cape of

Good Hope

the road to India

was opened
T T India,
1

dominion on the coasts of Arabia and

.

Dominion ^'^ Arabia

'"i"''

and even
to

in the islands of the

Indian Archipelago,
This

'"J'*-

was added

dominion on the coast of Africa.

dominion perished through the annexation of Portugal

by

Spain.

Since the restoration of Portuguese indepen-

dence, only fragments of this great African and Indian

542

THE SPANISH PEiNINSULA AND

dominion have been kept.
.
.

ITS COLONIES.

XII.
.

CHAP,

But
.

still Portiisjal ^
.

holds the
.

Atlantic islands, various points and coasts in Africa,

<xt'ent"of

and a small

territory in India

and the Eastern

also to a
T-l

islands.
last-

dominion
abroad.

But Portugucsc enterprise led

more

mg

w^ork, to the creation of a

new European
World.
at the

nation

beyond the Ocean, the

S'BrI^7
].ooo,

single

European monarchy
Brazil was

which has taken root

century

in the

New

discovered by Portuguese sailors

fifteenth
;

end of the

1531.

it

was

settled as a

Portuguese pos-

session
1624-1654.

early in the sixteenth.

During the union of

for a while a large

Portugal with Spain the Dutch

part
of the

won

country,

but the whole was

won back
of

by independent Portugal.

The

peculiar position

Portugal, ever threatened by a

more powerful neigh-

bour, gave her great Transatlantic dominion a special

importance.
shelter,
180/.

It
it

was looked
actually
.

to as possible place for

which

became during the French

.

invasion of Portugal
'

Kingdom
ofPortu-ai and Brazil,
1^13-

The Portuguese dominions took

.

the style of
'

'

the Ignited Kino-dom of Portugal, Brazil, to ^

?

and Algarve.'

Nine years

later these

kingdoms were
state.
.

ot Brazil, 1822.

Separated, and Brazil

became an independent
.

But
and

Tk

it

remains a monarchy with the

ruled

title

of Empire,

it is still

by the

direct representative of the

itself

Portuguese royal house, while Portugal

has passed

away from the

succession.

native line

by the accidents of female

held
a

In the

sixteenth

century Brazil
It

wholly

exceptional position.

was the only settlement of

Portugal,

it

was the only considerable settlement of

any European power, in a region which Spain claimed

ihe indi*'^

as her exclusive dominion.

By

Pa])al

authority Spain

between Spain and

Portugal.
1

was

to

have

all

the newly found lands that lay to the

iyi.

west, and Portugal all that lay to the east, of a line


SPANISH DOMINION IN AMERICA.
on the map, drawn
at

'

543
chap.

370 leagues west of the Cape

the
Brazil, to-

Verde

Islands.

Spain thus held

whole South -

American continent, with the exception of

nent which

gether with that part of the North American contiis

most closely connected with the southern.

While the non-European dominion of Portugal was

primarily African and Indian, the non-European do-

minion of Spain was primarily American.

in the

It

did not

same way
;

spring out of the European history of

the country

it

was rather suggested by

rivalry of

Portugal. In Africa the Spanish dominion hardly went

beyond the possession of Oran and the more

session of Ceuta.
Fifth^

lasting pos-

oran,
1732-i/ui!
\^^^^'

The conquest of Tm^z-s- by Charles

in his Sicilian

the

was made rather

than

in his Castilian

character.

Within the range of Portuguese dominion

the settlements of Spain were exceptional.

But they

took in the Canaries off the Atlantic coast of Africa,

and the Philippine Islands

pelago.

in the

extreme eastern Archistill

insular
of Spain.

These insidar possessions Spain

keeps.

Meanwhile the great Spanish dominion

World,
of the
in

in the

New

Spanish
in

both Americas and

Indies, has risen

in the

adjoining islands
It

America,

West

and

fallen.

began with

\4^i!^^^^'

the

first

conquest of Columbus, Ilispaniola or Saint

Domingo.

Thus the dominion of

at the very

Castile

beyond the
she reached
coast.
in

Ocean began

moment when
dominion

the fuU extent of her

own Mediterranean
continental

Then
Mexico^
1519.
^^^2.

followed the great

Pent, and the other lands on or south of the isthmus

w^hich joins the

two western

continents.

But

into the

body of the North American continent, the land which

was
to be disputed

between France and England, Spain

Mexico., California., Florida., barely
'

never spread.

New

See above,

p.

447.

54-^

THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND

stretched along
its

ITS COLONIES.
coasts.

CHAP,

western and

soiitTierii

The
in

Revolutions
s'^aiiTsh

--^' whole of this continental dominion passed

"^

away
''

''tii^ies

of revolutions within our

own

century.

While

colonies.

Portugal

and

England

have

really

founded

new

European nations beyond the Ocean, the

Spanisli rule
in

result of

America has been

to create a

number
as

of states of ever shifting extent and constitution, keeping the Spanish language, but
Mexico.

some of which are

much
is

native

American

as Spanisli.
to

Of

these Mea:ico

the one which has

had most

do with the general

It

can^Em-"^
182^2-1823

history of

Europc and European America.

has twice

taken the
mj,|(^j,

name

of Empire, once under a native, once

1866-1807.

^ foreign, adventurer.
its

And

vast provinces, once

under
ces.sion^ to

nominal rule, have

passed to

the United

the United
States.

Statcs.

Tlic loss of Texas,

New

Mexico, and

Upper ^
'

California^ has cut

down

the present Mexico nearly to

the extent of the

l'''"l'"r'^West India

first

Spanish conquests.
India
islands, '

OC
powers.

the

Spanish West
>-

some,
'

like

islands.

Jamaica and Trinidad^ have passed

to other

European
from that

Jamaica,
i6r,5.

The
.

oldest po.ssession of

all,

the Spanish part

Domingo,
1864.

of Hispauiok, has
.

become a
island.

state distinct

Puerto

'-"f

Ilayti in the

same
In

Puerto Rico remains a

allegiance of

Cuba

^^^^

Spanish possession.

The
its

Cuba

is

always doubtful.

sliort,

the dominion of Spain out

of Europe has followed

Spain.

European dominion out of

the

The eighteenth century destroyed the one nineteenth century has cut down the other to

mere fragments.

545

CHAPTEE Xm.
THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

We

have

now

gone,

first

through that great mass of

chap.

European

lands

which

formed part either of the

^-r

Eastern or of the Western Empire, and then through

those

more

distant,

and mainly peninsular, lands which

so largely escaped the Imperial dominion.

We

end by

leaving the mainland of Europe, by leaving the world of

either Empire, for that great island, or rather
islands,

group of

The

British

which

for ages

was looked on
to

as forming a world
Late Ro-

of its oAvn.^ In Western Europe Britain was the last land

to be
1

won, and the

,

n
first

ii'ii m
be
lost,
^
^

the days of the

PI

m^n

conquest and
early loss of Britain.

elder Empire.

And,

after all, Britain itself

was only

partly won, while the conquest of L^eland

tried at
less to
all.

was never
indupendence of
Britain in

After the Enghsh Conquest, Britain had

do with the revived Western Empire than any ^

Western land except Norway. The momentary dealings

of Charles the Great with Scotland and Northumberland,

the later Empire.

the doubtful and precarious

homage done by

Eichard the First to Henry the Sixth, are the only exceptions, even in form, to
its

complete independence

The doctrine was that Britain, the other world, formed an Empire of its own. m T inat "n iimpire, being an island, was secured against the

on the continental Empire.

1

Britain

constant nuctuations of
^

its

external boundary to which

vol.
i.

another world and ano.her Empire.

See Norman Conquest,

p.

564.

N N


546
CHAP,
XIII
"^

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

continental states
lie

open.

For several centuries the

-^

boundaries, both of the Celtic and Teutonic occupants

within
Britain.

and of the Teutonic kingdoms among themselves, were

.

always changing.

But these changes hardly

which
is

in/T

affect

European
Teutonic
settlers in

history,

concerned only with the

the establishment of the

broad, general results

with

settlers in the island

with the union of those

Britain.

one kingdom under the West-Saxon house

with the extension of the imperial power of the Westchange in

fiivisionsof

Saxon kings over the whole island of

And,

fpom the eleventh century onwards, there has been

singularly
little

change of boundaries within

tlie island.

The boundaries of England towards Scotland and Wales changed much less than might have been looked for
during ages of such endless warfare.
divisions within the English king-dom
larly lasting.

Even the

lesser

have been singu-

The

land, as a whole, has never

been

mapped out
of France or

afresh since the tenth century.

While a map

Germany in the eleventh

is

century, or even in
objects,

the eighteenth,

useless for

immediate practical

map

of England in the days of

Domesday

practically

differs

not at

all

from

map

of England now.

The

only changes of any moment, and they are neither

many nor

great, are in the

shires

on the Welsh and

Scottish borders.

Thus the
comes to
changes,
land,

historical geograjohy of the isle of Britain

little

more than a record of

into a single

these border

down

to the incorporation of England, Scot-

and Wales

kingdom.
is

In the other
to

great island
to trace

of Ireland there

little

do except

how

the boundary of English conquest ad-

vanced and

fell

back, a matter after

all

of no great

European concern.

The

history of the smaller outlying

SLIGHT CHANGES IN ENGLISH GEOGRAPHY.

islands,

547
chap
xiri.

from Scandinavian Shetland to the insular

really

Normandy, has

more

to

do with the

preneral

history of Europe.

The dominion
is

of the English kings

on the continent
but,

of the liighest

European moment,
is

from

its

geographical side,
it

it

Gaul and not

great
is

Britain which

affects.

The
Enghsh

really

geogra- En^ush

phical pha^nomenon of
it

history

that

which
it

beyond

sea.

shares w^ith Spain and Portugal, and in whicli

surpasses both.

This

is

the vast extent of outlying-

English dominion and settlement, partly in Europe, but

far

more

largely in the distant lands of Asia, Africa,

America,, and Australia.

But

it

is

not merely that

in all quarters of

England has become a great power

the world
;

England has been,

,

like Portugal,

but on a far
of her
English
nations,

o-reater scale, a planter of nations. '"

One group
1

settlements has

grown

into

one of the great powers of

the world, into a third England

as far surpassing our insular

beyond the Ocean,

in geographical
first

England

extent as our insular

England surpasses the

Eng-

land of

all

in

the marchland of

Germany and Denbut the historical

mark.

The mere barbaric dominion of England conlittle

;

cerns our present survey but

geography of Europe

is

deeply

concerned

in

the

extension of England and of Europe in lands beyond

the Western and the Southern Ocean.

In tracing out the

little
itself,

that
it

we have
w^ill

to say of the

geography of Britain

be well to begin

with that northern part of the island where changes

have been both more numerous and more important

than they have been
in

England.

N N 2

548

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

1.
^^^

XIII."

The Kingdom of Scotland.

in

[Son

of Scotland.

Northern Britain, as

some other parts of

its

Europe, we see a land which has taken

a people to which
tance.
it

name from
impor-

does not

owe
itself

its

historic

Scotland has

won for
it

a position in Britain
its

and

in

Europe altogether out of proportion to

But
element.

size

and population.
of Scotland

has not done this by virtue of

^^^

strictlj Scottish

The

Irish

settlers
^

who

Kngith'
e

first

brought the Scottish name into Britain

could

emeu
.

j^gygj. j^ave

made Scotland what it

really

became.

What

founded the oreatness of the Scottish kinoxlom was the

fact that part of

England gradually took the name of

inhabitants took the

Scotland and

its

name

of Scots.

The case

is

as

when

the

Duke

of Savoy and

Genoa

and Prince of Piedmont took

of his dominions.

his highest title

from that

Sardinian kingdom which was the least valuable part

It is as

when

the ruler of a mighty

German realm
Two
Kn-lish
kiiiir,i,n,s

calls

himself king of the small duchy of

^

Prussia and

its

extinct people. i
''

The

truth

is

that, for
'
_

ii^ore tlian five

hundred years, there were two

'

Enoflish
*-'

HI l>rit;iin.

kingdoms
Celtic

in Britain,

each of which had a troublesome

its

background which formed

at

chief difficulty.

One English king reigned

and had
Ireland.
his difficulties
in

Winchester or London,

Wales and afterwards in Another English king reijxned at Dunfermand had

his
difficulties

line or Stirling,

in the

true

Scotland.

But the southern kingdom, ruled by kings

by
kept the

of native English or of foreign descent, but never

kings of British or Irish descent,^ always

'

See iibove, p. 98.

;

did -not reign

till

The Tudor kings were doubtless of British descent but tliey by virtue of that descent, and they did not come in ages after the English kingdom was completely formed.
2

'

HISTORICAL POSITION OF SCOTLAND.

English name, while the northern kingdom, ruled by
kings of Scottish descent, adopted the Scottish name.
~

540
CHAr.

Scotof

The English
Swiss nation

subjects of the

King of Scots gradually

of

tiie

took the Scottish

is

name to themselves. As the present made up of parts of the German, BurItalian

Analogy
iand.'

gundian,

and

nations
several
is

which have detaclied

themselves from

their

main bodies, so the

of parts of the
.

present Scottish nation

.

made up
.

Threefold

English, Irish, and British nations wliich have detached ^

.

the latev
Scotland.

themselves from

their several

main bodies.

But

in

both cases
life

it is

the Teutonic element which forms the

and strength of the nation, the kernel to which the

other elements have attached themselves.

We

cannot

Tr..*- ]^^].

read the mediseval history of Britain aright,

ujiless

we

Kings of

remember
Fife.

that the

King of Scots was

in truth the

English king of

Teutonic Lothian and Teutonized

liis title

The people from whom he took

his unwilling subjects
allies
;

most

...

were

at Enmity
the true
Scots.

of

they were often his open

enemies, the

of his southern rival.

The modern kingdom The

oldest Scotland

of Scotland

was made

uj)

of

i.othian,

English Lothian, British Strathclyde, and Irish Scotland.

is

ciyde,Vind

Ireland,

whence the

Scottish
into

name, long since forgotten

Britain and there spread

in Ireland itself,

came

itself.

These three elements

stand out plainly.

But the

Scottish or Irish element

swallowed up another, that of the Fids, of

whom

there The

Picts.

can be no doubt that they were Celts, like the Scots

and Britons, but about

the Britons.

whom

it

may be doubted
to the Scots or to
is

whether their kindred was nearer

For our purpose the question

Picts, as far as

of

little

moment.

The

geography

is

concerned,

either vanished or

became

Scots.

550
CHAP.
Xlll.
Position of the Plots

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

Early in the
firths of nintli

century the land north of the

still

Clyde and Forth was

first

mainly

Pictish.

The

second Scotland (the

Scotland in Britain) had not

and Scots
in the ninth

spread far beyond the original Irish settlement in the

south-west.

century.

Union of Picts and

Scots, 843.

The union

of Picts

and Scots under a

Scottish dynasty created the larger Scotland, the true

Celtic Scotland, taking in all
firths,

The

Celtic

the land north of the

settlers

Scotland.

except where Scandinavian

occupied the

Bernicia.

extreme north.

South of the

firths,

English Bernicia,

sometimes a separate kingdom, sometimes part of NortJi-

humherland, stretched to the

burgh as a border
Strathel yde or

firth

of Forth, with Edin-

fortress.
firth

To

the west of Bernicia,

south and east of the

of Clyde, lay the British king-

Cumberland.

dom

of Cumberland or Strathclyde, with Alcluyd or

as its

Dumbarton
Galloway,

border

fortress.

To

the south-west

again lay the outlying Pictish land of Galloway, which

long kept up a separate being.

Parts of Bernicia, parts

of Strathclyde, were one day to join with the true

Scotland to

make up

the later Scottish kingdom.

As
land

yet the true Scotland

was a foreign and

hostile

ahke to Bernicia and to Strathclyde.

Settle-

In the next century

we

see the Scottish

power cut
in

ments of
the North-

men.

short to the north and west, but advancing towards the

south and

east.

The Northmen have

settled

the

northern and western islands, in those parts of the

Caithness.

mainland

to

which they gave the names of Caithness

in

and Sutherland, and even

Scotland

the

first

Scottish land in

acknowledges the

the w^est.
ternal

Scotland

itself

has also admitted the ex-

English supremacy,
924.

supremacy of the English overlord. On the other

fortress of

hand, the Scots have pressed within the English border,

Taking of
Edinburgh,
c.

and have occupied Edinburgh, the border

England.
Later in

954.

Ces.sion of

the same century or early

in the

Lothian, 966 or 1018.

next, the Kings of Scots received Northern Bernicia,

"

FORMATION OF THE SCOTTISH KINGDOM.

the land of Loiliian. as an English earldom.

551

On

the

other side, Strathclyde or Cumberland

boundary
conquest,

is

very uncertain

had become
r'

^-

its

southern "

chap.
XIII.

in a

manner
English
Grant of

united to England and Scotland at once.

it

An

was granted

-I

nef to the King of Scots,

Cumberland,

and was commonly held as an appanage by Scottish

princes.^

Thus the King of Scots held

different tenures,

thi'ee

dominions

Different

on three

Scotland was a kingdom

;

the dothe

under a merely external English supremacy

land was a territorial
fief

Cumber-

King

of Scots.

of England; Lothian was an

earldom within the English kinjzdom.

In after times

these distinctions were forgotten, and the question

now
The distinctions
forgotten in later controversies.

was whether the dominions of the King of

whole, were or were not a
'

Scots, as a

England. When the ^ question king took this shape, ^ r the Ensjlish O O claimed more than his ancient rights over Scotland, less than his
fief of
_ _

ancient rights over Lothian.

The acquisition of Lothian made the Scottish kingdom EngUsh. Lothian remained English Cum;

Effects of the grant

*'

Lothian.

berland and the eastern side of Scotland

itself,

the

Lowlands north of the

cally English also.
princes,

firth

of Forth,

became

practi-

The

Scottish kings

became English
would
had
This
disFate of southern f'umberland.

whose strength lay

in the English part of their

it
"^

dominions.

But

late in the eleventh century

seem that the

southern part of ^
principality

Cumberland

become a separate
territory, the
trict,

ruled

by a refugee
Carlisle
trict

Northumbrian prince under Scottish supremacy.

city of Carlisle

and

its

immediate

added

the old diocese of Carlisle, was added to England by Wiiuam

Rufus,

by William Eufus.
of
Stephen's
reign,

On

the other hand, in the troubles

1092.

the

king of Scots received as

land and

Eiighsh earldoms, Cumberland

in a
i.

somewhat wider

beriand granted to
J^^^^^d,

See Norman Conquest,

vol.

p. 580.

552
CHAP.
XIII.

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

sense

and Northumberland
Tweed
to the

in the

modern

sense, the

land from the

Tyne.

Had

these earldoms

been kept by the Scottish kings, they would doubtless

have become Scottish lands

;

in the

same sense

in

which Lothian did

Recovered byEngland,
1157.

that

is,

they would have become

parts of

the

northern English kingdom.

the Second

But these
;

lands were

won back by Henry

as

and the

The boundary permanent, except as to Berwick.

Relations

boundary has since remained

that the

it

was then

fixed, save

town of Berwick

fluctuated according to the

other.

accidents of

war between one kingdom and the

were
not.

But though the boundaries of the kingdoms were

fixed, their relations

between England and Scotland.

Scotland in the modern

sense

that

is,

Scotland in the older sense, Lothian,

and Strathclyde
1292.
1296. 1327.

was
It

for a

moment
for
It

held strictly as a

fief

of England.

was then
kingdom.

another

moment
under

incorporated with England.

as

was then acknowledged

It

an independent

again
its

fell

1333.
1G03.

vassalage for a
ence.

moment, and again won

at

independ-

Then,

the

beginning of the

seventeenth

century, England and Scotland,

as distinct, independent,

and equal kingdoms, passed under a common king.

1649.

They were separated again

acknowledged a king
another

for a

moment when

Scotland

whom

England

rejected.

For

16 52.

moment

Scotland was incorporated with an

English commonwealth.
1660.

Again Scotland and England

a

became independent kingdoms under

till

common

king,

1707.

the two kingdoms were,

by common

consent, joined

in the

one kingdom of Great Britain,

struggle
with the

Meanwhile the Scottish kings had,

like

those of

Northerners.

somewhat England
uaviau invaders

earlier, to struggle against co o

Scandi

Scandivance, 1014-1064.

The

settlements of the
"^

Northmen
''

advanccd, and for some years in the eleventh century

BELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.

they took in
other.

553
chap.
"
-

Moray

at

one end and Galloway

in the

at the

But

it

was only

extreme north and

in the

northern islands that the land really became Scandinavian.

In the Sudereys or Hebrides

"^

the

southern

The
Suderej's,

islands as distinguished

from Orkney and Shetland

J-

and Man.
Caithness submits,
^^os.

and

in

Man,

'

the Celtic speech has survived.

Scottish

Caithness
in

was brought under

thirteenth century. J

supremacy early
i.

the

incorporated. Later Galloway J was

caiioway
incorpo^ate^*^,

again, after the battle of Largs, the Sudereys

and

Man

passed under Scottish supremacy.

But the authority of

sudereys
s^^V'

the Scottish crown in the islands was for a long; time very
precarious.

Man, the most

central of the British

isles,

History of

lying at a nearly equal distance fi'om England, Scotland,

Ireland,

and Wales, remained a separate kingdom,

Granted

sometimes under Scottish, sometimes under English,

superiority.
to

Enghsh

subjects, the kingto

i764-i8-2g.

dom

sank to a lordship.

The lordship was united

the crown of Great Britain, and Man, like the

islands,

Norman
Orkney.
1469.

remains a distinct possession, forming no part

"^

The earldom of Orkney United Kingdom. o dependency till it Norwegian remained meanwhile a
of the

was pledged
silently

to the Scottish crown.

part, first of the

Since then

it

has

become

kingdom of Scotland,
Britain.

and then of the kingdom of Great

2.

The Kingdom of England.

of boundary between England and
.)

The changes o
Wales begin, as

'-J

Harold's conquests

far as

we

are concerned with them, ^"^^^

with the great Welsh campaign of Harold.

All the

^^*j^^''^

border

shires,

Cheshire,

Shropshire,
to

Herefordshire,
;

^'^^^^^^^

Gloucestershire, seem

now

have been enlarged

the

^^"'*-

English border stretched to the

Conway

in the

north.


554:

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

and
to the

CHAP.
xiir.

Usk

in the south.

But part of

this territory

seems to have been recovered by the Welsh princes,

The
Marches.

while part passed into the great ?7iarcA district of England

and Wales, ruled by the Lords Marchers.

Conquest of South Wales,
1070-1121.

The gradual

conquest of South Wales began under the Conqueror

and went on under

the

his sons

but

it

was more largely

kings

work of

private adventurers than of the

The lands of Morganwg, Dyfed, Ceredigion^ and Breheiniog answering nearly to the modern South Wales, were gradually subdued. In some disthemselves.
,

Flemish
settlement
in

tricts,

especially in the southern

part of the present

Pem-

brokeshire, 1111.

Pembrokeshire, the Britons were actually driven out,

and the land was

settled

by Flemish

colonists, the latest

Character of the conquest of

of the Teutonic settlements in Britain.

Elsewhere Nor-

South
Wales.
Princes of

man
the

lords,

with a Norman, English, and Flemish follow-

ing, held the

towns and the more level country, while

half independence in the

North Wales.

Welsh kept on a
Meanwhile
in

moun-

tains.

North Wales native princes

Princes

of Aherffraw

and Lords of Snowdon

till

still

ruled, as vassals of the English king,

Cessions to

the conquest

England,
1277.

by Edward the

First.

In the

first

stage

the vassal

prince was compelled again to cede to his overlord the

territory east of the

Conquest
of

North

Conway.

Six years later followed

Wales,
1282.

the complete conquest.

But complete incorporation

Wales, North

The

Principality of VVales.

with England did not at once follow.

and South, remained a separate dominion, giving the

princely
title

to the eldest son of the English king.^

Some

shires
;

were formed
border

some new towns were

remained under
the

founded

the

districts

^ It should be remembered that the principaHty became the appanage of the eldest son only by accident. The first English

prince, afterwards

Edward

the Second,

was not

his father's eldest

is

son at the time of his creation.

The

title

moreover

newly created

each time.

'

THE ENGLISH

SHIRES.

555

anomalous iurisdiction of the Marchers.

of the corporation ^

... principality
.

The
.

full in-

chap.
XIII-

and

its

marches dates
counties were

Full incorporation.

from Henry the Eighth.

formed, and some
districts

Thirteen

new

were added or restored to

the border shires of England.

ties,

One
and

of the

new counsiiice

Monmouthshire^ was, under Charles the Second,

circuit,
it

added to an Enghsh

has

been

reckoned as an English county.

Setting aside these

new

f>r-iiT shires oi England were Norman Conquest, save

land, Westmoreland,

! ni bemg

creations, all the existing The

at tlie tune oi the

'

Dumegdav
shires.

those of Lancaster, Cumber-

and Rutland. The boundaries were

;

not always exactly the same as at present

differences are
terest.

but the
local inTwocinj^ses of shires.

commonly

slight

and of mere

The

shires, as

they stood at the Conquest, were

_ _

of two classes.
tieSjWhich
still

Some, were old kingdoms or principalikept their names and boundaries as shires,

Ancient

and princi-

Such were the kingdoms of Kent, Sussex, and Essex, and

the East- Anglian, West-Saxon, and Northumbrian shires.

Most of these keep old

local or

tribal

names

a few
Mercian
snirGS

only are called from a town.

In Mercia on the other

hand, the shires seem to have been mapped out afresh

mapped out
tenth cent

when

the land was

won back from

the Danes.

They
re-

urv.

are called after towns, and the town which gives the

name commonly

lies

central to the district,

shire,

and
it

mains the chief town of the

except

when

has

been outstripped by some other in modern times.

Both

classes of shires survived the Conquest,

till

and both

have gone on

now

with very
all

slight changes.

On
*

the

Welsh border,

the shires, for reasons

already given, stretch fm-ther west in

See Norman Conquest,
vol.
i.

Domesday than

p.

48

and Macmillau's Maga-

zine, April, 1880.

556

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

they do now.

On

tlie

Scottish border

Cumberland and

Westmoreland were made out of the Cumbrian conquest of William Eufus, enlarged by districts which

Lancashire.

Domesday appear shire was made up

in

as part of Yorkshire.

Lanca-

of lands

taken from Yorkshire

and Cheshire, the Eibble forming the older boundary

of those shires.

The older

divisions are

marked by the
to the changes

boundaries of the dioceses of York, Carlisle, and Lichfield or

Chester,

as they stood

down

under Henry the Eighth.

chano-e
Rutland.
is

In central England the only

the formation of the small shire of Rutland

out of the

Domesday

district of

Eutland (which, oddly

enough, appears as an appendage to Nottinghamshire),

enlarged by a small part of what was then Northamptonshire.

Ireland the first

Scotland.

3.

Ireland.

The second great island of the British group, Ireland,

the original Scotia, has had less to do with the general
history of the world than

any other part of Western

have lived on from the
its five

Europe.
The
five

Its ancient divisions

earliest times.

The names of

great provinces,
all

jirovinces.

Ulster,

Meath, Leinster, Munster, and Connaught, are

in familiar use,

though Meath has sunk from

four.

its

old

rank alono;side of the other

tants of the island

The

Celtic inhabi-

remained independent of foreign

Just

powers

till

the days of Scandinavian settlement.

like the English

kingdoms

in Britain, the great divisions

of Ireland
Settlement of the

were sometimes independent, sometimes

united under the supremacy of a head king. Gradually

the Northmen, called in Ireland Ostmen, settled on the eastern coast, and held the chief ports, as Dublin,

Ostmen.

Waterford, Wexford, two of which names bear witness to

'

IRELAND.
Teutonic occupation. The great Irish victory at Clontarf

557
chap.

weakened, but did not destroy, the Scandinavian power.

And, from the

with England.
doubtful
;

latter half of the tenth

century onward,
. .

torv at
Clontarf. 1012.

the eastern coast of Ireland shows a grownig connexion

Any

actual English supremacy seems

ties

connexion

but both commercial and ecclesiastical

be-

England,

came

closer diu-ing the eleventh

and twelfth

centuries.
English

This led to the actual Enghsh conquest of Ireland, The

bec^un under o

Henry
-^

the Second, but really finished only

.

conquest, 1169-1652.

by Cromwell.
supremacy of
Dublin for
while

All Ireland admitted for a

moment

the
1171.

Henry
centre,

but,

till

the sixteenth century,

the actual English

its

dominion, called the Pale, with

was always

fluctuating,

and

for a

fion^of"

it fell

back rather than advanced.

is

In the early days of the conquest Ireland

of as a

spoken

Kingdom
ship of

kingdom

but the

title

soon went out of use.

The original plan seems to have been that Ireland, like Wales afterwards, should form an appanage for a son of the English King. It became instead, so far as it was an Enghsh possession at all, a simple dependency of England, from which the King took the title of Lord Henry the Eighth took the title of King of Ireland. of Jj'eland but the kingdom remained a mere depen;

1542.

Relations
to

dency, attached to the crown,

of Great Britain.

first

of England and then

England.

This state of things was diversified

of complete incorporation under the of independence
1652.
ig89.

by a short time

Commonwealth, and a short time

under James the Second.

But

for the last eighteen

1782-1800.

years of the last century, Ireland was formally acknow-

ledged as an independent kingdom, connected

with
Since
^goi

Great Britain only by the

that time
it

tie

of a

common

king.

has formed an integral part of the United

Kingdom

of Great Britain and Ireland.

558
CHAP.
XIII.

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

4,

Outlying European Possessions of England.

Ireland, the sister island of Britain, has thus been

united with Britain into a single kingdom.

Man, lying
dependency.

between the two, remains

The Nor-

distinct

man
Islands. 1205.

This last

is

also

still

the position of that part of the

clave to
its

Norman duchy which

It

own

dukes, which

never became French, but always remained Norman.

might be a question what was the exact position of

Guernsey^ Jersey^ Alderney^ Sark, and their smaller

neighbours,

when

the English kings took the

titles

of the

French kingdom and actually held the Norman duchy.

Practically the islands have,

during

all
;

changes,

re-

mained attached
Other European dependencies, Aquitaine,

to the English

crown

but they have

never been incorporated with the kingdom.

Other
still

more
in the

distant

European lands have been, some

position.
as fixed

are,

same

Such were Aquitaine, Ponthieu,

&c.

and Calais,

by the Peace of Bretigny.

Since

the loss of Aquitaine, England has had no considerable

continental dominion in Europe, but she has from time
Outposts

and
islands.

to time held several islands

and detached

points.

Such

are

Calais, Boulogne,
all

Dunkirk, Gibraltar, Minorca,

of which have been spoken of

Malta, Heligoland,

in their natural geographical places.

To

these

we may

add Tangier, which has more

possession of Gibraltar
lish

in

common

with the

and Minorca than with the Eng-

settlements in the further parts of Africa.

Of these
still

points, Gibraltar, Heligoland,

Greek
possessions,

and Malta, are

held

Ionian
Islands,

The virtual English possession of the Ionian Islands made England for a while a sharer in
by England.
the
later

1814-1864.

fragments of the Eastern

still

Eoman

Empire.

And
by

Cvprus,
1878.

she has again put on the same character

'

EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS OF ENGLAND.

the occupation, on whatever terms, of another Greek

559
chap.
"-

and Imperial land, the island of Cyprus.

The American Colonies of England.

5.

England, like France and Holland, became a colo. .

.

Colonies of

England.
.

nizing

power by

choice.

Extension over barbarian

lands

was not a

necessity, as in the case of Eiissia, nor

did

it

spring naturally out of earher circumstances, as

in the case of Portugal.

But the colonizing enterprise

of England has done a greater

nizing enterprise of any other
greatest colony of

work than the

colo-

European power.

The

England

is

for in a worthier use of

language the word colony would imply independence

rather than dependence
^

that great Confederation

to Corinth,

which

is

to us

what Syracuse was

what
The united
States,

Miletos was to Athens, what Gades and Carthage were

to the cities of the older Canaan.
f
'

of America, a vaster

The United States England beyond the Ocean, an

-Ti

European power, on a

level with the greatest

Euro-

pean powers, planted beyond the bounds of Europe, form the great work of English and European enterprise
in

non-European lands.

The

settlements which
first

were not the

Enfjlish possessions in ^ ^
first

...
otcw
the
real
to

into the United States

North America,

First Eneli.sh settlements

'in North
America,

but they were the

called colonies.

which really deserved to be

discoveries of all led only

The
at

first

to the establishment of

Newfoundland

fisheries.
Attempts
i585-i687.'

Ealeigh's

attempts

colonization ninety years

later only pointed the

way

something more

lasting.

In the seventeenth century began the planting of the

'

The Thir^ omes.

The Latin

eolovta certainly does not imply independence

in

biit,

the

word colony^ which does.

our use of

it,

rather answers to the Greek airoiKia


oGO
CHAP,
xiir.

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

thirteen settlements

which won

their

independence.

Of

these the earHest and the latest, the most southern

and the most northern, began through English colonizaVirginia, 1607.

tion in the strictest sense.

First

came

Virginia.

Then

followed the Puritan colonization

The New England
States,

much

further to the
states.

north which founded the

shiftings

New England

The
to

among

these settlements, from

Plymouth

1620-1638

Maine, the unions, the

the various and

divisions, the colonies of colonies

the Epidamnos and the Sinope of

varying relations
settlements, read like a piece of old
1629- 1G92.

the

New World
different

between the

Greek or of Swiss

history.^

By

the end of the seventeenth century they

into four separate colonies.

had arranged themselves

These were Massachusetts, formed by the union of Massachusetts and Plymouth, with its northern dependency
of Maifie,
1820.

which became a separate State long

;

after the

Eevolution

New Hampshire, annexed by Massachusetts

from
it
;

and

after a while separated

Connecticut,

formed

by the union of Connecticut and Newhaven; Rhode Island

formed by the union of Rhode Island and Providence. These New England States form a distinct geographical
group, with a marked political and religious character
of their own.
The
Southern
Colonies.
1

Meanwhile, at some distance to the

south, around Virginia as their centre,

It incay

grew up another
:

be well

to giv e

the dates in order

Plymouth
Massachusetts
Connecticut
.

1620 1628
162'J

Rhode

Island and Provi-

11644

dence united

New Hampshire
Newhaven
Providence

1635 1638

Rhode Island Maine New Hampshire annexed

.

1644 1634

and Newj 1664 haven united New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts J1671 Maine purchased by
Connecticut

1638
1

Massachusetts

jl677
ll691

1641

Plymouth

and

Massa.

by Massachusetts

chusetts united


THE AMERICAN COLONIES.
group of colonies, with a history and character
in

561

many
1

ways unhke those of

r-

New

England.
1

To
c

the north

isic.

chap.
>

of Virginia arose the proprietary colony or

to the

-TT-

Maryland
.

-*r

1
;

Maivland.

south arose

Carolina, afterwards divided into

.

CaroUna.
IfioO-lliGS.

North and South.

South Carolina for a

lono;

^ while

Divided, 1720.

marked the end of English settlement

Maine did
to the north.

to the south, as

colonies But between these two otouds of English

in

inter-

^,

mediate
space occu-

the strictest sense lay a region in which Enoiish settle-

ment had

to take the

from another form of conquest -

united
1 roviuces

European power.

Earlier than any English settlement ^^^^^^ except Virginia, the great colony of the United Provinces

had

arisen
It

on Loni? Island and the

bore the name of

neicrhbourino- mainits

land.

New

Netherlands, with

^>^ NetherJ'^'j^^

capital oi

New Amsterdam. To

the south, on the shores

of Delaware Bay, the other great power of the seventeenth

century founded the colony of

Three European nations,

,,,,.,. closely allied m

New

Sweden. New
Sweden,
it3o8.

race, speech,

and creed, were thus

side

for a while established side

by
union of
don with
Netherlands, igoo.

on the eastern

coasts of America.

But the three

that
to

settlements were fated to

force of arms.

merge together, and

by

A
a

local

war added New Sweden

New

Netherlands

war between England and the United

Provinces gave

New

Netherlands to England.

New

conquest
Netheri6G4.'
^

Amsterdam became New York, and gave its name to the colony which was to become the greatest State of Ten years later, in the next w^ar between the Union. the tw^o colonizing powers, the new English possession
^

^""'^ *"''

1674.

was

lost

and won again.

still left

Meanwhile the gap which was

filled

began

to

be

The
^^^l^^'

up by other Enghsh

settlements.

East and West

Jersey began as two distinct colonies, which were after-

wards united into one.

The
o

great colony of Pennsyl-

1702.

562

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

vania next arose, from which the small one of Delaware

was parted
tlnis

off

twenty years

later.

Pennsylvania was

the last of the original settlements of the seven-

Dekware
^'^^'

tccnth century, which in the space of nearly eighty

years had been formed fast after one another.
Fifty

years after the

Georgia,

work of the benevolent Penn came the

Icss

w^ork of

tlic

iio

bcncvolcnt Oglethorpe

Georgia^

to the south of

all,

now filled up

the tale of the famous

Thirteen, the fitting number,

it

would seem,

for

Federal power, whether in the Old World or in the

New.
indepentiie

By

the Pcacc of Paris the Thirteen Colonies were

as independent States.
soil

United

acknowledged

The

great

work
to

1783!^'

of English settlement on foreign

perfection.

was brought

The new and

in the coast, all

free English land

beyond the

Ocean took

whole temperate region of the North

between the peninsula of Acadia to

American

the north and the other peninsula oi Florida to the south.

Both of these
time of the

last

lands were English possessions at the

of Independence, but neither of

War

them

had any share

Scotia,

in the

work. Acadia, under the name of

in the interval
settle-

Nova
ment

Scotia,

had been ceded by France

between the settlement of Pennsylvania and the

of Georgia.

Next came the conquest of Canada^

of the colonies played their part.
. . .

Canada,
1769-1763.

in wliich the
.

men

Hitherto the English colonies had been shut in to the

barrier at

Wcst by
bear,

tlic

Freuch claim to the

line of the

Alleghany
this

Alleghany.

mountains.

The Treaty

of Paris took

away

bug-

and

left

the whole land as far as the Mississippi

open
1776-1783.

to the enterprise of the English colonists.

Thus,

when

the Thirteen States started on their independent

career, the
Florida

whole land between the great

lakes, the

Occau, and the Mississippi, was open to them.

Florida

THE UNITED STATES.

indeed,
first

563
chap.

as

an English, then again as a Spanish posoff

session, cut

them

from the Gulf of Mexico.

first

The ^r-^
Spanish,

city of

New

Orleans remained,

a Spanish, then a

French, outpost east of the Mississippi, and the possessions

still

held by England kept them from the

mouth
such
Extension

of the Saint Lawrence.

But within these

limits,

of the old States as were allow^ed by their geographical position might extend themselves to the west, and

West,

new

States

might be formed.

Both processes went on,

by European powers were removed, The purchase of Louisiana from France,

the acquisition of Florida fi'om Spain, gave the States the sea-board of the Gulf of Mexico, and allowed their extension to the Pacific.
partly

and two of the

barriers formed

i^ouisiana,

Florida,

1821

The

details of that extension, at the

it is

by natural growth, partly

expense of the
hardly needful
Anew
nation,

Spanish element in North America,

to oo through here.

But, out of the

coast,

Endish
a

settle-

ments on the North-American

new Enfdish
to the

nation has aiisen, none the less English, in a true view of history, because
it

no longer owes allegiance

crown of Great
name.

Britain.

But the power thus formed,

exactly like earlier confederations in Europe, lacks a

The United

States of

America

is

hardly a geo-

Lack

of a

graphical or a national name, any more than the names

of the Confederates and the United Provinces. In the

two

European cases common usage gave the name of a single member of the Union to the whole, and in the case of
Switzerland the popular

name

at last

became the

for-

mal name.

In the American case, on the other hand,

popular usage speaks of the Confederation by the

of the whole continent of which
its

name
Use
of the

territory forms part.

For several purposes, the words America and American

are

always understood as shutting out Canada

2

and

Amtrica.

564

THE
^

BrJTISII ISLANDS
notliinoof tlie tD

AND COLONIES.

XIII.
^'

CTTAP.

Mexico, to say J
nent.
in the
it is

southern American contistill

'

For some other purposes, those names

take

whole American continent, north and south.

But

easier to see the

awkwardness of the usual nomenany improvement on

it.

clature than to suggest

Second
Enj^dish
natiipn in

While one
American
to the

set

of events in the

eighteenth cen-

North America.

tury created an independent English nation on ISTorth

soil,

another set of events in the same cen-

tury, earlier in date but later in their results, has led

formation in

its

immediate neighbourhood of
still

another English nation which

Dcpenden
confederacy.

keeps

its

allegiance

to the English crown.

tically

confederation of states, prac-

independent

in their internal affairs, but

is

remaining

subjects of a distant sovereign,

British

a novelty in political

North America.

science.

Such

is

the Confederation of Bintish North

America.

But

this

dependent Confederation did not

arise out of colonization in the

same sense
it.

as the in-

dependent Confederation to the south of

tral

The

cen-

land wdiich gives

it

its

character

is

the conquered

land of Canada.
session

Along with Canada came the possmaller

districts

of the

which received the

New Brunswicii,

&c.

names of New Brunswick and Prince Edward's Island^

districts

which were

at first joined to

Nova

Scotia, but

The
Dominion,
1867.

which afterwards became

are joined with the

distinct colonies.

Now

they

the United States,

British ('olunibia, 1871.
Jiu|jerts-

Dominion of Canada^ which, like grows by tlie incorporation 6f new

states

and

territories.

The
it

addition of British Columhia

has carried the Confederation to the Pacific; that of

liupertsland carries
indefinitely

land.

northward towards

the

pole.

This second English-speaking

stretches,
like

power

in

North America,
Newfound-

the

elder

one, from

Ocean

to Ocean.

Neurfoundlund alone, a possession

BRITISH NORTH A5IERICA.

secured to England after

565
chap.
-l-,^Innd, 1713.

many

debates at the same

time as

Nova

Scotia, remains distinct.

Of
only,

the British possessions in the West Indies a few The west

among them Barbadoes,

same sense

the earliest of
as Viro-inia

all,

were

Barbadoes,

colonies in the
chusetts.

and Massaat their head, jnmaica,

The greater number, Jamaica

were won by conquest from other European powers.

No new
need

English nation, like the American and the

Still less is

Canadian, has grown up in them.

to dwell

there any

Smniier
settlt?-

on the Bahamas, the Falkland Islands,

meuts.

or the South- American possession of British Guiana.

6,

Other Colonies

and

Possessions of England.
(\,ionies

The story of the North-American colonies may be both compared and contrasted with the story of two
great groups of colonies in the southern hemisphere.

sIluiiK'm

In Australia and the other great southern islands, a

Australia,

body of English colonies have

least

arisen,

the germs at

of yet another English nation, but which have

not as yet reached either independence or confederation.

Li South Africa, another group of possessions

colonies, beginning, like

south
"*^*'

and

Canada, in conquest from

its

another European power, seems to be feeling

way

towards confederation, while one part has in a manner

stumbled into independence.

The beginning of English settlement

of-

in the greatest

islands

began

in the years

which immediately followed

First

the

establishment of American independence.

came New South Wales, on the eastern

originally as a penal settlement.
It

coast, designed Xew south

*

outgrew

this stage,

i787.

and another penal settlement was founded

Australia.

in

Western

Autt^ua,

Then

colonization spread into the inter-

566

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

mediate region of Southern Australia (which however sti-etches right through the island to
its

northern

coast) into the district called Victoria, south-west of the

Victoria, 1837.

original settlement,
north-east.
all

and

lastly, into

Queensland to the

Queensland, 1859.

Since the middle of the present century-

these colonies

have gradually established

full internal
lies

consti-

Colonies'

Act, 1850.

tutions

which give them

independence.
still

South of the great island

vast,
tliat

one smaller, but

Tasmania,
1804.
1839.

of Van Dieniens Land, now Tasmania,

settled earlier tlian

which was

any Australian

settle-

Six
colonies,

ment except New South Wales.

the

And

to the east lie

1852.

United,
1875.

two great

islands

of

New

Zealand, where six

English colonies founded at different times have been

united into one.

South
Africa.

While the Australian settlements were

the
strictest

colonies in

sense,

tlie

English possessions in South

a settlement
first

Africa began, like

Conqncst of the Cape,
180G.

New York, in

planted

by

the United Provinces.

The Cape
its

Colony, after

some

shiftiugs

during the French revolutionary wars, was

possession

conquered by England, and

1815.

by England

was confirmed

at the general peace.

Migration north-

w^ard, both of the English and Dutch inhabitants, has

Eastern Colony and
Natal",

produced new settlements, as the Eastern Colony and

Natal. Meanwhile independent Dutch states have arisen,
as the

1820-183G.
Oran<re KiverState, 1847-1856.

Orange River Republic, annexed by England,

free,

then set
vaal,

and

lastly

dismembered, and the Trarisafter sixteen years of in-

Transvaal, 1861-1877.

more

lately

annexed

dependence.
all

Lastly a

scheme of confederation for

these settlements awaits

some more peaceful time

to

be carried into

effect.

Europe extended by
coionization.

Li
.

all

tliesc

extcnsioii

of

cases of real -,-., the English or

colonization,

any

of real ,_, other European


AUSTRALIA, AFRICA, AND INDIA.
nation,
it
is

'

567
bounds of
chap.

hardly a

fifi:iire

to say that tlie

Europe have been enlarged.

Europe,
all

All that

makes Europe and

that parts

oflf

Europe from Africa and Asia,

this
is

has been carried into America and Australia

Africa
itself.

The growth of
It

new

Eiu-ope, no less

than the changes of the old,

an essential part of
Bri.'arian

European geoo-raphy.

is

otherwise with territories,

great or small, which have been occupied

by England
military or

and other European powers merely

commercial purposes.
barbarian
soil,

for

Forts, factories, or empires,

is

on

where no new European nation

likely
;

ever to grow up, are not cases of true colonization

they are no extension of the bounds of Europe.

The

EtiRiish
in indin.

climax of

this

kmd

of barbarian dominion

is

found in

those vast Indian possessions in which England has sup-

planted Portugal, France, and the heirs of Timour.

that

Of
the
Empire
i876.'

dominion the
;

scientific

frontier

has

yet to be
title to
of

traced

yet

it

has come to give an Imperial

sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, while those two

European
physical

islands, as

perhaps

befits their inferiority in

size,

remain content with the lowlier style of the

loftier pretensions of Asia

United Kingdom. Whether the

do, or
it is

do

not,

imply any vassalage on the part of Europe,

certain that the Asiatic

Empire of the sovereign of

the British

kingdom
nation.

is

no extension of England, no

extension of Europe, no creation of a

new EngHsh
political

or

European
side the

The Empire of India stands outsystem

European world, outside the

which has gathered round the Old and the

New Eome.

But a place amongst the foremost members of that system belongs to the great European nation on American
soil,

where the tongue of England

is

is

kept,

and the constitution of old Achaia

born again,

568

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

CHAP.
XIII.

T'

Ill

a coiitedenition
^^

stretcliiii"-

from the Western to the

Eastern Ocean.

Summary.

Wc

liave thus traccd the

geography, and

m tracing

the geography

we have

in a shghter

way

traced the

history, of the various states

and powers of Europe,

and of the lands beyond the Ocean which have been We have throughout kept phmted from Europe.
steadily

before our eyes

the centre, afterwards the

life.

two

centres, of

European

We

have seen how the

older states of Europe gradually lose themselves in the

dominion of Eome, how the younger

spring

states gradually

out

of

the

dominion

of

Eome.

We

have

followed, as our central

subjects, the

fates of those

powers in the East and West which continued the Eomaii

name and Eoman

states

traditions.

We

have traced out the

splitting off

which were directly formed by

from

those powers, and the states which arose beyond the

range of

Eoman

power, but not beyond the range of

Eoman
lirst

influence.

We have

seen the Western

Empire
into a
states

i)ass to a

German

prince, then gradually slirink

German kingdom, to be finally dissolved German confederation. We have watched the

into a

which

split

off

at

various dates
side, the

from

its

body, the

power of France on one

power of Austria on

another, the powers of Italy on a third, the free states

of Switzerland at one end, the free states of the Nether-

lands at the other.

of the Eastern
states

We
;

liave

beheld the long tragedy

told the tale of the
it.

Eome

we have
it

which

split off

from

and arose around

We

have seen

its

territorial position pass

its

to a barbarian

invader, and something like

pass to the mightiest of
its

position in men's

minds

spiritual disciples.

And we

'

SUMMARY.
have
seen, painted

569

on the

map

of our
is

own

century, the

chap.
^

beixinnincr of the orreat

work which

givinfr

back the

lands of the Eastern Eonie to their

own

people.

We

have then traced the

shiftings of the

powers

wliicli lay-

wholly or partly beyond the bounds of either Emphe,

the great Slavonic mainland, the Scandinavian and the

Iberian peninsulas, ending with that which

cally the
Britain.

is

geographi-

most isolated land of

all,

the other world of

We

have seen too how Europe may be said to

in the

have spread herself beyond her geographical limits

foundation of

new European

states

beyond the Ocean.

We have

contrasted the different positions and destinies

of the colonizing Em^opean powers

where,

as in the

days of Old Eome, a continuous territory has been

extended over neidibourini? barbarian lands

where
In

growth beyond the sea was the natural outcome of

growth
ized

at

home

where Em-opean powers have colontheu'

and conquered simply of

own

free will.

thus tracing the historical geography of Europe,

we

have made the romid of the world.

never
lost sight of

But we have

we have never lost sight of Eome. Wlierever we have gone, we have carried Europe with us wherever we have gone, we liave
Europe
; ;

never got beyond

the

power of the two

influences
all

which, mingling into one, have has been.

made

Eiurope
is

that

it

The whole

of

European history

embodied
'

in the formula

which couples together the

'

rule of

Christ

and Caesar;

and that joint rule

still

goes on, in

the shape of moral influence, wherever the tongues and the culture of Europe win

new realms

for themselves

in the continents of the western or in the islands of the

southern Ocean.

INDEX.
AAC

ALE
of

Aachex, crowning-place

the Ger-

Agrigentum

man
Aargau,
o

kings, 189.
271.
of, 184.

annexed to France, 220.

(Akragas), 48. conquered by the Saracens, 370. AiGlNA, held by Venice, 410.

Aiolian colonies in

Asia, 32,
of, 21.

Abo, bishopric
peace

of, 512.

Aire, 349. AiTOLiA, geographical position

Abruzzi, the, annexed to Sicily, 396. Abyssinian Church, 109.

Scotia. Acciauoli, Dukes of Athens, 417.
ee

League
its

of, 40.

alliance with

and dependence on

Acadia;

Nova

ACHAiA, League
province

of, 40.

dependent on Rome,
of, 78.

41.

40, 41, AiTOLiANS, their place in the Homeric catalogue, 27. Aix (Aquffi Sextiai), Roman colony, 57.

Rome,

principality of, 416, 417. Angevin overlordship of, 418.

Alx-la-Chapelle, Peace
Ajaccio,
352.

ecclesiastical province of, 173. of, 249, 349.

birthplace

of

Buonaparte,

dismemberment, ih. Savoyard counts of, 28.S, 418. AcHAiANS, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, 26. Acre, lost and won in the Crusades,
its

Akarnania,
league

21,30.

of, 40.

Akarnanlans, not

398, 400.
fall of, 400,

in the Homeric catalogue, 26 {note). Akerman, Peace of, 453,

;

Akragas
Greek colonies on
its

sec

Agrigehtum.

MdJEK^

Sea,

coasts, 21,_22, 32.

Akte, Argolic, 29. Alans, origin of, 89.

their settlements in Spain, 90.

theme of, 150. .Alfred, his treaty with

161.

Gutlirum,

J5MILIA, province of, 79. ^^QUIANS, 46. their wars with Rome, 50. Africa, Greek colonies in, 35. Roman province of, 59.

Alarcos, battle of, 533. Alaric, king of the West-Goths, Alava, 535. Albania, Asiatic, 99. Albania, kings of, 420.

89.

New, province

of, ib.

diocese of, 78, 79.

Vandal kingdom,

90.

recovered to the Empire, 104. Saracen conquest of. 111. Norman conquests in, 396. Portuguese conquests in, 541. French conquests in, 360. South, English possessions in, 565,
566.

Turkish conquest of, 421. revolt of, under Scanderbeg, ii. Albanians, their origin, 24. their settlements in Greece, 115, 364, 366. Albanon (Elbassan), 430. Albigensian War, 335. Albi, ecclesiastical province of, 174. under Aragon, 335.

annexed

to France, ib.
85, 91,
of, 140.

Alemanni,

conquered by the Franks, 117.

Agram

(Zagrab), 439.
84.

Alemannia, Duchy
Alessandria,
237.

Agri Decumates,
Agricola,

his conquest of Britain, 69,

ceded to Savoy, 249.

572
ALB
Alessio, taken by Venice, 410.

INDEX,
AQU
Anhalt,
379.
of, 38, 61, 77.

principality of, 226.

Alexander the Great, his

37.

conquests,

Ani, annexed to the Eastern Empire,

Alexandria, greatness
Albxios Komnenos,

Fatriarcliate of, 168, 169. his conquests in Asia Minor, 381.

Alexios Komnenos, founds the Empire

of Trebizond, 386. VI. of Castile, Emperor, 531. his conquests, .532. x\lgakve, 533, 535.

Alfonso

taken by the Turks, ih. Anjou, county of, 142. united to Touraine, 330. to Maine and England, 332. annexed by Philip Augustus, 333. Anjou, Plotise of, its growth, 332, 333. its overlordship in Peloponnesos,
418.

Algakve-beyond-the-Sea, kingdom
of, 641.

Ankon Anne of
;

see

Ancona.

Britanny, effects of her marin, 353.

riages, 341.

Algeria, character
quest
of, 360,

of the

French con-

Antilles, French colonies

Algiers, 447. Almohades, invade Spain, 533.

decline
of, ib.

Antioch, greatness of, 61, 77. taken by Chosroes, 109.

patriarchate of, 168, 169. restored to the Eastern
379.

Empire,

Almoravides, invade
Alps, the,
43.

Spain, 530.

Alsace

see

Elsass.

taken by the Turks, 380. recovered by the Empire, 381.

Savoj^,

Amadeus

VI.,

Count of

his

its later

captures, 399.
his

Eastern expedition, 390. Amadeus VIIL, lirst Duke of Savoy, 281 liis title of Prince of Piedmont, 284.

Antiochos the Great, Rome, 38, 41, 64.

war with

Amalfi, 309. Amastris, held by Genoa,

Ambrakia, Corinthian

414. colony, 31.

;

capital of Pyrrhos, 37

see

Arta.

Antivari, Servian, 406. part of Montenegro, 428. recovered by Montenegro, 429. AoSTA, bishopric of, 173. part of the kingdom of Burgundy,
278.
its relations to

America, Spanish dominion

in, 543.

use of the word, 563. America, North, French settlements

in, 352.

Savoy, 288.

English and French rivalry in, 353. Russian settlements in, 523. first English settlements in, 559. formation of the thirteen colonies in, 560-562. colonies of the United Provinces

Apennines, the, 44. Apollonia, its alliance with Rome, 40. Appenzell, joins the Confederates,
272.

Apulia, Norman conquest

of, 394.

and Sweden

in, 561.

Aix. Aquilgta, foundation of, 55. destroyed by Attila, 94. Patriarchate of, 170, 171, 237, 308.
;

Aqu^ Sexti^

see

confederation of British North America, 564 see also United

;

States. Amiens, county

331.
to

fluctuates between Germany Italy, 195. imder Austria, 255, 318.

and

of,

added

to France,

Aquitaine, south-western division of

Transalpine Gaul, 58.
its

Bm-gundy, 340. Amisos, held by Genoa, 414.

inhabitants, ib.
of, 118, 120. of, 128.

Frankish conquest

Amurath I., Sultan, takes Hadrianople,

445.

kingdom
duchy

united with Neustria, 135, 339.

of, 151.
of, 142.

Anatolikon, theme Anchialos, 376.

Ancona (Ankon),
march
of, 238.

47.

occupied by Manuel Komnenos, 381. Andalusia, origin of the name, 90. Andorra, French protectorate of, 343,
537.

extent of, 332. united with Gascony, ib. its union with and separation from France, ib. united with England and Normandy,
333.

Andraszovo, Peace of, 506. Angles, their settlements in Angora, battle of, 445.

Britain,97.

kept by England, 334. French designs on, 337. released from homage, 338. its final union with France, 338, 558.

INDEX.
ARA
Arabia, attempted Roman conquest
68.
of,

573
aus

Arnulf, king

of the East Franks

and

Portuijncse conquests in,

70.

5-il.

Arabia Petr^ea, Roman conquest

Aragon, county
its

of,

of, 164, 155.

Emperor, 139. Arras, Treaty of, 297. ceded to France, 301 Arta (Ambrakia), won by the Eastern Empire, 388, 420.
of Britanny, possible effects of the success of his claims, 333. Artois, added to France, 331. to the Duchy of Bai-gundy, 339.
its

position in the Mediterranean, 463. its later history, 527. its relations towards Navarre, 528. formation of the kinsjdom, 530.

Arthur

momentary annexation by Lewis

ih.

Sobrarbe joined to, 531. united with Barcelona, ih. advances beyond the Pyrenees and Rhone, 334, 531. conquers the Balearic isles and Valencia, 533. extent of in the thirteenth centurv,
534, 536.

XL, 340. relieved from homage,

French acquisitions

within the Burgundian

circle, 218.

in, 348, 349.

Aryan
Asia,

nations of Europe, order of their settlements, 13-15. its geograpliical character, 6. I\Iacedonian kingdoms in, 37, 38.

united with Castile, 537. its second advance bej'ond the peninsula, 538.

Roman
Asia

province

of, 64.

Minor,

historically
6.

connected

with Europe,

united with Sicily, ih. its conquests in Sardinia, ih. its outlying possessions compared

Greek colonies in, kingdoms in, 38.

22, 34.

Roman conquest
ASPLEDON,

of, 64.

with those of Castile, 539.

Arcadius, Emperor of the East, 81. Archipelauo, Duchy of, 413, Aegos, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 27. its early greatness, 29. joins the Achaian League, 40. won from Epeiros by the Latins, 417. held by Venice, 410, 418,

Saracen ravages in, 117, 378. Turkish conquests of, 380, 389.
its place in the catalogue, 27.

Homeric

Astrakhan, khanat

of, 501.

conquered by Russia, 511. ASTURIA, united to Cantabria, 154, 529. grows into the kingdom of Leon, ib. ASTURIAS, principality of, 534.

taken by the Turks, 411. Ariminum gee Rimini. Arkadia, its place in the Homeric
;

Athamania, kingdoni of, 37. Athaulf, king of the West Goths,

Athens,

89.

catalogue, 30.

Arles, later Roman capital of Gaul,

Saracen conquest
of, 112.

92.

its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. nominally independent of Rome, 41. lordship and duchy of, 416.

Ottoman and Venetian conquests of,

417.
witli the Crusaders, 400. Attica, 21, 27. Attila, effects of his inroads, 94. AucH, ecclesiastical province of, 173. Augsburg, bishopric of, 216. free city, 220. annexed by Bavaria, 221.

kingdom

of, 145.

ecclesiastical iwovince of, 173. crowning-place of the kings of Burgundy, 189. annexed to France, 265. Armagh, ecclesiastical province of, 183.

Atropatene, 99 Attabegs, their wars

Armenia, conquered by
given up by Hadrian,
division
of, 100.

Trajan, 99.
ih.

conquered by Basil H. 153, 379. Russian advance in, 521. Armenia, Lesser, 379, 399. acknowledges the Western Emperor, 401.
its

Aurelian, Emperor, gives up Dacia,

70.

Australia, English settlement in, 565. Austria, Lombard, 234. Austria, origin and use of the name,
121, 192,
30.5, .321.
1

connexion with Cyprus,

ih.

end of the kingdom, ib. Arminius, his victory over

67.

beginning
Varus,

of,

40.

mark
its

190-202, 20.3, 305, .307. position as a marchlaud, 267.

of,

Armohica

see

Britanny,

duchy

of, 308.

574
AUS
Austria, annoxcd by Bohemia, 309. under the Habsburgs, 310.
archducliy
its

INDEX.
BEZ
Bar, annexed by Franco, 348.
restored to Lorraine,
ib.

of, 313.

connexion with the Western

Em-

Barbadoes, 565. Barcelona, county

of,

320.

pire, 311.

circle of, 217.

its

joined to Aragon, 531. released from homage to France,

acquisitions 315.

and

divisions, 312,

335, 531. original Castile, 529. of, 172. won from the Saracens, 370. Barnim, imder Poland, 479. passes to Brandenburg, 492. Barrier Treaty, 349. Basel, joins tlie Confederates, 262, 272.

Bardulia, the

its

union with Bohemia and Hungary,

Bari, archbishopric

311, 317. foreign possessions, 318, 819. its rivalry vvitli Prussia, 20-1. Venice surrendered to, 252, 255. so-called Empire of, 221, 267,306.
its

changes of, during the revolutionary

wars, 221-22-t.
its

Basel,

Ijishopric of,

annexed by France,

position compared with that of Prussia, 225. loses and recovers Hungary, 323.
its

.355.

restored by France, 359.

II., Eastern Emperor, his conquests, 153, 379. incorporates Serbia, 424. Basques, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 13. their independence, 90. BATOUM, annexed to Russia, 522. Bavaria, duchy of, 140. conquered by the Franks, 117, 118, 120. modern use of the name, 191, 192. electorate of, 215. united witli the Palatinate, ib. kingdom of, 220. extent of, 226. Bayonne, diocese of, 179. Belgium, kingdom of, 303. Belgrade, taken by the Magyars, 379. by tlie Turk, 438. Peace of, 440.

Basil

modern extent
cedes
stein, 228.

321-324. rights in Sleswick and Holof,

Bosnia and Herzegovina administered by,

44:1.

AuSTRO-HuNGARY, dual system in, 323. AuTUN, 93. AuVERGNE, counts of, 332.
'

Avars, a Turanian people, 17, 365. allied with the Lombards against
theGepidfe, 107, 113.

kingdom

of, 113.

overthrown by Charles the Great,

199 127

Aversa, county of, 394. Avignon, archbishopric of, taken by France, 204.
sold to the Pope, 265.

174.

annexed to France, 265, 355. Azop', won and lost by Russia, 449, 516. Azores, conquered by Portugal, 541.

Belisarius, ends the Vandal kingdom

in Africa, 105.

Benevento, Lombard duchy

147, 254.

of,

108,

Babylonia, 99. Badajoz, 533. Baden, mark, electorate, and duchy

of, 216, 220, 226.

Bahamas, the, 565. Bajazet the Thunderbolt,

Sultan, defeated by Timour, 390, 445. his conquest of Bulgaria, 431. extent of his dominion, 445. Balearic Isles, conquered by Aragon, 533.
of, its

Balsa, house
nia, 428.

dominion in Alba-

of, 250. of Italy, submits to Otto the Great, 147. Berlin, its position, 230. Berlin, Treaty of, 429, 450, 452. Bern, joins the Confederates, 2C2, 270. its Savoyard conquests, 272, 273. annexes Lausanne, 273. restores lands north of the lake, ib. Bernhard, duke of Saxony, 208. Bernicia, kingdom of, 97, 161, 550.

papal possession

Berengar, king

Baltic Sea, Scandinavian and German

influence on, compared, 486. lands, general view of, 464-468. Bauberg, bishopric of, 170, 215, 226. Bangor, bishopric of, 182. Bar, duchy of, united to Lorraine, 193.

Berwick, 552. BESAN90N, 93.

ecclesiastical province of, 175. an Imperial city, 261. united to France, 261, 349.

Baitic

Bessarabia, annexed by Rxissia, 449. BEZIERS, annexed by France, 335.

INDEX.
BIA

575

BlALYSTOK, 519. BlENNE, 274.

15ILLUNGS, their mark, 198, 47G. Biscay, 535.

BUL Brandenburg, united

209,504,513.

to Prussia, 204,

Branibor, takings
Brazil, discovery

of, 475.

of, 542.

BiTHYNiA, kingdom

of, 38, 61.

Roman
Blekixg,

conquest
470.

of, 64.

Empire of, ib. Breisach, annexed by France,

restored, 350.

347. 214.

Elois, united to Champagne, 330. purchased by Saint Lewis, 336. BoDONiTZA, principality of, 417. Bohemia, whether the seat of Samo's kingdom, 473 (note).

Bremen, Bremen,

archbishopric
to

of, 176,

held and lost by Sweden, 509, 513.

annexed

city,

Hannover, 208. one of the Hanse towns,

Bisliop, 214.

214, 220.
its independence of the Brescia, 237.

kingdom

of, 159, 199, 217, 477.

annexes Austria, 309, 315. its union with Brandenburg, 209, 493. its permanent union with Austria,
317, 323,
49.3.

Breslau, bishopric of, 185. Bresse, annexed to Savoy, 263.

ceded to France, 287, 347.

sketch of

its history, 477, 492, 493.

BoHUSLAN, ceded

to Sweden, 508. BOIOTIA, 21. legendary Thessalian settlement

.30.

Bretigny, Peace of, 337. Brindisi lost by Venice, 248. Britain, use of the name, 3, 4.
early position of, 10. Celtic settlements in, 14. Roman conquest of, 69, 545. diocese of, 80. Roman troops withdrawn from, 96. Teutonic settlements in, 15, 96.

of,

league

of, 40.

dissolved, 41. Bokhara, 522. BoLESLAF I., of Poland, his conquests, 479. whether the first king, 479 {nute). Bologna, archbishopric of, 171. Bona, 396. Boniface, king of Thessalonike, extent of his kingdom, .385, 417.

English kingdoms

in, 129.

Celtic states in, 130. Empire of, 462, 545. its independence of Empire, 545.

the

Western

BoRMio, won by Graubiinden,

273.

BOUNHOLM,

508.

Bosnia, Hungarian conquest of, 424. won back by Stephen Duslian, 425. origin of the kingdom, 426.
its greatest extent, 427.

two English kingdoms in, 548. Britanny, origin of the name, 93. duchy of, 142. its relations to Normandy, 328, 333.
incorporated with France, 341.

Brixen, bishopric

of,

217, 308.

Turkish conquest administered by

324, 441.

of, ib.

united to Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria, 224,

Austro-Hungary,

Brunswick, duchy

of, 208, 227.

BoSPOROS, kingdom

of, 39, 64.

I'.OUKELLARloN, theme

of, 151.

Brusa, Turkish conquest of, 389, 444. Bucharest, Treaty of, 4.50. Bugey, annexed to Savoy, 263.
to France, 287, 347.

Boulogne,
Bourbon,

lost Isle

and won by France,

of,

342, 347, 558.

BUKOVINA annexed by
occupied

by the

Bulgaria, White and Black,

extent
of, in tlie

French, 354. taken by England but restored, 360.

Austria, 441. 374, 481. eighth century,376.

BouRDEAUx,
173.

ecclesiastical province of,

under Simeon, 376. conquered by Sviatoslaf, 377.

Bourges, ecclesiastical province of, 173. viscounty of, added to France, 331. Brabant, duchy of, 294.
united to Burgundy, 297.

by John Tzimiskes, ib. extent of, under Samuel, ib. recovered by Basil II., 153, 378. tliird kingdom of, 382, 429. advance of, under John Asan, 430.
its decline, ib.

Braga, 179. Brandenburg, mark grows into modern

210.

of, 199, 209, 476.

Prussia, 202, 203,

Cuman dynasty in, 431. break up of, ib. Turkish comjuest of, ib.
triple partition of, Berlin, 454.

New Mark

of, pledged to the Teutonic knights, 496. its union with Bohemia, 209, 493.

by the Treaty of

Bulgarians, a Turanian people,17,365.

576
BUL
Bulgarians,
156,
3(55.

INDEX.
CAR
settlements, 116,

tlicir

Cadiz, joined to Castile,

534

gee

compared with the Magj'ars

Ottomans, 865.

and

Buonaparte, Napoleon,

his kingdom of Italy, 253, 254. his feeling towards .Switzerland, 355. character of his concinests, 356. his treatment of Germany and Italy, 357. division of his scheme for the

Gadbs. Caithness, 550. Calabria, change of the name, 369. Calais, EngUsh conquest of, 338, 558. won back by France, 342, 347. Calatrava, 533. California, Upper, ceded by Spain to
the United States, 544.

Caliphate, Eastern, extent

division of, 113, 122, 125.

of, 112.

Europe, ih. extent of France nnder, 358. Buonaparte, Louis Napoleon, his annexations, 35i).

Caliphate,
ll.S,

Western,

beginning

of,

broken

122, 125. up, 156.

BuONDELMONTE,
Burgos,

hoiise of, in

Northern

Calmar, Union of, 487. Cambray, bishopric of, 175.

becomes an archbishopric, 177. League of, 242. annexed to France, 301, 349. Camekino, march of, 238. Campo Formio, treaty of, 252. Canada, colonized by France, 352. conquered by England, 353, 562.
part of the confederation of British

Epeiros, 420.
ecclesiastical province of, 179.
87.
of, 118.

BURGUNDIANS,

their settlement in Ganl, 93.

Burgundy, Frankish conquest

use of the name, 93, 192.

Burgundy, Kingdom
Trans-

of, 137, 144.

and Cis-jurane, 145. chiefly annexed by France, 146, 264. represented by .Switzerland, 1 46, 259.
its

North America, 564. Canali, district of, originally Servian,

405.

language, 259.

importance of its acquisition by France, 343, 344. Burgundy, County of, 218.
revolutions of, 260. joined with the duchy, 339.

Canaries, conquered by Spain, 543. Candia, war of, 404. use of the name, 409 (note). Cantabria, conquered by Augustus,
56.

momentary annexation
XI., 340.

of,

by Lewis
under

united with Astnria, 154, 529.

an

appendage

to

Castile

Canterbury, archbishojiric of, 181. Cape Breton, French settlement at,

352.

Charles V., 539.

finally

annexed by France, 261, 344,

of, 142, 144.

Cape Colony, conquered bv England,

566.

349, 539.

Burgundy, Duchy
escheat
of, 339.

Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 541 Cape Verde Islands, conquered by
Portugal, 541.

union of Flanders with, 292. its growth, 339. annexed by Lewis XL, 340.

Capua, Archbishopric

of, 172.

Burgundy, Burgundy,

Lesser,

Duchy

of, 260, 261.

circle of, 216, 218.

Butrinto, under the Angevins,

397.

Principality of, 394. annexed to Sicily by 396. Carcassonne, 335.

King Roger,

commends

itself to

Venice, 410.

Carelia, conquered by Sweden, 488.

part
41,
of,

ceded to the Turk, 411. won back by Venice, 412.

ceded to Russia, 512.

(Kiirnthen),

Carinthia

mark

of,

114,

Byzantium, annexed by Vespasian,

63, 68.

127, 140, 196.

Duchy

of, 217, .308.

capital of the Eastern Empire, 33, 77.

gee

Constantinople.

whether the seat of Samo's kingdom, 473 (note). Carlisle, bisliopric of, 183. added to England by William Rufus,
551.

C^SAR, Augustus,

his conquests, 56, 66. his division of Italy, 74. C^SAR, Caius Julius, his conquests in Gaul, 57, 58.

forms the province of New Africa and restores Carthage, 59.

Carlowitz, Peace of, 412, 439, 448. Carniola, (Krain), Duchy of, 217. mark of, 196. Carolina, 561.
its division, ib.

INDEX.
CAB
CHI

577

Carthage,

Phoenician colony, 33.

Channel
Charles

Islands, kept by the Engthe

Great,
his

t^reatness of, 79. its possessions in Sicily, 48. holds Sardinia and Corsica, 54.

lish kings, 334, 558.

conquests,

121, 122.

power in Spain, 56. destroyed, 59.

its

conquers Lombardy, 123.

his title of Patrician, ib.
90.

restored, ib. capital of the

Vandal kingdom,

Carthage), 56. Cashel, ecclesiastical province of, 183. Casimir the Great, king of Poland, his conquests, 498. Caspian, Russian advance on, 521.

Carthagena (New

conquers Saxony, 126. overthrows the Avars, 127. crowned Emperor, 124. extent of his Empire. 126, 127. his divisions of the Empire, 128.
his death, ib.

CASSUBIA, 492. Castile, county

Charles Charles

of, 154. origin of the name, ib. kingdom of, 155, 530, 535. its Emperor, 463. later history of, 527. its relations towards Navarre, 528. shiftings of, 531.
its final

archbishoprics founded by, 176. the Fat, Emperor, union of theFrankish kingdoms under, 137.
V.,

Emperor, dominions

of,

union with Leon,

of, 533.

ib.

advance
534.

conquests

of,

under Saint Ferdinand,

conquers Granada, 534, 537.

loses
its

and recovers

Gibraltar, 534.

union with Aragon, 537. its outlying possessions compared with those of Aragon, 539. Catalans, conquests of, in Greece, 387,
416.

Catalonia, county of, 536. Cattaro, won and lost by

negro, 322, 428.

Monte-

Caucasus, Russian advance in, 521. Cayenne, 353. Celts, earliest Aryan settlers
western Europe,
13, 14, 56.

in

effects of their settlements, 14.

Cerdagne,

released from homage to France, 531. recovered by Aragon, 537.

loss of, 539.

249, 298, 539. his conquest of Tunis, 447, 543. extension of Castilian dominion under, 539. Charles "VI., Emperor, his Pragmatic Sanction, 320. Charles XIL, of Sweden, his wars with Peter the Great, 512. Charles of Anjou, his kingdom of Sicily, 250. his Italian dominion, 283. his dominion in Epeiros, 397. occupies Acre, 398. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, his schemes for a Burgundian kingdom, 290, 304. effects of his death, 340. Charles, Duke of Leukadia, his conquests and title, 421. Charles the Good, Duke of Savoy, 286. Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, 287. Charolois, under the Dukes of Burgundy, 339. an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 539.

conquered by Lewis XIV., ib. Chartres, county of, united to Champagne, 330.

Ceuta, under the Empire,

under Spain, 541, 543.

526.

purchased by Saint Lewis, 336.

Ceylon, Dutch colony, 3U0. Chablais, 273. Chaldia, theme of, 150. Chalkidike, 20.
Greek colonies in, 33. united to Macedonia, 37. kept by the Empire, 390.

Chazars, their settlements,

365.

17,

113,

Russian advance against, 481.

Cherson

(Chersonesos), city of, 36.

theme of, 152. annexed tothe Eastern Empire, 378. taken by Vladimir, 153, 378, 482.
not the
site of

Chalons,
288.

battle of, 94.

modem

Cherson, 516

Chambery,

Savoyard

capital,

282,

(note).

Champagne, county

of, 142.

Chiavenna, 195, 273. Chichester, bishopric

of, 182.

character of its vassalage, 329. joined to France, 336.

Chios, early greatness of, 32. under the Zaccaria and the Manna,
414.

Chandernagore, a French
ment, 354.

settle-

under the Turks,

ib.

P P

578
CHL
C'HLODWIG, King of the
117.

INDEX.
CRO
Franks, 92,

Corfu, Norman conquests

396.

of, 380,

395

t'HOSROES

II.,

bis conquests, 109.

held by Margarito, 397.

Christian I., King of Denmark, unites Denmark, Sleswick, and Holstein, 490, 491.

won from Venice by

under Venice,
see also

Epeiros, 385.
ib.

granted to Manfred, ib. under Charles of Anjon,

ih.

Chrobatia, Northern and Southern,

4SS.

See also Croatia.

Little

Chrobatia, Northern, becomes

Poland, 479. passes to Austria. 515.

summary of its history, Korkyra.

in

408.

Corinth,
27.

the

Homeric catalogue,

Chur, bisliopric of, 216. Church, Eastern,its relations to

468.

a Dorian
Russia,

city, 29.

joins the Acliaian League, 40.

ClBiN gives

its

name

to Siebenbiirgen,
in, 521.

under Macedonia, ib. won from Epeiros by the Latins, 417.

4H5 (note). CiRCASSiA. Russian advance

Cornwall, 130. Coron (KCrune). held by

by her, 411. Corsica, 44.
lost

Venice, 409.

CisPADANE Republic, the, Clermont, county of, 330.

Cleve.
210.

251.

early inhabitants of, 53.

Clissa, 410.
162. his northern Empire, 162, 462. Colony, meaning and use of the word, 559. Columbia, British, 564. CoMO, 237. Compostella, ecclesiastical province of, 179. Confederation of the Rhine, 221, 222, 358. Connaught, 183, 556. Connecticut, 560.

Clontarf. Irish victory at, 557. Cnut, his conquest of England,

Roman conquest of, 54. province of, 79. held by Genoa, 238, 245. ceded to France, 249. effects of its incorporation with France, 351, 356. Cosmo de' Medici, Duke of Florence and Grand Duke of Tuscany, 2t{>.
Cottbus, 211. 224. Courtray, 349. Cracow, capital of Poland,
479.

annext d by Austria, 514. joined to the duchy of Warsaw, 82,

520.

g'ants Culm to the Teutonic knights, 496. Constantine, French conquest of,
360.

Conrad of Mazovia,

republic of,
520. Crema, 237. Cremona, 237.

ib.

second Austrian annexation

of, 323,

Constantine the
his

Great, divisions of the Empire unHer, 74.

Crete,

its

geographical position, 22.

28.

new capital, 33, 77. Constantine Porphyrogennetos, his

de.scription of the

in the

Homeric catalogue,

themes of the
his conof,

Empire, 149.

Constantine Palaiologos,
Constantinople, foundation
77.
its

quests in Peloponntsos, 418.

33,

moral influence, 116.

keeps its independence, 37. conquered by Rome, 63. province of, 78. lost and recovered by the Eastern Empire, 152. 153, 371, 372. conquered liy Venice, 404. by the Turks, 404, 448. re-en.slaved by the Treaty of Berlin,
452.

Patriarchate of, 168. early Russian attemjjts on, 482.

Latin conquest
gos, 387.

of, 383.

won back under Michael

taken by the Turks, 391
bisliopric of, 216. passes to Austria, 27-!. Cordova, bishopri'^ of. 178.

Palaiolo-

Crim, khanat of, 501. dependent on the Sultans, ib. annexed to Russia, 449, 516.

Croatia, Slavonic settlement

its

in, 114.

CoNSTANZ,

and Western Empires, 378, 406, 407. its relations to Hungary, 323, 407,
relations to the
Ea.'-tern

conquered by Ferdinand, 534, 535.

<.'aliphate

of

tee

CALIPHATE,

434. pari of the Illyrian Provinces, 322. Croja, won and lost by Venice, 411.

Western.

Crotona

see

Kroton.

INDEX.
CRU
Crusade,
899.
first, its

579
DEN

geographical result,

Dalmatia, province
kingdom

of, 79.

Slavonic settlement in, 115.

of, 407, 409. its relations to

Crusaders, take Constantinople, 383. compared with their onquests those of the Normans in Sicily,
398.

the Eastern Empire,

Cuba, 544. CUJAVIA, 478, 499. Culm, tnranted to the Teutonic knights,
496.

restored to Poland, 497.

376, 406. history of the coast cities, 406. Venetian conquest in, 406, 407. joined to Croatia, ib. recovered by ilanuel, 381, 407. fluctuates between Hungary Venice, 407, 409-412.

and
409,

CuM^,

47, 48.
of,

annexed by Lewis the Great,

a Hungarian
of, 365,
title,
4.37.

CuMANTA, king
436.

taken, lost,
320,
.322,

and recovered by Austria,

441.

CuMANS, settlements

436, 483. dynasty of in Bulgaria, 431, 436. crushed by the Mongols, 436, 483. vian settlements in, 161. grant of, to Scotland, 162, 551. southern part united to England,
551, 552.

Daxaoi, 26. Danes, the,

127, 1.30.

Cumberland, (Strathchde), Scandina-

formation of the shire. 556. CURLAND, Swedish conquest of, 472.

tribes of, 484.

their settlements, 131, 471. their invasions of England, 160. Danish Mark, 196, 469. Danube, Roman conquests on, 68, 70. boundary of the Empire, 71. Gothic settlement on, 88.

dominion of the Sword-brothers

'

in,

crossed by the Goths, 89. Danzig, mark of, 492. lost and recovered by Poland,
497.

492,

496.

duchy
Cltrzola;

of, .504.

commonwealth

of, 223. 519.

xee

KoRKYRA, Black.

restored to Prussia, 520.

CUSTRIN, under Poland, 479. passes to Brandenburg, 492. Cyprus, Greek colonies in, 22.
Phoenician colonies in, 35. Koman conquest of, 63.

Dardanians, 28. Dauphiny; e Viennois. Deira, kingdom of, 97, 161.

Delaware,

562.
.509,

delmenhor.st,

513.

theme of, 151. lost and won by the Eastern Empire,

372.

Denmark,
its

extent

of, 131.

relations to the 127, 196, 467.

Western Empire,

conquered by Richard,

ib.

kingdom
its

of, 401.

connexion with Jerusalem and Armenia, ib. conquered by Venice, 404. by the Turks, 404, 447. under English rule, 449, 559. Czar see Tzar.

formation of the kingdom, 469. conque-ts and colonies of, 471. united with England ujider Cnut,
16.3.

wih

bishoprics of, 184. conquers Sclavinia, 489.

advance

of, in

titles of its

Germany, kings ib.

ib.

Czechs, 477.

CzEPUSZ

see Zips.

keeps Riigen, 490. effect of its advance on the Slavonic

lands, 491.

Dacia, wars

of,

with Piome,
ib.

70.
ib.

settlement in Esthland, 488. uni'ed with Sweden and Norway,

its

made a province by
its later hi.story, 71.

Trajan,

487.

given up by Aiirelian,
diocese
of, 78.

Daghestan, 516, 521. Dago, under the Sword-brothers,

under Denmark, 491, .504. under Sweden, 508. Dalmatia, Greek colonies in, its wars with Rome, 62.

496.

with Norway only, 488. its wars with Sweden, 508. gives up the sovereignty of the Gottorp lands, 509. gets Oldenburg and Delmenhorst,
ib.

34.

recovers the Gottorp lands, 513. gives up Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, ib.

Roman

colonies in,

ib.

incorporation of Holstein with, 518.

p p 2

580
I>ES

INDEX.
EMP Eastern Mark see Austria. Ecgberht, king of the West-Saxon,
;

Desnica, Zupania
SfffTrSrrjs,

of, 424.

a Byzantine title, 384 (note). Dijon, capital of the duchy of Burgundy, 142, 144. Diocletian, Emperor, division of the

his supremac}', 130, 160.

Edessa, restored to the Eastern Empire, 153, 379.

Empire under,

75.

taken by the Turks, 400.

his conquests, 100.

Edinburgh,

bishopric

of, 183.

DiOKLEA, Zupania

of, the germ of the Servian kingdom, 424.

taken by the Scots, 550.

DiTMAESH,

489. joined to Holstein, 490. freedom of, 491.

Egypt under the Ptolemies, Roman conquest of, 66.

diocese of, 76.

38, 61.

Danish conquest of, ib. DOBRODITIUS, his dominion, 4.'51. DOBRUTCHA, origin of the name, 431.
joined to Wallachia, 431, 436. restored to Roumania, 454.

conquered by Selim I., 447. Eider, boundary of Charles the Great

empire, 127, 196, 469.

's

Eleanor of Aquitaine,
marriages, 332, 337. Elba, annexed to the Naples, 44, 246. Elis, district of, 29.

effects of

her
of

kingdom

Naxos. Dole, capital of Franche Comte, 2G1. DOMFRONT, acquired by William of Normandy. 332. Dorchester, bishoprics of. 182.
;

DODEKANNESOS

sn;

Dorian settlement
29.

in

Peloponntsos,

in Asia, 32.

DouAY, becomes French, Dreux, county of, 330.

349.

Drusus, his campaigns in Germany, 67. Dublin, t cclesiastical province of, 183. DuLClGNO, originally Servian, 406. won and lost by Montenegro, 429. Dunkirk, held by England, 301, 558. bought back by France, 301, 342. DuRAZZO (Epidamros), taken by the Normans, 380, 395, 396, held by Margarilo, 397. conquered by Venice, 408. won from Venice by Epeiros, 385. recovered by the Eastern Empire,
387, 397.

city of, 30. joins the Achaian league, 40. Elmham, bishopric of, 182. Elsass, 193. annexed by France, 194, 347. recovered by Germany, 229, 359. Ely, bishoprick of, 182. Embrun, ecclcsiastial province of, 1 73. Emmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savov, 286. Emperors, Eastern, position of, 362. Emperors, Western, position of, 362. Empire, Roman, greatest extent of, 9.
its river

conquests under, 66. boundaries, 71.

division of under Diocletian, 75.

united under Constantine,

division of, 75, 81.

ib.

reunited under Zeno, 94, 103. continuity of, 95, 103. loses its eastern provinces. 111.
final division of, 124.
its

under Charles of Anjou, 397. won by Servia, 425.

duchy

of, 397.
of, 410.

political tradition unbroken in the East, 363.

second Venetian conquest

the Albanians, 420. by the Turks, 411. Durham, bishopric of, 183. Dutch, use of the name, 300.

won by

Empire, Western, beginning of, 81. Teutonic invasions and settlements

in, 82, 86, 87.

united with the Eastern Empire, 94

103.

Dyrrhachion, theme see DuRAZzo.

of, 152.

contrasted with the Eastern, 98, 362.

its relations

Eadmund,

Cumberland

his conquest- and grant of to Scotland, 162.

Eadward
East,

the Elder, extent of England under, 162.

divisions of, 135, 137, 326. to Germany, 124-126, 128, 189, 190. restored by Otto the Great, 147. position of its Emperors, 362. its relations to Scandinavia, 467. to the Northern Slaves, 475.
of,

the, prefecture of, 75, 77. diocei^es of, 76.

of, 130.

Empire, Eastern, wars

82.

with Pcnsia,

East Angles, kingdom

diocese of, 182.

East India Company, French,

354.

contrasted with the Western, 98, 362. extent of, in the ei<;hth century, 16. its Greek character, 149, 366, 382.
1

INDEX.
EMP
Smpire, Eastern, its themes, 149-152. its dominion in Italy, 152, 371, 393.
position of
falls
its Emperors, 362. mainly through foreign

581
ETR

England,

in-

vasion, 363, 367. its partial tendencies to separation, 363. keeps the political tradition of the

Roman

Empire,

ih.

distinction of races in, 364. its power of revival, 369, 377. its Joss and gain in the great islands,
372.
its relations

towards the Slavonic

375.

powers,

-373,

Bulgarian settlement in, 374, 376. recovers Greece from the Slaves, .S75.
its

rivalry with France in America and India, 353. slight change in its internal divisions, 546. its relations with Scotland, 552. changes of its boundary towards Wales, 553. its relations with Ireland, 557. its settlements beyond sea, 547. its outlying European possessions, 558. its American colonies, 559-565. West Indian possessions, 565. other colonies and possessions of, 565, 566. its dominion in India, 567. English, character of their settlement,
its

96.

its
its

conquests of Bulgaria,, 377-378. relations to Venice, 378.

origin of the

name,

97.

Epeiros,

fluctuations in Asia, ii. Turkish invasions in, 379. Norman invasions in, 380, 394. aspect in 1085, its geographical 380. under the Komnenoi, 366, 381, 386. act of partition, 383, 402, 403. losses and gains, 387-39 under the Palaiologoi, 387. effect of Timour's invasion, 391.
its final fall, ih.

relations Greece, 24. use of the name, 26. kingdom of Pyrrhos, 37.
its

ethnical

to

league

of, 40, 41.

Roman province of, 78. Norman conquests in, 395,

granted in
fief

states

formed out of, 391-393. general survey of its hi.story, 455-460, compared with the Ottoman dominion, 443.
383.
its

396. to Margarito, 397. despotat of, 384, 385. its conquest of and separation from Thessalonike, 385. under Manfred and Charles of Anjou, 397. its first dismemberment, 419.

recovered by the Eastern Empire,

388.

Empire, Latin,
end, 387.
E.VIPlPvE

under Servian, Albanian, and Italiaa

rule, 419, 420.

OF NiKAIA, 387. Empire of Tkebizond, .S6, 386, 422. Empire of Thessalonike, 385. Empire, Serbian, 420, 425. Empire of Britain, 162, 462, 545. Empire of Spain, 463. 531. Empire of Russia, 512. Empire, French, 356. Empire of Austria, 221, 267, 306. Empire of Hatti, 359. Empires of Mexico, 544. Empire of Brazil, 542. Empire, German, 229, 2.30. Empire of India, 567. England, use of the name, 2, 3. origin of the name, 97.
formation of the kingdom, 160.

Venetian and Turkish occupation

421.

of,

Ephesos, its early greatness, 32. Epidamnos, 34. its alliance with Rome, 40. see Dlrazzo. Epidauros (Dalmatian), Greek colony,
34.

destroyed, 115.

Eric, Saint, king of Sweden, his conquests in Finland, 486.

Erivan,

521.
of,

Ermeland,

bishopric Poland, 497.

added

to

Essex, kingdom of, 160, 555. ESTE, house of. 237, 243, 249.

Esthland

(Esthonia), Fins

in, 484.

West- Saxon supremacy in, 160, 16L Danish invasions, ib. advance of, 162. united with Scandinavia under
Cnut,
ih.

Danish settlement in, 488. dominion of the Swordbearers in, 496. under Sweden, 504. under Ru.ssia, 512.

Norman conquest
its ecclesiastical
its

of, 163.

Etruria, kingdom of, 253. Etruscans, their doubtful origin and

language, 45. confederation of their
cities, ib.

geography, 1 66. wars with France, 337, 338.

582
BUB
BUBOIA,
its

INDEX.
FRA
France, beginning
its

22.

of, 135, IS6.

position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. under Macedonian influence, 37, 40. conquered by Venice, 409.

its ecclesiastical divisions,

166.

annexations, 222, 252, 264, 265, 341-352.

compared with Austria, 325.

a nation in the fullest sense, 327. great fiefs of, 328. twelve peers of, ib.
its

by the Turks, ih. Euphrates, Asiatic boundary

lloman Empire,
71, 99.
of, 77.

of the

EUROPA, Roman province Europe, its geograpliical

6, 8.

character,

5,

incorporation of 329-341.

vassal states,

effects of

the wars with England,

its three great peninsulas, 6. its colonizing powers, 10.

337-339.

beginning of the modern kingdom,

339.

Aryan settlements in, 12-15. non- Aryan races in, 12, 13, 16, 17. beginning of the modern history of,
85.

thorough incorporation of

its

con-

Buonaparte's scheme for the division of, 357.

extended by colonization, 566. EuxiNE, Greek colonies on, 35.

EvoRA, 179. Exeter, diocese

EZERITES, 375.

quests, 351 its colonial dominions, .352-354. its rivalry with England in America and India, 353, 354. its barrier towns against the Netherlands, 349, effects of the Peace of 1763 on, 354,
its

of, 182.

annexations under the Republic and Empire, 355, 3.56. extent of under Buonaparte, 358.

Falkland

Islands, 565

Famagosta, under Genoa, 401. Faroe Islands, 471. Faucigny, annexed to Savoy, 280.
heldbytheDauphinsof V'ien7iois,281.

Ferdinand,

Saint, king of Castile, his

conquests, 534.

Fbrmo, march of, 238. Fbkrara, duchy of, 243, 244, 249. Finland, Swedish conquests in,
488.

restorat ions made by, after his f all.?' ft. later annexations and losses, 359, 360. character of its African conquests, 360. its war with Prussia, 229. i"^ANCE, duchy of, 142. united with tlie kingdom of the West Franks, 143. Franche CoiiTE see Burgundy,
;

486,

County of. Francia, meanings of the name, 91,

extent
121, 128. of, 134.

Russian conquests in, 512, 518. Fins, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 466. in Livland and Esthland, 484. Flaminia, province of, 79. Flanders, county of, 141, 142. united to Burgundy, 292, 339. within the Burgundian circle, 218. released from homage to France,
218, 298, 340,

Francia, Eastern, 92, 121, 205. Francia, Western, 92. Francis I., Emperor, exchanges Lorraine for Tuscany, 321.

Francis II., Emperor, his title of Emperor of Austria,' 221. Franconia, origin f the naane, 91, 121.
'

extent
in, 348.

oii

the cirsle, 214.

French acquisitions

their settlement in Pembrokeshire, 554. Florence, archbishopric of, 171. its greatness, 238. Pisa sul>mits to, 245. rule of the Medici in, ih Florida, held by England antl Spain, 563.

Flemings,

Francia, Eastern. Frankfurt, election and coronation

see

of the

German kings

at, 189.

a free

city, 220. 227.

Grand Duchy of, 222. annexed by Prussia, 228. Franks, the, 85.
their settlements, 87, 88. extent of their kingdom

under

acquired by the States, i?}. France, effect of its geographical position, 9.

origin and use of the name, 121, 325-327.

4, 5, 91,

Chlddwig, 92. their conquest of the Alemanni, 1 17. of Tlmringia and Bavaria, ib. of Aquitaine and Burgundy, 118.
their position, 119.

INDEX.
GER
Franks,
the, their

583

German and Gaulish

ib.

Gaul, use
its

of the

name,

3, 4.

dependencies, 120.
division of their kingdom,
of united under the Karlings, 121. their relations with the Empire, 123. their conquest of Lomhardy, ib. Franks, East, their kingdom grows into Germany, 1.38.

geographical position, non-Aryan people in, 13.

7,

kingdom

Greek colonies in, 35. prefecture of, 75, 79. its gradual separation from the
pire, 88.

Em-

Franks, West, kingdom of, its extent, Ul. its union with the duchy of France, Uo. grows into modern France, ib.

Teutonic invasions of, 89. West Gothic kingdom in, 90. position of the Blanks in, 91, 119. extent of Frankish kingdom in,
93.

Burgundian settlement in, Hunnish invasion of, 94.

ib.

Frederick

JI.,

Emperor,

recovers

ecclesiastical divisions of, 172-174.

Jerusalem, 400.

Gaul,

Cisalpine, 46.
of, 54.

Frederick William
Frederick
Freiburg,
272.

I., the Great Elector of Bmndenburg, 210.

I.,

Roman conquest
in, 57. its
its

Gaul, Transalpine, first Roman province

boundaries, ib. divisions and inhabitants, 58.

King

of Prussia, 210.

joins the Confederates, 262,

Freibur&-im-Breisgau, conquered by
France,
restored,
3.50.
ib.

Romanization of, ib. nomenclature of its northern and southern part, ib.

French

language, becomes the dominant speecli of Gaul, 345. Friderikshamn, Peace of, .518. Friesland, East, annexed by Prussia,
212.

Gauls,

tneir settlements, 14, 46, 47.

Gauthiod, 131,470. Gauts, Geatas, of Sweden, name confounded with Goths, 470.

Gauverfassung,

202.

annexed by France, 222. part of the kingdom of Hannover,

223,

Gdansk

Danzig. Gedymin, king of Lithuania, 497. Geldebn, Gelderland, duchy

;

s"e

of

Friesland, West, county of, 293. annexed to Burgundy, 298,

Frisians, 91. FIUULI, duchy
of, 23.5,

295.

annexed to P.urgundy, 298.

division of, 299.

United Province
349.
allied to

of, 300.

Fulda, 214. Furnes, Barrier Town,

Gades, Phoenician
admitted to the see Cadiz.

Geneva, annexed by Savoy,

281.

Bern and Freiburg, 273. anne.Ked by France, 276. restored by France, 359.
.56.

colony,

.3.5,

joins the Swiss Confederation, 276

Roman franchise, 56.

Genoa, archbishopric

of, 171.

Gaeta, 369. Galata, colony of Genoa, 414. Oalicia (Halicz), kingdom of,

holds Smyrna, 389. holds Corsica, 238, 245. cedes Corsica to France, 249.
483.

twice annexed to Hungary, 437, 498. recovered by Poland, 498. Austrian possession of, 319, 323, 440,
.514.

annexed to Piedmont, 256. compared with Venice, 402.

her settlements, 413.

George Akropolites, 430 (note). George Kastriota see Scan deb;

Galicia, New, 515, 520. Gallicia, 529.

beg.

Galloway,
553.

incorporated with Scotland,

of, 142.

Georgia, kingdom of, 516, Georgia, state of, 562.

521.

Gepid^,

Gascon Y, Duchy
its

kingdom, 107. conquered by the Lombards,

their

ib.

union with Aquitaine, 332. ceded by the Peace of Bretigny,

337.

Germans,

Gatinois, county of, 330, 331. Gattilusio, family of, receives Lesbos
in Hef, 414,

early confederacies of, 84. serve within the Empire, 86. Germany, effect of its geographical character, 9.

Roman campaigns

in, 67.
in,

Frankish dominion

U9,

584
GER

INDEX.
HAI>

Germany,
138.

its

relations to the

Western
13G,

Gozo, granted to the knights of Saint

John, 538.

Empire, .126, 188-190. beginning of the kingdom,

its extent, 139, 192-19.5.

Granada,
179.

ecclesiastical province of,

of, 534.
of, 537.

kingdom
final

ecclesiastical divisions of, 175-177. its losses, 190, 203.

its

conquest

changes

in

geography and nomen-

clature, 191, 201,

its eastern extension, 200.

of, 272, 273. loses its subject districts, 275. Gravelines, taken by France. 301. Greece, one of the three great Euro-

Graueunden, League

the great duchies, 202.

circles of, 203, 206. later history of, 204.

pean peninsulas,
its
its

6.

geographical character,
history
earlier

8, 11, 18.

than

tliat

of

late beginnings of French tion from, 343, 346.

annexa-

Rome,

8, 42.

Buonaparte's treatment

of, 3.57.

state of in 1811, 221, 222. the Confederation, 218, 223-226. last geographical changes in, 229.
its

use of the name, 19. its chief divisions, 19-21. insular and Asiatic, 19-23. its Homeric geography, 25, 26.
its cities, 27.

war with France,

ib.

leagues

in, 40.

P:mpire of, 219, 229, 230. its influence on the Baltic, 486. Gex, under Savoy, 273, 281. annexed by France, 287, 347.
(iriiLAN, 516.

Roman
461.

conquests in, 41. Slavonic occupation of, 116, 375,

recovered by the Eastern Empire,

375.

Gibraltar,
534.

lost

and won by

Castile,

war of independence, 452. kingdom of formed, ib.

Ionian Islands ceded to, ib. promised extension of, ib. Greeks, order of their coming into

occupied by England, 537, 558. Glaeus, joins the Swiss Confederation,

270.

Glasgow,
18.3.

ecclesiastical

province of,
eccle-

Gnezna

(Gniezno,

Gnesen),

siastical province of, 184.

tlie Polish kingdom at, 479. passes to Prussia, 514, 520. GORZ (Gorizia), county of, 217, 308. annexed by Austria, 318.

Europe, 13. kindred with Italians and other nations, 2.3-2.5. their rivalry with the Phoenicians,
their
28.

beginning of

their colonies, 28, 32-35. their revival of the name Hellenes, 364.

Greenland, Norwegian and Danish

settlements in, 131. united to Norwaj-, 488.

GoTHiA;

see

Perateia

or

Septi-

MANIA.

Gothland,

470.
in the Western

Goths, their settlements

Greifswald, 494. Guiana, British, French, Dutch,

353, 565.

.300,

Empire, 87, 89. defeated by Claudius, 88. driven on by the Huns, ih. their conquests in Spain,
526.

Guinea, Dutch settlements

90,

in, 300.

108,

Guines, made over to England, 338. GuiiMJZCOA, 535.

Guthkum,
Habsburg,

his treaty with JSlfred, 161.

lasting settlement in the Eastern Empire, 364. Goths, East, their dominion in Italy,
95.

make no

Goths, West, extent of

nions,
52.6.

their

domi-

Hoi^se of, 270, 309, 310. scattered territories of, 310. its connexion with the Western

Empire, 311,

31ft.

Goths, Tetraxite, theirsettlement, 98. Gotland, power of the Hansa in, 494. held by the military orders, 496. conquered by Sweden, 508.

Hadrian,

surrenders

Trajan's

con-

quests, 99.

Hadrianople,

taken

by

the

Bul-

Gottorp

lands, sovereignty of, resigned by Denmark, 509. annexed to Denmark, 513.

garians, 377. by Michael of Epeiros, bv the Turks, 390, 445. treaty of, 450, 453.

.385.

INDEX.
HAD
HADniATIC Sea, Greek colonies in, 34. Hainault (Hennegau), county of, 294.
united with Holland,
ib.

585
HUN

Hessen-Cassel, Electorate of, 220,226annexed by Prussia, 228. Hessen-Daemstadt, Grand Duchy of,
226.

French acquisitions
;

in, 348.

Halberstadt, 224. Halicz see Galicia. Halikaknassos, held by the knights

of Saint John, 415,

HiERON, king of Syracuse, his alliance with Rome, 52. HisPANiOLA see Saint Domingo. Hohenzollern, House of, 209.
;

Turkish conquest

of, 447. of, ITG.

Holland, county
to

of,

293.

Halland, 409. Hamburg, archbishopric

Hannover,

united to Hainault, 294.

Burgundy, 297.
of, 302.

one of the Hanse Towns, 214, 220.

Electorate, 208. its union with Great Britain, 204. kingdom of, 223. annexed by Prussia, 228. Hansa, the, 197, 487. extent and nature of its power, 494. Hanse Towns, the, 213, 214, 220.

kingdom

annexed by France, ib. see United Provinces. HOLSTEIN, 198, 488. first Danish conquest of,
fluctuations of, 490.

489.

made a duchy,
509.

ib.

surviving ones annexed by France,

222. join the German Confederation, 227. Harold, his Welsh conquests, 5C3.

under Christian I., 491. effect of the peace of Roskild on,

incorporated with Denmark, 518. joins the German Confederation,
225, 519.
final cession of to Prussia, 228, 519.

Hayti; see Saint Domingo. Hebrides, Scandinavian settlement

553.

in,

Homeric Catalogue,
ib.

the, 20-29.

submit to Scotland,

Hrligoland, passes
558.

to

England, 518,

HoNOaius, Emperor of the West, 81. Huascar, 534. Hugh Capet, Duke of the French,
chosen king, 143.

HEiiLADiKOi, use of the name, 376. Hellas, use of the name, 18.
'

Hundred Years'
Rome and

Peace

between

continuous,' 21.

of, 151. later use of the name, 151, 461. Hellenes, use of the name in

Iheme

Hundred
the

Persia, 100. Years" War, 337.

Hungarians; sec Magyars. Hungary, kingdom of, 157, 307,

its relations to

432.

Homeric catalogue, 2(;. later history of the name,

461.
its modern revival, 304. Hklsingland, 470. Hklvetic Republic, 275. Hennegau see Hainault.
;

the Western

Empe-

375, 376,

rors, 196.

extent of the kingdom, 323, 324. whether a Bulgarian duchy existed in, 370 (note).
its

Henry

II.,

of England, his dominions,

332.

Henry
Henry

V., of

England, his conquests,

338.

crowned

in Paris, ib.

IV., of

France, unites France

342.

and Navarre,

llERACLfus, Emperor, his Persian campaigns, 109. Slavonic settlements under, 114.

Herakleia, commonwealth
64.

of, 37, 39,

Hereford,
508.

bishopric of, 182.

Hert.jedalen, conquered by Sweden,

Herzegovina,

origin of the name, 427.

frontier towards Germany, 433. relations with Croatia, 433, 434. acquires Transsilvania, 435. conquests of the Komnenoi from, 38 1 its struggles with Venice for Dalmatia, 407. Mongol invasion of, 430. its wars with Bulgaria, 430. its conquest of Bosnia, 424. extension of under Lewis the Great, 437. Turkish conquests in, 438. its kings tributary to the Turk, 439. recovered from the Turk, 439, 448. acquisitions of by the Peace of Passarowitz, 440. later losses and acquisitions of, 440, 441.
its

Turkish conquest of, ib. administered by Austro-Hungary,

324, 427.

separated from and recovered

Austria, 323. its dual relations to Austria, 441.

bj

586
nuN
HUNIADBS,
Jolin, his

INDEX.
JAM
Istria, fluctuates between Germany and
Italy, 195.

campaign against

the Turks, 42G, 438.

Huns, a Turanian
tlieir

people, 17.
iJ-l.

invasions, 88,

possessions of Venice in, 242. under Austria, 258, 318.

lAPODES, 62. Iapygians, 46. luBRlA, Asiatic, 99, 100. Iberians, a non- Aryan people, 13, 55. Iceland, Norwegian and Danish settlements in, i:U, 471. united to Norway, 488. kept by Deiimarlc, 518. Ikonion, Turkish capital, 381. ILLYRIA, Illyricum, Greek colonies in,
20.

Italians, their origin, 13. their kindred with the Greeks, 24. two branches of, 45. Italy', one of the three great European
peninsulas,
its
6, 7.

geographical position, use of the name, 43, 246. inhabitants of, 45, 46.

8, 44.

Greek colonies in, 47. growth of Roman power in, 50. divisions of, under Augustus, 74.
prefecture of, 75, 78. diocese of, 79. invaded by the Huns, 94.
rule of Odoacer in, ib. rule of Theodoric in, 95. recovered to the Empire, 105.

conquests in, 40, 41, 62. use of the name, 62. prefecture of, 75, 77, 78. western diocese of, 79.

Roman

kingdom of, 322. Illyrian PROViNCES,incorporated with

France, 222, 322, 358. misleading use of the name, 322. recovered by Austria, 322. Illyrians, their kindred with the Greeks, 24. displaced by Slavonic invasions,
115.

Lombard conquest of, 107. Imperial possessions in, 108, 123,

152, 371. rule of Charles the Great in, 123. Imperial kingdom of, 128, 131, 137, 146, 147, 234. its ecclesiastical divisions, 170,171. changes on the Alpine frontier, 232. system of common wealtiis in, 235, 238. four stages in its history, 236. growth of tyrannies in, 239. a 'geographical expression,' 246, 255. dominion of Spain and Austria in, 247.

Immeretia,

521.

India, French settlements in, 353. Portuguese settlements in, 541. English dominion in, 567.

Empire

of, ib.
of,

Indies, division

between Spain and

Portugal, 512.

Ingermanland,

Ionian Ionian Islands,

508, 512. colonies in Asia, 32.

22.

ceded to France, 358, 451.

to the Turks, 451. under English protection, 451, 558. added to G-reece, 452. Ireland, the original Scotia, 549, 556. provinces of, 183, 556. Scandinavian settlements in, 471, 556. its increasing connexion with England, 557.

revolutionary changes in, 252-55. French kingdom of, 253-55, 345, 357. settlement of in 1814, 255. restored kingdom of, 257. its extension, 258. part not yet recovered, ib. Ithake, in the Homeric Catalogue, 26. held in fief by Margarito, 397. Ivan the Great, of Russia, his conBulgaria, 501. Ivan the Terrible, of Russia, his conquests, 506, 511, IVREA, iMark of, 235. 236.
quests, 501, 50(!. styles himself Prince of

English conquest

of, ib.

lordship of, ib. its shifting relations with England,

ib.

kingdom and

Jadera
ib.

,<^ce

Zara.

its

union with Great Britain,

;

Jaen,

Isle of France, 329. Isle op France see Mauritius.

Istria, Roman conquest of, 55, 62. incorporated with Italy, 62. Slavonic settlements in, 115.

534, 535. Jagerndorp, principality of, 210.

Jagiello, union of Lithuania Poland under, 498. Jamaica, 544. 565.

and

Jamteland,

470.

March

of, 147, 195, 235.

conquered by Sweden, 508.

INDEX.
JAT

587
LAN

Jatwages,

the, 484, 498.

Kephallenia,
logue,
2(5.

in the

Homeric Cata-

Java, Dutch settlement in, 300. Jayce, 427. Jedisax, annexed by Eussia, 449, Jerseys, East and West, o(il.

theme
516.

of, 151.

Jerusalem, patriarchate

of, 168, 169.

taken by Chosroes, 109. extent of the Latin kingdom, 399. taken by 8aladin, 400. recovered and lost by the Crusaders, ib.

conquests in, 395, 397. by Margarito, ib. commended to Venice, 410. lost and won by Venice, 411.

Korman

held in

fief

Khiva, 522. Kibyrraiotians, theme

of, 150.

crown

of,

claimed by the kings of

Kief, Russian centre at, 481. supremacy of, 482. taken by the Mongols, 483.

Cyprus, 401.

Jezerci Jirecek,

Ezerites. C. J. on olavonic settlements,

see

by the Lithuanians, 498. recovered by Russia, 506.

Kilikia,
76.

133 {iwte). JOANXIXA, restored to the Empire, 388. taken by the Turks, 421. John Asan, extent of Bulgaria under,
430.

restored to the Empire, 153, 379. KIRGHIS, Russian superiority over,

516.

Klek, Ottoman
412.

frontier extends to,

John Komnenos, Emperor,

quests, 381.

his con-

Kleonai,

27.

KOLN

of Trebizond, acknowledges the supremacy of Constantinople, 422. John Tzimiskes, Emperor, recovers Bulgaria, 377. his Asiatic conquests, 379. JoiiSBURG Vikings, settlement. of, 471. JuD^A, its relations with Rome, 65. Jung, on the Roimaans, 435 {note). Justinian, extent of the Roman power under, 104, 105, 106. Jutes, their settlement in Kent, 97. Jutland, South, duchy of, united with Holstein, 490. called Duchy of Sleswick, ii.

John Komnenos, Emperor

(Colonia Agrippina), 92. ecclesiastical province of, 175. its archbishops chancellors of Italy

and

electors,

17.5,

176.

chief of the Hansa, 213. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 224, 358.

KoLOCZA,
186.

ecclesiastical
of, 150.

province

of,

KoLONEiA, theme KOKKYRA, 22, 26.

bi-e also

alliance of with

Rome,

40.

Corfu.
(Curzola),

KORKYRA, Black
colony, 34, 406.

Greek

KORONE

see CORON. Kos, Greek colony, 28. held by the knights of

;

St.

Jolm,

Kaffa, colony

of Genoa, 414.
of, 449.

389, 415.

Kainardji, Treaty

Kalabryta, 418. Kamenietz, ceded by Poland

Turk, 448, 507.

to the

by the Maona, 414. Kossovo, battle of, 426. Krain see Carniola. Kresimir, king of Croatia and Dal;

Kappa DOKiA, kingdom

of, 38.

matia, 407.

annexed by Rome, 67. theme of, 151. Karians, in the Homeric Catalogue,
Karlili, why so called, 421. Karlings, Frankish dynasty Karnthen see Carinthia.
;

Kroton, early greatness Ktesiphon, conquered

28.
99.

of, 47.

by

Trajan,

Kyme
of, 121.

see

CuM^.
colony, 35, 36.
of, 63.

Kyrene, Greek

Roman
137,
141,

conquest

Karolingia, kingdom
143, 148,
.326.

of,

Kars, joined
379.

to the Eastern Empire.

Lakedaimonia, Lakoxike, 29.

AafxTrapSoi,

151.

annexed by Russia, 522. Karystos, 403. Kazan, Khanat of, 501.

conquered hj Russia, 511.

Lancashire, formation
556.

use of the form 369 (note). of the shire,

Langue
in, 97.

d'oc, extent of, 135,

Kent, settlement of the Jutes kingdom of, 160, 555.

effects of

French annexations on,

345.

588
LAlf

INDEX.
LON
of, 335.

Languedoc, province

Laodikeia, 381. Laon, capital of the Karlings, 143. Laps, remnant of non-Aryan people
Europe, 12 Latins, 46.

in

Liburnia, 62. Libya, 76. Lichfield, bishopric of, 182. Liechtenstein, principality of, 229. Liege see Luttich. Liguria, Roman conquest of, 55.
;

their alliance with Rome, 50. represents the elder Saxony, 208. held by the kings of Denmark, 225, 518. joins the German confederation, 225, 519. final cession of, to Prussia, 228, 519. LAtrsANNB, annexed by Bern, 273.

Lauenburg,

province of, 79. part of the kingdom of Italy, 147.

LiGURiAN Republic,
Ligurians,

the, 252.

people in Europe, 13, 45. Lille, annexed by France, 301, 349. LiMBURG, passes to the Dukes of Brabant, 295.
of, within the German confederation, 228. Limoges, 332. Lincoln, diocese of, 182. LiNDiSPARN, bishopric of, 182 Lisbon, patriarchate of, 170, 179. conquered by Porti;gal, 533. Lithuania, bishopric of, 185. effect of the German conquest of Livland on, 487. its conquests from Russia, 497. joined with Poland, 185, 498, 499.

non-Aryan

duchy

IjAUSTTZ

!tee

LusATlA.

IjAZIA, allotment of, 404.

Lbchs

see

Poles.
province
32.
fief

Leinster,

183, 556. Lemberg, ecclesiastical 185, 186.

of,

Lemnos, becomes Greek,

Leo

IX. Pope, grants Apulia as a

to tlie

Normans, 394.
of, 154, 529.

Leon, kingdom
its final

shiftings of, 531.

Lithuanians,
ih.

settlements

of,

15,

union with Castile,

484.

sec Lemberg. Lepanto (Naupaktos) under Anjou,

Leopol;

long remain heathen, 466, 497. Livland, Livonia, Finnish population

of, 484.

397.

ceded to Venice, 410.

to the Turk, 411. Lesbos, mention of in the Iliad, 28. a fief of the Gattilusi, 414.

German conquests
495.

in,

486.
in,

dominion of the Sword-brothers

momentary kingdom

of, 504.
ib.

Lbsina see Pharos. Leukas, Leukadia (Santa Maura),

;

conquered by Poland, by Sweden, .508.

22, 26,

date of

its

foundation, 31.

commended to Venice, 410. lost and won by her, 411, 412.

Leuticii, the, 474, 475. Letts, 466 {note). settlements of, 484. liEWis I. (the Pious), EmjDeror, 128,
135.

by Russia, 512. Livonian Knights Brothers. Llandaff, bishopric of,

LODI, 237.

see

Sword-

182.

Lodomeria
Ao77i;3ap5i'a,

see

Vladimir.

TiEWis

II.

Emperor, 136.

Lewis

VII. of France, effects of his marriage and divorce, 332, 3i57. I/EWIS IX. (Saint) of France, growth of France under, 335. Lewis XII. of France, effects of his marriage, 341. Lewis XIV. of France, effects of his reign, 350. his conquests from Spain, 539. Lewis XV. of France, effects of his reign, 350. Lewis the Great, of Hungarj^, his conquests, 409, 437. annexes Bed Russia, 498.

LoKRiANS, their position in Homeric catalogue, 27. settle on the Corinthian Gulf, LoKRis, league of, 40.

use of the form, 369 (note). the

30.

Lombards,

their settlement in Italv,

106, 107.

take Ravenna, 108, 123. overthi'own by Charles the Great,

123.

Lombardy, kingdom

of, 107, 234. vinder Charles the Great, 123. growth of her cities, 237. ceded to Sardinia, 257. Lombardy, theme of, 152, 369.

Lombardy and Venice, kingdom

255, .322.

of

London,

bishopric of, 182.

INDEX.
LOR
Lorraine, duchy of, 193. seized by Lewis XIV., 194. exchanged for Tuscany, ;-521. finally annexed to France, 194, recovered by Germany, 359. Lorraine, House of. Emperors of,
Lyons,
in the 145, 263.

589
MAN
kingdom of Burgundy,

351.

archbishopric of, 167, 173. annexed by Philip the Fair, 264.

321.

LoTHAR

L, Emperor, 135, 136.

of,

Macedonia,
140,
its

LOTHARINGIA, kingdom
193.

137,

Lothian, granted
550.

to

Scotland, 162,

20, 21. close connexion with Greece, 24. not in the Homeric catalogue, 28. growth of the kingdom, 36, 37.

Roman
;

conquest

of, 41.

effects of the grant, 551.

diocese of, 78.

LoTHEiNSEN See Lorraine. Louisiana, colonized by France, 352. ceded to Spain, 353, 360. recovered and sold to the United
States, 360, 563.

theme

of, 151.

recovered by the Empire, 388. Macedonian, use of the name, 115. Macon, annexed by Saint Lewis, 336.

Louvain (Lowen), 294. Low Countries see Netherlands. LUBECK, founded by Henry the Lion,
;

Madeira, colonized by Portugal, 541. Madras, taken by the French, 354. Madrid, Treaty of, 298, 340.

Magdeburg,

198. 494.

independence of the bishop, 214. one of the Hansa, 214, 220, 494. conquered by Denmark, 489.
its

archbishopric of, 176. recovered by Prussia, 224. Magyars, a Tmanian people, 17.

LUBECK,

bishopric

Lublin, Union of, lucanians, 46. Lucca, 238.

of, 491. 505.

under Castruccio. 245. remains a commonwealth, 249.

archbishopric
of, 171.

their settlements, 17, 157, 365, 483. effects of their invasion on the Slaves, 158, 432. called Turks, 379. origin of the name, 433 (note). Mahomet, union of Arabia under. 110. Mahomet L, Suhan, Ottoman jowcr under, 446.

Mahomet the Conqueror,

Sultan,

Grand Duchy of, 253. annexed to Tuscany, 256.

Lund, archbishopric

of, 184.

ceded to Sweden, 508.

his conquests, 411, 446. extent of his dominions, 446. Main A, name of Hellenes confined to, 376.

Luneburg, duchy of, 208. LuNEVlLLE, peace of, 194. LUSATIA (Lausitz), Mark of, 199,475. won by Bohemia, 493.
LUTTICH
298.

recovered by the Empire, 388, 418.

independence

of, 419.

Maine, county of, 330. conquered by William

332.

of

Normandy,

(Liege), bishopric

of,

295,

united with Anjou,

ib.

annexed by France, 302. added to Belgium, 227, 302. French acqmsitions from, 348. Luxemburg (Luzelburg), duchy of, 295. annexed to Burgundy, 298. French acquisitions from, 348. within the German confederation,
225. division of, 229, 303. neutrality of, 229.

annexed to France, Maine, State of, 560. Mainz, 92.

its

333.

ecclesiastical province of, 175.

archbishops chancellors of Ger-

electors, 176. to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358. Maionians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

many and

annexed

Luxemburg, House
270.

of, kings of Bohemia, 493. LuzERN, joins the Confederates, 262,

Majorca, kingdom of, 536. Malta, taken by the Saracens,

by the Normans,
395.

370.

granted to the knights of Saint John,

33.
of, 150.

Lydians,

Lykandos, tleme
Lykia, league
preserves
its

of, 39.

398, 415, 5.38. revolutions of, 415. held by England, 415, 558.

independence, 64.

Man, Scandinavian settlement

553.
ita later history, 488,

in

471

annexed by Rome, 67. Lykians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

553.

590
MAN
Manfred, King

INDEX.
MON
Messana
(Messina), receives

of Sicily, his dominion in Epeiios, 397. styled Lord of Romania, ib. Mantua, 248, 248, 257. Manuel Komnenos, his conquests, 381, 424. Manzikert, battle of, 380. Magna, the, its dominions, 414. Marche, county of, 332.

Roman

citizenship, 53.

recovered and lost by the Eastern Empire, 270. taken by the Saracens, 370. by the Normans, 395.
first

Norman

capital, ib.
30.

Messene, Dorian, 29. conquered by Sparta,

Marcomanni, 8.5. Margarito, king of the Epeirots, 397. Maria Theresa, Empress-Queen, her
hereditary dominions, 320. effects of her marriage, 321.

foundation of the city, 31. Metz, annexed by France, 193, 346.

restored to Germany, 229. Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 543. two Empires of, 544. Mexico, New, ceded by Spain, 544. Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor, 422.

MARIENBURa,

301, 348.
2fi.5.

Marseilles, acquired by France.

Mary

of

Hurgundy,
5(jl.

effects

of

her

marriage, 340.

Michael, despot
quests, 385.

of Epeiros, his con-

Maryland,

Massa, 249. Massachusetts, .5fiO. Massalia, Ionian colony, 35, 36, 56. see Marseilles. Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,
his conquests, 438, 493. Maurienne, Counts of, 278.

MiECzisLAP,

first

Christian prince of

Poland, 479.

Milan,

capital of

kingdom
of, 171.

of Italy, 147.

archbishopric

Milan, duchy

of. 240, 241, 248.

of, 346.

Mauritania, 67. Mauritius (Isle of

colony, 354. taken and held

temporary French possession a Spanish dependency, 539. MiLETOS, its colonies, .32.

France), a French

by England, 360.

Military Orders, MiNGRELIA, 521. Minorca, 538.

MisiTHRA, restored
418.

487, 495-497.

Maximilian

I.,

his legislation, 203.

to the Empire, 38v

effects of his marriage, 340.

Mazanderan,

516.
of, 478.

Mississippi, colonization at the

of, 353.

mouth

Mazovia, duchy

recovered by Poland, 499.

Meath, Meaux,

556.

the boundary of Louisiana, ib. MiTHRiDATES, king of Pontes, his wars

made

settlement of, 335. Mechlin, archbishopric of, 177.

with Rome,

64.

MODENA,
198,

Mecklenburg, duchy
476.

of, 198.

Slavonic princes continue

in,

ducliy of, 243, 244, 249, 256. annexed to Piedmont, 257. MoDON, held by Venice, 409.
lost, l)y

her, 411.
of, 68.

Mediation,

act of, 276. Medici, the, rule of in Florence, 245, 246. Mediterranean Sea, centre of the three old continents, 5. 6.

MCESIA, Roman conquest MoHAC/,, liattle of, 438.

Moldavia, Rouman
fluctuations of

.settlement, 437.

trituitary to the Turk, 439.

its

homage, 499.

Megalopolis,

its

foundation, 31.

Megara,

29.

joined to Wallachia, 453. shiftings of the frontier, 450.

joins the Achaian League, 40. Mbhadia, 396.

Molossis,

37.

Meissen, Mark

of, 199, 475.

Meleda.

Melfi, Melinci, Melings,

406. 394.

Moluccas, Dutch settlements in, 300.' Monaco, principality of, 247, 256. MONBELIARD, county of, 261, 350.
annexed by France,
355.

375.

MONEMBASIA,
.388.

restored to the Empire,

of Lithuania, his conquests, 497. Mentone, annexed bv France, 346, 359. Mercia, kingdom of,'l29, 130, 160, 161.

Mendog, king

418.

held by Venice, 410.

lost

by her, 411.
436, 483.
to, 483, .500.

Mongols, invade Europe,

Russia tributary
effects

Mesopotamia,
Trajan, 99.

conquest

of,

under

of

their

invasion

on

the

under Diocletian, 100,

Ottomans, 443, 444.

INDEX.
MON
Mongols, decline and break up of
power, 500, 501.
their

591
NEW

Narbonne, Roman

colony, 57.

Monmouthshire, becomes an English

county, 555.

MoNOPOLl,
dence
its

lost

by

"Venice, 248.

Montenegro,
joins

origin

and

indepen-

Saracen conquest of, 112. ecclesiastical province of, 173. annexed to France, 335. Narses, wins back Italy to the Empire, 105.

of, 427, 428.

Vladikas, 428.

England and Russia against France, ih. its conquest and loss of Cattaro, 322,
428. later conquests and diplomatic concessions to, 429.

Nassau, Grand Duchy of, 226. annexed by Prussia, 228. Natal, 566. Naupaktos see Lepanto. Nauplia, won from Epeiros by the
;

Latins. 417. held by Venice, 410.

lost

by

her, 411.
of, 154, 528.

MoNTFERRAT. marquisate and duchy

of, 2.S6, 240, 248.

Navarre, kingdom
529.

extent of under Sancho the Great,

284.
8avoj',

homace claimed from by Savoy,

partially 289.

annexed by
of, at

248,

break-up

of, 530.

its decline, 531.

Montfort, Simon

Toulouse, 3o5.
5:?0.

union with, and separation from

France, 336, 531.

Moors, use of the name, Morata. origin and use

41rt.

of the name,

Moravia,

199.

conquered by Ferdinand, 537. northern part united to F'ranre, 342. Navas de Tolosa. battle of, 533.

history of, 477. Mora VI A, Great,

4.^, 478.

kingdom

of,

157,

Naxos, duchy of, 4 1 3. annexed by the Turk, 413, 447. Negroponte, use of the name, 409
[note).

overthrown by the Magyars, A?>?,. MOROSINI, Francesco, his conquests,

412.

Neopatra, Epeirot dynasty

of, 419.

Moscow,

patriarchate of, 170. centre of Russian power, 500,

Catalan conquest of, 416. taken by the Turks, 417, 420.

.501.

Netherlands,

advance

MOUDON,

501. granted to Savoy, 280.

of, of, 3:50.

MotjLlNS, county

Mulhausen,
Minster, MUNSTER,

in alliance

with the Con-

their separation from 291, 299. fiefs in, 293. an appendage to Castile under Ciiarles V., 5.39.

Germany. 203,

Imperial and French

federates, 274.

French annexations
see

in,

348.
349.

annexed by France, 355.

183, 556.

barrier towns against

P" ranee,

224.

United Provinces. Netherlands, kingdom of,

divided,
.303.

302.

MirRClA, conquered by Castile, 533, 535.

MuRET, batile of, 531. Muscovy, origin of the name, 500. Mykene, its position in the Homeric
catalogue, 27. destruction of, 31. Mykonos, held bv Venice, 409, 41 1. MvsiANS, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Netz District, 514. Neufchatel, allied with

Bern, 274.

pas.ses to Pru.s.sia, 224. 274. granted to Bcrthier, 276.

joined to the Swiss Confederation,

276,
.359.

separated from Pru.ssia, 276. Neustria, LomVjard, 234.

Neustria, kingdom

of, 121, 1.34.

3.39.

united with Aquitaine, 135,

Namur, Mark
309.

of, 294.

annexed to Burgundy, 29(5. Naples, cleaves to the Eastern Empire,

conquered
V)v

New Amsterdam, 300, 561. New Brunswick, 564. New England, settlements of,
ff>rm four colonies, ib.

560.

King Roger,

39fi.

kingdom

of. '2.50, 254.

of, 346.

temporary French possession title of king of, 251, 2.54.

New France, settlement of, 352. New Hampshire, 560. New Netherlands, colony of,300,561
united to

New

Sweden, 561.

Parthenopa;'an republic, 252. restortd to the Bourbons, 256.

New

conquf-red by England, 300, 561.

Orleans,

353, 563.

592
NEW

INDEX.
OEK
Norway,
ib.

New South Wales, New Sweden, 561.

united to

565.

united

with

Sweden and

Denmark,
its

488.

New

Netherlands,

New New

York, 300, 561. Zealand, 566.

tirst

Newfoundland,
5.59.

settlements

in,

wars with Sweden, 508. Sweden, 464, 618. NOTO, taken by Count Roger, 395. Nova Scotia, ceded to England, 352,
iinited with

562.

remains distinct from Canada, 565. NiBLA, taken by Castile. 534.

Nidaros

see

Trondhjem.

NiKAlA, Turkish capital of Roum, 380. recovered by Alexios Komnenos,

381.

Novara, 249. Novbmpopulana, 173. Novgorod, beginning of, 481. commonwealth at, 483.
Russia represented by, 484. does homage to the Mongols, 500. annexed by Muscovy, 501.

Empire
its

of, 386.

extent and growth, 387. taken by the Turks, 389, 445. Nikephoros Phokas, Eastern

Novgorod,
483.

Severian, principality of,

Em-

peror, his Asiatic conquests, 379. Nikomedeia, taken by the Turks, 389, 445. NiKOPOLis, theme of, 152. battle of, 438. NlMES, Saracen conquest of, 112. under Aragon, 335. annexed to France, ih. Nimwegen, Peace of, .SOI, 349. NiSH, taken by the Turks, 426.

Novi-Bazar (Rassa), 424. Numantia, Roman conquest of, Numidia, province of, 59. NURNBERG, 209, 215, 220, 226. Nystad, Peace of, 512.

56.

Obotrites, 474. OCHRIDA, taken by the Bulgarians. 377.

kingdom of, its extent, 377, 378. OczAKOW, annexed by Russia, 449.
Odessa, does not answer to Odtssos,
Odo, king
516 (note). of the West Franks, does

NisiBis, fortress

of, 100.

NIZZA, annexed by Savoy, 265, 282, taken by Buonaparte, 355.

restored to Savoy, 359. finally annexed by France, 258, 288,
359.

homage to Arnulf, 139, 326. Odoacer, his reign in Italy, 94. overthrown by Tlieodoric, 95. Oesel, won by Denmark, 491, 504.
under the Sword-brothers, 496. under Sweden, .508.

NOGAI Khan, overlord NORICUM, conquest of,

of Bulgaria, 431.
68.

Normandy, duchy

in the diocese of Illyricum, 79. of, 142. character of its vassalage, 328.

Ogres see Magyars. Oldenburg, united with Denmark, 509.

;

union of with Aquitaine, Anjou, and

Britanny, 333.

annexed by Philip Augustus,

Normans,

333. their concjuests in Italy and

becomes a separate ducLy, 513. Grand Duchy of, 226. annexed by France, 222. Olgierd, king of Lithuania, 497.
Oliva, Peace of, 510. Oliverca, ceded to Spain by Portugal,
538.

Sicily, 370, 39.3-395.

in England, 163. in Epeiros, 380, 395. their conquests in Sicily compared with those of the Crusaders, 398. Northmen, use of the name, 469. their settlements, 471, 550, 552, 556.

Olynthos,

33.

Opicans, Oscans, 46. Opsikion, theme of, 151.

Northumberland, kingdom
129, 162.

of,

97,

Optimaton, theme of, 151. Oran, conquered by Spain, Orange, 263.

annexed to France,

543.

earldom of granted to David, 551. recovered by England, 552.

Orange River State,

Orchomenos,
its

265, 350. 566. its position in the ![)-

Norway,

extent and settlements, 131, 159,471. united to England under Cnut, 163. its independence of the Empire,
its

meric catalogue, 27. secondary position in historic

times, 30.

destroyed by the Thebans, 31.

467.

Oreos, 403.

formation of the kingdom, 469. Iceland and Greenland united to

488.

Orkney, Scandinavian

colony, 471.

earldom of, 553. pledged to Scotland, 488.

INDEX.
OSR
PEL

593

OSRHOENK, 100. OsTMEN, their settlements

159, 556.

Palermo, taken by the Normans, 395

in Ireland,

becomes
395.

the
its

capital

of

Sicily
65.

Otho de la Roche,

founds the lordof, 44:6.

Palestine,

relations to
;

Rome,

ship of Athens, 416. Otraxto, Turkish conquest

Otto the Great, Emperor, subdues

Berengax, 147.

Pampeluna, diocese of, 179. kingdom of see NAVARRE Pannonia, Roman conquest of,
in the diocese of

68.

lUyricum, 79.
in, 106.

crowned at Rome,

148.

Lombard kingdom
his
;

Ottocar II., king of Bohemia, German dominion, 492.

Bulgarian attempt on, 376.

Ottoman Turks,
Europe,
17.

their

position

in

Panormos see Palermo. Papal Dominions, beginning and

growth
its

of, 239, 242, 244, 249.

compared with the Magyars and

Bulgarians, 365.

overthrow and restoration, 252,

253, 359.

with the Saracens, 442.

their special character as Mahometans, ib. their dominion compared with the Eastern Empire, 443. their origin, 444. effect on, of the Mongol invasion, ib. their first settlements, ib. invade Europe, 445. under Bajazet, 445. their conquests of Servia, 426. of Thessaly and Albania, 420, 421. of Bulgaria, 431. invade Hungary, 438. overthrown by Timour, 390, 445. reunited under Mahomet I., 446.

annexed by France, 253, 256. annexed to the kingdom of

258.

Italy,

Paphlagonia, kingdom of, 38. theme of, 150. Paphlagonians, 28. Parga, commends itself to Venice,
410.

surrendered to the Turks, 451. Paris (Lutetia Parisiorum), 58. capital of the duchy of France,
142.

under Mahomet the Conqueror,

ib.

take Constantinople, 391, 446. their conquests in Peloponnesos, 419. of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 427. under Selim and Suleiman, 447. their conquest of Hungary, ib. greatest extent of their dominion,
448.

and centre of the kingdom of France, 144, 167. becomes an archbishopric, 174. Paris, treaty of, 353, 354, 360, 450. Parma, 237,241. given to the Spanish Bourbons, 249, the duchy restored, 256. annexed to Piedmont, 257.
capital

Parthenop^an Republic,
Parthia,
its

decline of their power, 448-450. their wars with Russia, 449.

OUDENARDE, becomes French,

restored, ib. OVIEDO, 529.

349.

the, 252. rivalry with Rome, 65, 81. Partition, crusading act of, 383. Passarowitz, Peace of, 440. Patras, under the Pope, 418. held by Venice, 410, 418. Patriarchates, the, 168, 169. ' Patrician,' title of, 123. Patzinaks, 17, 113,156, 158, 36.5. Pa VIA, old Lombard capital, 147, 237. county of, 241.

Paderborx, Padua, 237.

Pagania,

224.

originally Sei-vian, 405. its extent, 406.

Pax Romana,' 66. Pelasgians, use of the name, 24. in the Homeric catalogue, 28. Peloponnesos, its geographical posi

Paioxia, 20. Paioniaxs, in the Homeric catalogue,

28.

tion, 21.

Homeric

divisions of, 27.

Palaiologos, House

of, 366.

changes in, 29. united under the Achaian League,

40.

branch of at Montferrat, 240.

Palatinate

of the Rhine, 215.

ib.

Slavonic settlements
461.

in, 116,

375,

united with Bavaria,

Pale, fluctuations

of the, 557.

Palermo

(Panormos),

Phoenician

theme of, 151. won back to the Eastern Empire,

153.

colony, 48. taken by the Saracens, 370.

Latin conquests

in, 417.

594
PEL

INDEX.
POL
Phokis,
21.
of, 40.

Peloponnesos, Venetian settlements

in, 409, 410.

league
28.

recovered by the Eastern Empire,

418.

Phrygians, in the Homeric

Piacenza, 237, 241.

catalogue,.

becomes an Imperial dependency,

388.

conquered by the Turks, 391, 419. Venetian losses in, 411. conquered by Venice, 412. recovered by the Turks, 412. Pembrokeshire, Flemish settlement
in, 554.

given to the Simnish Bourbons, 24&. PiCTS, 98, 549. united with the Scots, 550. Piedmont, joined to France, 252, 356. reunited with Sardinia, 256. union of Italy comes from, ih.

Pennsylvania,

561.
;

PlETAS JULII see POLA. Pinerolo, occupied by France,

;

347.

Taygetos. Perateia, meaning of the name,

see

Pentedaktylos

422.

Turkish conquest

of, 423.

Pippin, king of the Franks, conquers Septimania, 121. Pisa, archbishopric of, 171.
position of, 238.

Perche, united to France, 336. Perekop, conquered by Lithuania,

498.

conquers Sardinia,

ib.

added to Poland, ih. lost by Poland, 499. Pekgamos, kingdom of,

subject to Florence, 245. Plataia, destroyed by Thebes, 31. PODLACHIA, conquered by Poland, 498,
38, 61.

Persia, wars of with Greece, 33. with Rome, 81, 99, 109. Saracen conquest of, 82, 111.
revival of, 98, 100.

Podolia, lost by Galicia, 498. added to Poland, ib. ceded to the Turks, 448, 507. recovered by Poland, ih. PoiTOU, annexed by Philip Augustus^

Eussian conquests

in, 516.
of, 543.

Peru, Spanish conquest Perugia, 239.

POLA
wars

334, (Pietas
63.

Julia),

Roman

colony,.

the Great of Russia, with Charles Xn., 512. Peter, count of Savoy, 278.

Peter

his

PoLABic branch of the Slaves, Poland, kingdom of, 159, 200,

Pharos

(Lesina), 34, 406.

Philadelphia, taken by the Turks,

390.

Philip, rise of Macedonia under, 37. Philip Augustus, King of France, his annexations, 333. Philip the Fair, King of France, effects
of his marriage, 336. his momentary occupation of Aquitaine, 337. Philip of Valois, King of France, his attempt on Aquitaine, 337. Philip the Hardy, Duke of Bmgundy, duchy of Burgundy granted to, 339. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, his acquisitions, 296-298. Philippeville, held by France, 301, 348.

474. 479. its ecclesiastical relations, 465. its relations to the Empire, 467,. 478. wars of, with Russia, 478, 506. various tribes in, 478. its conversion, 479. its extent under Boleslaf, 478. internal divisions of, ib. consolidation of, 498. Pomerania falls away from, 492. conquests of, 498, 499. joined with Lithuania, 498, 499. Red Russia restored to, 437.

Zips pledged
its

to, ib.

acquisitions knights, 497.

from the Teutonic

acquires Livland, 504.

relations with Wallachia and' Moldavia, 439. its wars with Sweden, 508. cedes Podolia to the Turk, 448. partitions of, 212, 440, 513 515.
its

Philippine Islands,
Spain, 543.

conquered

by

Philippopolis
first

first

Bulgarian occupa-

formation of the new

kingdom

tion of, 377.

Russian occupation of, ib. becomes Bulgarian, 389, 430. taken by the Turks, 431. Phoenicians, their colonies, 28, 35, 48 Phokaia, held by the Maona, 414.
finally

520. iinited to Russia, 520. Poland, Little, 479. Poles (Lechs), their settlements, 478Polizza, independence of, 407. Polotsk, principality of, 483.

INDEX.
POM POMEEANIA, POMORE, POMMERN,

595

its

Prussia, beginning of the duchy, 503.

its

extent, 199, 200. its early relations to Poland, 478, 479. Danish conquests in, 489. falls away from Poland, 491, 492. its divisions, 200, 492.

geographical position, 504. united with Bradenburg, 204, 209,

504, 513.

independent of Poland, 504. growth of, 202,511.

kingdom

of, 512.

divided between Brandenburg and

its acquisition of Silesia, 211.

Sweden, 210, 213, 504. western jDart incorporated with Sweden, 518. ceded to Denmark and then to
its

of East Friesland, ib. its share in the partition of Poland,

212,513-515.
losses of, 222, 223,519. recovery and increase of its territory, 224. head of North German confederation, 228.

Prussia, 225, 518.

POMERELiA, purchased

bj-

the Teutonic

knights, 496. restored to Poland, 497.

PONDICHERRY, a French settlement,

354.

conquests and restorations of, 360. PONTHIEU, county of, 330. acquired by William of Normandy,
332.

annexes Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 519. war with France, 229. Prussia Western, 212, 513.

made
558.

over to England in 1360, 338,

of, 38. of, 64.

Prussia South, 212, 514. Prussia New East, 212. PRZEMySLAF,king of the Wends, founds
the house of Mecklenburg, 476, PSKOF, commonwealth of, 483, annexed by Muscovy, 501.

PONTOS, kingdom

Koman
Portugal,

conquest
15.5,

diocese of the Eastern Prefecture, 76.

527.

Puerto Rico, 544. Punic Wars, the, 52,

Pyrenees, Peace Pyrrhos, 37.

56.

formation of the kingdom, 532. its growth, 533. kingdom of Algarve added to, 534. extent of, in the thirteenth century,
534, 535, 540,
its

of, 301, 348.

Quadi,

85.

African conquests, 541.

its colonies, 541, 542.

Quebec, 352, Queensland,

566.

divides the Indies with Spain, ib. annexed to and separated from Spain, 537.

POSEN, Grand Duchy of, 224, 231, 520. POTIDAIA, 33. Prag, ecclesiastical province of, 176. Prefectures, of the Roman Empire,
75-79.

R.s:tia, conquest of, 68. RaguSA, origin of, 115.

ecclesia-stical

province of, 186. keeps her independence, 407, 412. prefers the Turk to Venice, 412,

Pressburg, Peace of, 220. Prevesa, held by Venice, 412.

ceded to the Turk, 451.

annexed to Austria, 320, 322. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 559. Rama, Hungarian kingdom of, 424, 441. Rametta, taken by the Saracens, 370,

Primorie

see

HERZEGOVINA.

Ramsbury,
;

see of, 182,

of Dioklea,

Provencal

language, its fall, 345. Provence, origin of the name, 57. part of Theodoric's kingdom, 93, 95. ceded to the Franks, 105, 118. part of the kingdom of Burgundy,
145.

RasCIA see DiOKLEA. Rassa (Novi Bazar), capital

424.

Rastadt, Peace

of, 350.

Ravenna, residence

of

the Western

Angevin counts of, 263. annexed to France, 264, 344. Provinces, Roman, nature of, 51. Eastern and Western, 52. Prussia, use of thename, 192, 211, 230. long remain heathen, 466. dominion of the Teutonic Knights
in,

Emperors, 81. of the Gothic kings,

of the exarchs, 105.

95.

taken by the Lombards, 108, 123.

its ecclesiastical position, 171.

under Venice, 242. lost by Venice, 248. Red Russia; see Galtcia.
220.

496

Regensburg, a Q 2

696
REV
Revel, bishopric
of, 184.
14-1:.

INDEX,
RUS

Rome, becomes the Tiberine Republic,

252.

Rex Francorum,

title of,

Rheims, position of the archbishop,

167. ecclesiastical province of, 175.

restored to the Pope, 253.

Rhine, the boundary of the Roman

Empire,
71.

frontier of, 348, 350, 355. Rhodes, in the Homeric Catalogue, 28.

incorporated with France, ib. restored to the Pope, 256, 359. recovered by Italy, 258. Roskild, Treaty of, 508. bishopric of, 184.

independence, 37, 41. annexed by Vespasian, 41, 63. held by the knights of Saint John,
its

keeps

Rostock, 494. rottweil, 274.

Rouen,

capital of Normandy, 1 42. ecclesiastical province of, 173.

71, 864,

389,415. revolutions of, 414. knights driven out from, 447.

Roum, Sultan of, 380. Roumans, origin of the name,

Rhode

Island, 560.
I.,

RiAZAN, annexed by Muscovy,

Richard
372.

501. of England, takes Cyprus,

it to Guy of Lusignan, 318. Riga, ecclesiastical province of, 185. under the Sword-brothers, 496. under Sweden, 508. Rimini (Ariminum), 54, 244.

grants

435. their northern settlements, 435. Roumania, 436. principality of, 453. effects of the Treaty of Berlin on, 453. ROUMELIA, Eastern, 454.

RoussiLLON, released from homage to

France, 335, 531. recovered by Aragon, 537. finally annexed by France, 342, 348,
537.

Riparanensia,
394.

154, 529.

Robert Wiscard, duke

of

Apulia,

his conquests in Epeiros, 395.

Rochester, bishopric of, 181. ROESLER, R., on the origin of the name
Magj^ar, 433 {note). on the Roumans, 435 {note). Roger I., count of Sicily, Ms conquests,
395.

ROVIGO, annexed by Venice, 244. RiJGEN. held by Denmark, 476, 490. by Sweden,' 509.

RUPERTSLAND,
Russia,
its relations

564.

its origin, 158, 159,

480, 481.

towards the Turks, 449. geographical continuity of its conquests, 467. origin of the name, 480 {note), 481. ecclesiastical relations of, 465, 468, 480. its relations to the Eastern Empire, 159,468. its imperial style, 468. Scandinavian settlement in, 472. advance of against Chazars and Fins, 481. its rulers become Slavonic, ib. attempts on Constantinople, 482.
its isolation, ib.

Roger

II.,

king of

Sicily, his conquests,

395.

ROMAGNA

(Romania), represents the old Exarchate, 147, 238. origin of the name, 234, 364.

cities in, 244.

annexed

Roman, name kept on

to Piedmont, 257. in the Eastern Empire, 63. 363, 364, 366. continued under the Turks, 380.
;

Roman Empire see Empire, Roman. Romania, geograpliical name of the

Eastern Empire, 364, 376. Latin Empire of, 383.

its first

Romania in Italy see Romagna. Romano, lordship of, 237. Rome, the centre of European history,
;

occupation of Bulgaria, 377. divided into principalities, 482, 483. becomes tributary to the Mongols,
483, 500.

,9. origin of, 49.

becomes the head of

Ital}% 50.

effect of the German conquest of Livland on, 487. revival of, 499 et seq. delivered by Ivan the Great, 501.

nature of her provinces, 51. her Macedonian wars and conquests,

41.

advance
523.

of,

505-507, 511-517, 521-

her rivalry with Parthia, wars of, with Persia, 81.

Patriarchate of, 168, 171. her later history, 239.

ib.

compared with Sweden, 507. wars with Sweden, 508, 512, 518. conquered by Poland, 506.
lands recovered by, ib. assumes the title of Empire, 612,

INDEX.
EUS
KUSSIA, becomes a Baltic power, 512.
its

597
SAV
>

Salzburg, recovered by Austria, 224

322.

share in the partitions of Poland, 513-515. no original Polish territory gained

at this time by, 515, 520. of Poland united to, 520. extent and character of its dominion, 522. its territory in America sold to the United States, 523.

new kingdom

Samaites, 484. Samigola, 484. Samland, Danish occupation of, 471. Samnxtes, 46. their wars with Rome, 51. conquered by Sulla, ib. Samo, kingdom of, 473. Samogitia, purchased by the Teutonic
knights, 496. restored to Lithuania,
ib.

Russia, Red

see

Galicia.
shire, 556.

KUTHENIAXS, 434. Rutland, formation of the Ryswick, Peace of, 349.

Samos, 32. theme of, 150. held by the Maona, 414. Sancho the Great, king of Navarre,
extent of his dominion, 529.
SA:sr

Sabines,

46.
;

Marino, independence
255, 258.

of,

247,

Sachsex-Lauexbukg
BURG.

see

Lauexpro-

Saguntu Ji, taken by

Saint Andrews,
vince
of,
]

Hannibal, 56.

San Stefano, treaty of, 454. Santa Maura see Leukas.

;

ecclesiastical

Saracens, their settlements

16.

in Europe,

83.

Saint Asaph, bishopric of, 182. Saint Da^t;ds, bishopric of, 182. Salnt Domingo, Spanish settlements
in, 543.

rise of, 110.

French settlement in, 353. distinct from Hayti, 544. Saint Gallen, abbey of, 216. Saint John, knights of, conquer
Rhodes, 389, 415.
their conquests, 415. Malta granted to, 308, 415. driven out of Rhodes, 447. Saint John of Maurienne, bishopric
of, 173.

their conquests of Persia, Africa, and Spain, 111, 365. their province in Gaul, 112, 527. gieatest extent of their power, 112, 526. conquest of Sicily, 370.

compared with the Ottoman Turks,

442.

end of their rule in Spain, 537. Sarai, capital of the Mongols, 500.

Sardica
its

see
44.

SOFIA.

Sardinia,

early inhabitants, 53.

Saint Lucia, kept by England, 360. Saint Omer, held by Spain, 349. Saint Petersburg, foundation of,
512.

Saint Sava, duchy

vina.

of; see

Herzego-

conquest of, ib. province of, 79. lost to the Eastern Empire, 369. occupied by Pisa, 238. conquered by Aragon, 245, 538. united to Savoy, 251.

Roman

Saladin, takes Jerusalem, 400. Salamis, its position in the Homeric

catalogue, 27. Salerno, principality of, 147, 152. Salisbury, diocese of, 182. Salona, Roman colony, 62. destroyed, 115. Salona, principality of, 417. conquered by the Turks, 420. Saluzzo, disputed homage of, 283, 284,
287.

kingdom of, 257. Sathas. M, referred to, 460. Savona, march of, 236. Savoy, House of, 234. position and growth of, 277
originallj-

et seq.

Burgundian, 278. its relations to Geneva, 281. annexes Xizza, 282. its claims on Saluzzo, 283. Bernese conqiiests from, 272. ItaUan and French influence on, 284.
its

annexed by France, 287. ceded to Savoy, 287, 347.

decline, 285.

its later historj-,

288-289.

Salzburg,
215.

archbishopric

of,

176,

becomes a secular electorate, 220. annexed bj' Austria, 221, 322. by Bavaria, 222.

French annexations from, 344. French occupation of, 286, 346. Italian advance of, 248. its union with Sicily and Sardinia,
251.

598
SAV

INDEX.
SEV
the fall of

Savoy, boundaries

of, after

Buonaparte, 359.

annexed by France,

258, 359.

SCYTHIA, Roman province of, 77. Sebasteia, theme of, 150. Sebastopol, answers to old Cherson,
516 Quote).

Saxon Mark,
Saxons,

the, 198.

85, 91.

their settlement in Britain, 97.

Saxony, conquered by

Charles the Great, 122, 126. duchy of, 140, 207. use of the name, 191, 207. break-up of the duchy, 207. new duchy and electorate of, 208, 209.
circle of, ih.

Sebenico, under Venice, 411, Seleukeia, independence of, 39. annexed to the Empire by Trajan,
99.

theme of, 150. Seleukids, extent and decline

kingdom,
38.

of their

Selim I., Sultan, his conquests in Syria and Egypt, 447. Seljuk Turks, their invasions, 365,
379.

kingdom of, 222, 226. dismemberment of, 224. SCANDERBEG, revolt of Albania under,
421.

driven back by the Komnenoi, 881. weakened by the Mongols, 443.

Selsey, see
ecclesiastical provinces

of, 182.

Scandinavia,
of, 184.

Selymbria, won back to the Empire,

387, 391.

its

momentary union with

Britain,

462.

compared with Spain, 463. Eastern and Western aspects of,

its

Semigallia, Semigola, part of the duchy of Curland, 514. dominion of the Sword -brothers in,
496.

464.

barbarian neighbours, 466.

of, 130, 468.

Semitic nations

kingdoms

Sena Gallica
colony. 54.

in Europe, 16. (Sinigallia),

Roman

on the Baltic, compared with that of Germany, 486. Scania, originally Danish, 131, 184,
its influence

Sens, ecclesiastical province

469.
its

momentary

transfer to Sweden,
of, 494.

487.

of, 173. divided, 174. Septimania (Gothia), 90, 154, 526. Saracen conquest of, 112, 118. recovered by the Franks, 113, 121.

Hanseatic occupation

march
Servia,

of, 142.

annexed to Sweden,

508.

Slavonic

character

of,

114,

Schapfhausen,
ates, 272.
;

joins

the

Confeder-

373, 423.

ScHLE.siEN xee Silesia. Sclavinia, kingdom of, 476. Danish conquest of, 489.

Scotland,

origin of the name, 98, 549. dioceses of, 1 83. its greatness due to its English element, 548. historical position of, 549. analogy of Switzerland to, ih. formation of the kingdom, 550, 551. settlements of the Northmen in, 550, 552. acknowledges the English supremacy, 550. different tenures of the dominions of its kings, 551. grant of Lothian and Cumberland to, 162, 550, 551. its shifting relations towards England, 552.
its

conquered by Simeon, 377, 424. its relations to the Empire, 424. restored to the Empire, 378, 424. revolts from the Empire, 379, 424. recovered by Manuel, 381, 424. beginning of the house of Nemanja,
424.
its

possessions on the Hadriatic, 405.

loses Bosnia, 424.

advance of under Stephen Dushan,

389, 419-420, 425.

Empu-e of, 420, 425. break up of the Empire, 426. later kingdom of, ib. conquests and deliverances of, ib. revolts and deliverance of, 452. enlarged by the Berlin Treaty, 453.
Servians, never wholly enslaved, 429.
fourfold separation of the nation, 453. conquered by Lithuania,
499.
of,

Severia,

union with England, ib. Scots, their settlement in Britain, 98,

548. their union with the Picts, 556.

Severin, Banat
garia, 430.

attacked by Bulthe, 228.

of, 179.

Seven Weeks' War,

Seville, ecclesiastical province

Scutari

see

Skodka

recovered by Castile, 534, 535.

INDEX.
SFO

599
SOF
Polish teiTitory

Sfoeza, House

of, 241.

Silesia,
515.

added

to,

Sherborne, see of, 182. Shetland, Scandinavian

two

colony, 471.
55.5.

pledged to Scotland, 488. Shires, mentioned in Domesday,

classes of, ib. Shirwan, 521.

SiLVAS, conquered by Portugal, 533. Simeon, Tzar of Bulgaria, his conquests, 376.

SIND, 113.

SiNOPE, 39,

Siberia, khanat of, 501. Kiissian conquest of, 511.

Sicily, early inhabitants of, 45, 48. Phoenician colonies in, 85.

SlEMIUM,
SiTTEX,

64, 422. 81. see of, 173.;

Skipetars

see

Albanians.

Skodra

Greek colonies
the
first

in, 22, 34, 53.

Roman

state of

under Rome,

pro\-ince, 52, 79. 53.

(Scutari), kingdom of, 62. Servian, 406. dominion of the Balsa at, 428. sold to Venice, 410, 428.

theme

of, 152.

taken by Mahomet the Conqueror,

411.

Saracen conquest of, 153, 370. recovered by George Maniakes, 370.

Korman kingdom
pire, 397.

of, 250, 3G7, 371,

Skopia, 42.5. Slaves, their settlement and migi'ations, 14, 113, 133, 365.

393-395. its conquests from the Eastern

Em-

compared with those of the Teutons,

16, 114.

never a
233.

fief of
.

the Western Empire,

their

two main

divisions, 114, 158.

parted asunder

by the

Magyars,

under Charles of Anjou, 250, 397.

its revolt, ib.
its union with Aragon, 250, 538. united with Savoy, 251.

158, 432. their settlements within the Eastern Empire, 115.

in Greece

and Macedonia,

116, 373,

with Austria, ib. with Naples, 251, 540.

its practical effacement, 398.

374, 461.

recovered to the Eastern Empire,

375.

compared with
ib.

the Crusading" states,

remain on

Taj'getos, ib.

compared with Venice, 402.

Sicilies,

The Two, Idngdom of, 250, 251, 253, 398. union of with Aragon, 538. part of the Spanish monarchy, 240, 540. divided, 254. reunited, 256. joined to Italy, 257.
;

SICULI .see Szeklers, SiDON, Phoenician colony,

35.

Siebenburgen,
435 (note)
;

origin
see

of the name,

Transsilvania.
of, 171.

Siena, archbishopric

commonwealth of, 238, 245. annexed by Florence, 24(j.

SiKANIANS, 48. SiKELS, 48. SlKYON, in the Homeric catalogue, a Dorian city, 29.
Silesia,

27.

their relations to the Western Empire, 159, 197. 199, 201, 465, 466. general history of the Northern Slaves, 472-485. Slavia, duchy of, 492. Slavinia, name of, 115. Slavonia, 323, 434. Slavonic Gulf, 476. Sleswick, duchy of, 213, 490. its relations with Denmark, 490. under Christian I., 491. efifect of the Peace of Roskild on, 509. guaranteed to Denmark, 513. wars in, 228. transferred to Prussia, 228, 519. Slovaks, 434, 477. Smolensk, principality of, 483. conquered by Lithuania, 499. its shift ings between Russia and Poland, 506.

its early relations to Poland, 200, 478, 479. passes under Bohemian supremacy, 200, 492. joined to the Bohemian kingdom,493. becomes a dominion of the House of Austria, 493.

Smyrna,

32.

acquired by Genoa, 389. Sobrarbe, formation of the kingdom,

530.

imited to Aragon, 531.

Social War, the, 51. Sofia (Sardica), taken by the Bul-

the greater part conquered by Prussia, 211.

by the Turks,

garians, 376. 431.

600
SOL

INDEX.
SWE
Speyer, bishopric of, 175. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358. becomes Bavarian, 226.
Spizza, originally Servian, 406.

SOLUTHURN,

joins the Confederates, 262, 270. SORABI, 474, 475. Spain, use of the name, 3 (note). its geographical cliaracter, 610.

non-Aryan people

in, 12, 13.

Celtic settlements in, 14, 56.

annexed by Austria, 324, 429, 441. Spoleto, Lombard duchy of, 108,
147.

Greek and Phoenician settlements

in, 35, 5G. its
first

connexion with Gaul, Eoman province in, final conquest of, ib.

55.
ib.

Stalbova, Peace of, 508. Stati degli Presidenti,

;

246.

Steiermark see Styria. Stephen Dushan, extent

420, 425.

of

the

diocese of, 79. settlements of Suevi and Vandals in,

90.

Servian Empire under, 389, 419,

Stephen Tvartko, king

in, 89.

of

Bosnia,

West-Gothic kingdom

426.

southern part won back to the Empire, 105. reconquered by West-Goths, 108,
526.

Stephen Urosh,
Thessaly and

his
title,

conquest
420, 426.

of

Stettin, 210.

Saracen conquest of, 111, 154, 526. separated from the Eastern Califate, 113.

Stormarn, 489, 490. Strabo, his description

(^note).

of Hellas, 18

conquests of Charles the Great

127, 527.

in,

Stralsund, 494. Strassburg, bishopric

of, 175.

foundation of its 155, 549 et seq.

its

kingdoms, 154,

seized by Lewis XIV., 194, 350. restored to Germany, 229. Strathclyde, 130, 549, 550.

its ecclesiastical divisions, 178.

with geographical relations France, 342. its quasi- imperial character, 463. compared with Scandinavia, 463,
525.

acknowledges the English supremac}% 162. granted to Scotland, 162, 551.

Strigonium (Gran),
vince
of, 186.

ecclesiastical pro-

with South-eastern Europe, 525. nation of, grew out of the war with the Mussulmans, 526, king of, use of the title, 535. African Mussulmans in, 530, 532,
533.

Strymon, theme of, 151. Styria (Steiermark), duchy

308.

of,

217,

SuDEREYS

see

Hebrides.

Suevi, their settlements, 87, 90. Suleiman, tlie Lawgiver, his conquests,
438, 447. his African overlordship, 447.

end of their rule

542.

in, 537.

divides the Indies with Portugal,

Sumatra, Dutch settlement

in,

300.

extent of under Charles V., 247, 298,

539.
its

SuRAT, French factory at, 354. SUSDAL, 483. Sussex, kingdom of, 160, 555.

conquests in Africa, 543.

Sutherland,
to, 412.

550.
frontier

its insular possessions, ib.

SuTORiNA, Ottoman

extends

revolutions of its colonies, 544. its possessions in the West Indies,

ib. its origin, 115, ecclesiastical province of, 186. under Venice, 44. Spanish March, the, conquered

SpalATO,

SVE ALAND, 131. SviATOPLUK,founds the Great Moravian kingdom, 473. SviATOSLAF, overruns Bulgaria, 377.
SWABIA,
his Asiatic conquests, 482. circle of, 216. ecclesiastical towns in, ib.

by

Charles the Great, 122, 128, 529.

remains part of Karolingia, 141, 155.

division of,
ib.

Sweden,

Spanish

Monarchy,
of,

the

greatest

extent

539.
ib.

partition of,

131, 159, 470. the Baltic, 463. its relation to the Empire, 467. its conquest of Curland, 472, of Finland, 486, 488.
its position in

Sparta, her supremacy, 29. joins the Achaian league,

joined with
40.

Norway and Denmark,

487.

INDEX.
SWE THE

601

Sweden,
507.

separated, 488.
of,

Syria, partially restored to the Empire,

379.

growth

compared with Russia,

advance of under Gustavus Adolphus,

508.
ib.

conquered by Selim I., 447. SzEKLERS, settle in Transsilvania, 435.

wars of with Russia and Poland,

Tangier,

Tannenberg,
Denmark and
ib.

527, 541, 558. battle of, 496.

advance of against

TAORMiNA(Tauromenion), taken by the

Saracens, 370.

Norway,

213. its greatest extent of, 500, 510. its settlements in America, 561. its decline, 512. its later wars with Russia, 512, 518. losses of, 512, 518. its union with Norway, 464, 518. Swiss League, bearinning and growth of, 262, 268-274. SWITHIOD, 470.

German temtories,

Tarantaise,
173.

ecclesiastical province of,

Tarentum,
47.

(Taras), early greatness of,

archbishopric of, 172. taken by the Normans, 394.

Tarifa, taken by

Tarragona,
178.

Castile, 534. ecclesiastical province of,

Switzerland, represents the Burgun-

joined to Barcelona, 532. Tarsos, restored to the Empire,

379.

153,

German

dian kingdom, 146, 259, 291. origin of the Confederation, 262, 268, 269.

Tartars

see

Mongols.
61.

popular eiTors about, 269. eight ancient cantons of, 270. effect of on the Austrian power, 217,
311.

Tasmania, 566. Tauros, Mount,

Tauromenion

beginning of

its Italian dominions, 271, 286. thirteen cantons of, 272, 274. its allied and subject lands, 272, 273. extent and position of the League, 275. its .Savoyard conquests, 272, 273. its relations with France, 344. abolition of the federal system in,
ib.

Taormina. Taygetos, Slave settlement on, 375. Tchernigop, principality of, 483. lost and recovered by Poland, 506.
;

see

Temeswar,

440.

Tenda, county of, 287. Tenos, held by Venice,

409, 411.

Terbounia (Trebinje), 405, 425. Terra Firma, compared with i^irupos,

26 {note).

Teutonic Knights,

their connexion with the Western Empire, 495.

effects of their rule, ib.

restored by the Act of Mediation, 276. Buonaparte's treatment of, 355. nineteen cantons of, 276. present confederation of twentytwo cantons, 276, .359. Sword- Brothers, their connexion with the Empire, 495. estabUshed in Livland, ib. extent of their dominion, 496. joined to the Teutonic Order, ib. separated from them, 496, 503. fall of the Order, 504. Sybaris, Greek colony, 47. Syracuse, Greek colony, 48.

extent of their dominion, 496. joined to the Sword-brothers, ib. separated from them, 496.
then: losses, 496, 497. their cessions to Poland, 497. their vassalage to Poland, ib.

secularization of their dominion, 503. Teutons, their settlements, 15, 16, 82,
87, 96.

their wars with

Rome,

84.

confederacies among,

ib.

THASOS,

32.

Thebes, head
27, 30. destroj-ed

of the Boiutian League,

31.

by Alexander,

conquest of, 52. taken by the Saracens, 370. recovered and loss by the Eastern Empire, ib.

Roman

Theodore Laskaris, founds

the

Em-

pire of Nikaia, 386. Theodoric, King of the East Gotks, his reign in Italy, 95.

by the Normans, 395. Syria, kingdom of, 38, 61.

Therme, 33

sec

Thesprotians,
logue, 26.

in the

Thessalonike. Homeric cata-

Roman

province of, 65. Saracen conquest of, 111.

invade Thessaly, 30.

602
THE
Thessalonike, theme kingdom of, 384.
its effects

INDEX.
TTR
of, 151.

Tours, bishopric of, 173. Trajan, Emperor, his conquests,

forms the province of Dacia,

70, 99,
ib.

on the Latin Empire, ii. its extent under Boniface, 385. taken by Michael of Epeiros, 385.

Transpadane Republic,

252.

Empire

of, ib.

Transsilvania, 323. conquered by the Magyars, 435.

Teutonic colonies in, 435. tributary to the Turk, 439. incorporated with Hungary, 440. Transvaal, annexation of, 566.

separated from Epeiros, ih. incorporated with the Empire of Nikaia, 387. sold to Venice, 404, 410. taken by the Turks, 391, 404, 446. Thbssaly, Thesprotian invasion of, 30. subservient to Macedonia, 37, 40. province of, 78. part of the kingdom of Thessalonike,
385.

Trau, 406. Trebinje

Empire
ib.

see

Terbounia.
of, 36,

TREBizoND(Trapezous),city
of, 386, 422.

150,

acknowledges the Eastern Emperor,,

conquered by the Turks, 423. Trent, county of, 235.
bishopric of, 147, 195, 237. fluctuates between Germany
Italy, 195.

added
420.

to Servia

by Stephen Urosh,
of, ii.

Turkish conquest

Thionville, 301. Thirty Years' War, the, 203, 347. Thopia, House of, Albanian kings in
Epeiros, 420. Thorn, Peace of, 497. recovered b)- Prussia, 520. Thrace, Greek colonies in, 20, 33.

and

within the Austrian

circle, 217.

annexed by Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria, 224, 255, 318. Triaditza see Sofia. Trier, taken by the Franks, 92.
;

geography, ib. conquered by Rome,

its

68.

diocese of, 76.

theme

of, 151.
of, 151.

THRACiANS,intheHomericcatalogue,28.

Thkakesion, theme

ecclesiastical province of, 175. chancellorship of Gaul held by its archbishops, 176. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358. Trieste, commends itself to Austria,

Thurgau, won from

Thubingians,
91.

Austria by the Confederates, 271, 313.

232, 312.

conquered by the Franks, 117.

Trinidad, 544. Tripolis (Asia), county of, 399. Tripolis (Africa), conquered
Suleiman, 447.

by

Tibebine Republic, 252. Tigranes, king of Armenia, subdued by the Romans, 65. TiMOUR, overthrows Bajazet, 390, 445. TiNGiTANA, province of, 79. TiRNOVO, kingdom of, 430. Tobago, 360. Tocco, House of, effects of their rule
in

Trojans,

28.

Trondhjem
province

(r idaros),
of, 184.

ecclesiastical

Trondhjemlan, ceded to Sweden,

restored to Norway, 509. Troyes, treaty of, 338.

508.

TuAM,

Western Greece, 421.

ecclesiastical province of, 183. Tunis, conquests and losses of by the

Toledo, archbishopric of, 178. conquered by Alfonso VI., 532, 535. TORTONA, 237, 249. TORTOSA, Aragonese conquest of, 532. TouL, annexed by France, 193, 346. Toulouse, Roman colony, 57. capital of the West Gothic kingdom,
90.
of, 142, 330. ecclesiastical province of, 174. annexed to France, 335. TOURAINE, united to Anjou, 330. annexed by Philip Augustus, 333.

Turk, 447.

conquered by Charles V., 447, 543. Turanian nations in Europe, 17, 365.

Turks, Magyars
(fiote).

so

called,

379,

43^

county

TovpKot, 433 (vote).

TouRNAY, becomes French,

Tours, battle
of, 113.

349.

see also OTTOMANS and Seljuks. Tuscany, use of the name, 234. commonwealths of, 238. grand duchy of, 249, 256. exchanged for Lorraine, 321. annexed to Piedmont, 257. Tver, annexed by Muscovj^ 501. Tyre, Phoenician colony, 35. Tyrol, within the circle of Austria, 217, taken by Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria, 224, 323.

INDEX.
TZA
VIE

6o:^

Tzar, origin of the

title,

512 (note).

TzERNAGORA

See

Montenegro.

TzERNOiEViCH, dynasty of, 428. TzETiNJE, foundation of, 428.

Ukraine Cossacks,

506.

Ulster, pro\ance of, 183. United Provinces, the, 299.

recognition of their independence,
300. colonies of, 300, 561. United states of America, the greatest colony of England, 559.

235. conqiiests of, 55. province of, 79. Venice, her origin, 94. patriarchal see of, 170. her greatness, 241, 367. relations to the Eastern 233, 369, 378.

Veneti, 46. Venetia, 47,

Eoman

Empire,
Sicilj%

compared with Genoa and

402.

formation

of,

560-562.

acknowledgement of their independence, 562. their extension to the West, 563. their lack of a name, ib. cessions to by Spain, 544. Upsala, archbishopric of, 184. Urbino, duchy of, 244. annexed by the Popes, 249. Uri, obtains the Val Levantina, 271. Utica, Phcenician colony, 35. Utrecht, its bishops, 294. annexed to Burgundy, 298. archbishopric of, 177. peace of, 301, 349, 352.

first conqiiests in Dalmatia and Croatia, 406, 407. her share in the Latin conquest of Constantinople, 383. compared with Sicily, 402. effect of the fourth Crusade on, 402, 403, inherits the position of the Eastern Empire, 403, 410.

her

her dominion primarily Hadriatic,

404, 405.

her possession of Crete, Cyprus, and

Thessalonike,
ih.

her Greek and Albanian possessions, 408-410. loses and recovers Dalmatia, 409,
410. acquires Skodra, 410, 428. her losses, 411. her Italian dominions, 241,

242,

Val Levantina, won by

Valence, annexed
264.
to

Uri, 271.

the Dauphiny,

Valencia,
178.

ecclesiastical

province

of,

conquered by Aragon, 33, 536. Valenciennes, annexed by France,

349.

248. losses of bj' the treaty of Bologna, 248. conquest and loss of the Peloponnesos, 412. annexed to Austria, 252.

part of

tlie

French kingdom

of

Italy, 253.

Valentia, province of, Valladolid, bishopric

Valois, county
of, 330.

80.
of, 178.

added to France, 331. Valtellina, won by Graubiinden, 273. united to the French kingdom cf
Italy, 253.

restored to Austria, 255. momentary republic of, 257. unite d to Italy, 232, 258. Verden, bishopric of, 208, 213. held and lost by Sweden, 509, 513.
Vl''Jti)UN,^d>vi5i'Jii ot^ 13S.
,

to the

kingdom
87.

of

Lombardy and
'.
:;

btsho^jria 193,'346.

of'

an^eied

fcy

France,

Venice, 256.

VjiMA>inoi5,.
in

Vandals,
their

settlements

Spain

arid,

%n.: Yt^OX^,
'.

-.

anieyed to France, '.'-. fluc'^nftes between Germany

,

end

in Africa, 89, 90. of their kingdom, 105.

and
.

Italy, 139, 195.

-jf,

hii-tory

237.

Varna,

battle of, 426, 438.

67.
,

',

si^bj'ec to

Verice, 241..
' ;
:

Varus, defeated by Arminius,

Vasco de Gama, discovers Cape Good Hope, 541.

Vasto,
236. 273.

of

Vaud, conquered from Savoy,

freed, 275.

to '^usnria, '^52. restored to Italy, 232. Vespasian, his annexations, 41. Viatka, commonwealth of, 483. annexed by Muscovy, 501. Victoria (Australia), 566.
'.

Veii, conquered by Eome, 50. A'enaissin, annexed to France, 265, .355.

Vienna, Congress
battle of, 439.

of,

520

604
VIE

INDEX.
ZUT

ViENNE,

93, 263.

William the

Conqueror, his continen-

ecclesiastical province of, 173.

tal conquests, 332.

annexed to Finance, 264. ViENNOis, Dauphiny of, 263. annexed to France, 264, 344. ViNDELiciA, conquest of, 68. ViscoNTi, House of, 240.

England united by, 16i?. William of Haute vi lie, founds the county of Apulia, 394.

William
WiSMAR, Witold,

Vlachia

sec

Wallachia and Rou;

the Good, king of Sicily, his Epeirot conquests, 396. Winchester, bishopric of, 182.
494. of Lithuania, his contjuests,
182.

MANIA. Vlachia, Great see Thessaly. Vlachs, use of the name, 366.
see

499.

EouMANS.
first

Vladimir,

Cliristian

prince

of

Worcester, bishopric of, Worms, bishopric of, 175.

Russia, takes Cherson, 378, 482.

Vladimir, on the Kiasma, supremacy

of, 482.

Vladimir (Lodomeria) annexed by

Lewis the Great, 437. under Austria, 323, 440, 514. VOLHYNIA, conquered by Lithuania,498.
recovered by Russia, 514.

VOLSCIANS, 46. their wars with Rome, 50. VRATiSLAF.kingof Bohemia, id2(twte).

annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358. WiJRTTEMBERG, county of, 216. electorate and kingdom of, 220. its extent, 226. WiJRZBURG, bishopric of, 226. its Bishops Dukes of East Francia, 206, 214. Grand Duchy of, 221, 222.

York, archbishopric

of, 182.

Wagri, Wagria,
and
losses, 489.

474, 489.
capital of Montenegro, 428. Zaccaria, princes of, hold Chios, 414.

Waldemar, king of Denmark,conquests

Wales, North, use of the name, 130. Wales, Harold's conquests from, 553.
conquest of, 554. full incorporation
of, 555.

Zabljak, ancient

Zagrab

Zachloumia, 405, 425. see Agram. Zahringen, dukes of, 261, 262.
;

Wales, principality of, 554. Wallachia, formation of, 436.

shiftings of, 438-440.
its

Zakynthos

(Zante), conquered William the Good, 396. held in tief by Margarito, 397.

by

union with Moldavia, 453.

of, 272.

commended

to Venice, 410.

Wallis, League
its

tribiitary to the Sultan, 411.

'

conquests from Savoy, 273. united with France, 274. becomes a Swiss Canton, 276, 359. Wandering of the Nations,' 83.
of,

Zalacca, battle of, 532. Zante see Zakynthos.

;

Warsaw, duchy
extent

223, 519.
'

of, 520.

WeLETI, We-LE'TA-'BI',' =WlLTSI, 474 Wells, ,iji]Aopri,c of; 182.v/' Welsh, use of the name, 98. Wessex, kingdom of, ,97> 139.. its grjiwtJi and GujxrDmaiyM ISO;
,
,

Roman colony, 62. ecclesiastical province of, 186. held by Venice, 405, 411. Feace of, 409. '.Zaragoza, ecclesiastical province of,
Zara
(Jadera),
178.

JSOj
;;

161, 162.

:.

,a'

.'

>:

conquei'cd by Aragon, 532. Zealand, pro\'ince of, 218. Zealand, Danish island, 469. Zeno, reunion of the Empire under, 94.

Westfalia, duchy

of kingdom.of, 222.
.

and

circle, 207. .. ... .

Zeugmin, recovered by Manuel Komnenos, 381. Zips, pledged to Boland, 437, 499. ZUG, joins the Confederates. 270. Zurich, minster of, 216. joins the Confederates, 270.

Westfalia, Peace

of, 215.,'546,.b09.

West

Indies,. French colonies }t>, 1^53, British possessions in, 360, 565. Westmoreland, formation of the shire, 556.

Zutphen, county
gundy, 298.

of,

annexed
of,

to Bur-

WiDDiN, twacc annexed by Hungary,

430, 431, 437.
SpoUiswoode
(t Co.,

Zuyder-Zee, inroads
Printers, New-street Square, London.

293.

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