United Arab Emirates University Faculty of Engineering

EFFICIENT FAULT DETECTION AND MONITORING SYSTEM FOR A PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY

Graduation Project I Course

By
Ahmed Ben Khadra Osamah Zaid Al-Zubaidi 200834640 200834956

Project Advisor(s): Dr. Hassan Noura

Second Semester 2012/2013

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PV arrays take usually a large area and require a descent effort in terms of fault location, diagnostic, and monitoring. The smart monitoring system aims at implementing a fault detection and monitoring system for a PV array. The system shall be able to detect, locate, and isolate faults based on PV cell failure criterions. Also, the system will have an easy user friendly Graphical User Interface (GUI), which allows an easy experience for a PV array operator to monitor, diagnose, and protect the system. The software shall be done using LABVIEW and the data acquisition from the PV array is done using NI (National Instruments) CompactRIO. An operating prototype of 22 PV array, in addition to two standby cells shall be delivered at the end of the project.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement and Purpose
PV arrays take usually a large area and require a descent effort in terms of fault location, diagnostic, and monitoring. This Project aims at implementing a fault detection and monitoring system for a PV array. The system shall be able to detect, locate, and isolate faults based on PV cell failure criterions. Also, the system will have an easy/user friendly Graphical User Interface (GUI), which allows an easy experience for a PV array operator to monitor, diagnose, and protect his system. The software shall be done using LABVIEW and the data acquisition from the PV array is done using NI (National Instruments) CompactRIO. The goal of this project is to provide an efficient, real time, and automated system that is able to locate, identify, and isolate the fault to ease the maintenance and minimize the failure possibilities of a real-world solar farm. Which in turn can minimize the cost of solar farms.

1.2 Project and Design Objectives

The main objective of this project is to design an efficient fault detection and monitoring system. In addition, the system shall be able to automatically locate the faults, isolate the faulty panel, and replace it with the stand by cell. The design objectives can be described as follows: Use of an efficient algorithm to detect faulty panels before system failure.

Real-time monitoring and alerting system to the array operator. Ease and increase the efficiency of the maintenance process. Have a friendly GUI that shows real-time system status and fault locations. Prevent single panel failure from causing full system failure.

To fulfill the objectives, the project was divided into four main blocks shown in Figure 1. The PV array block is our main monitoring target for any faults or abnormal operation. The PV array is monitored using sensors connected to each panel within the array, in addition to general monitoring sensors. The sensors data is passed to the DAQ system that shall be responsible for identifying any faulty condition and take immediate action through the isolation relays. At the same time, the DAQ system will inform the operator through a GUI program of the health state of the array or any taken action to prevent a full system failure.

Figure 1:

1.3 Intended Outcomes and Deliverables:

A functioning prototype that shows a functioning, efficient, and automated algorithm to detect, locate, and isolate any faulty PV panel within a PV array. Also, the system will have an easy GUI (graphical user interface) to ease the operators job in monitoring and reporting any fault.

Software Design: The software is meant to have a user friendly Graphical User Interface (GUI), which shows live data acquired from the solar system. The data informs the user with the health state of the solar system in a simple and neat way. Also, the exact fault location within the PV array shall be visible to the user. In addition, the software can take automatic action in isolating the fault panels in critical situations which needs immediate action. The faults applied includes shade fault (accumulated dust), surface damage, and wiring connection problems among others.

The software shall be written using LABVIEW and the data acquisition is done using National Instrument (NI) CompactRIO.

Prototype:

An actual prototype shall be built with a PV array. The prototype will have an adequate volume to enable easy mobility and demonstration of the system characteristics and features. In addition, the prototype shall demonstrate the capabilities of applying such system in real world. A 3x2 array shall be integrated with the prototype to have a real preview on the system performance. The prototype shall be operating as a 2x2 array in real-time with two panels as stand by in each column (i.e. parallel connection).

In conclusion, the project shall deliver the following outcomes: A complete functioning prototype of 3x2 PV array. A friendly and easy to use GUI. A functioning algorithm for fault monitoring and detection. An automatic ability to locate, isolate, and replace a faulty panel.

Chapter 2 BACKGROUND LITERATURE AND MARKET SURVEY

2.1 Relevant Literature Search

2.1.1 Solar Energy:

Our earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) at the upper atmosphere of incoming solar radiations. Approximately, 70% passes through the atmosphere. Almost 89 PW gets absorbed by the land and ocean. Each year, the total energy absorbed is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ). In one hour this was more energy than the world has used in the year of 2002. The sun radiates light and heat, thus, several technologies are used to harvest its energy like solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis. All these technologies are evolving very quickly and harnessing a huge attention in scientific research. This project focuses on solar photovoltaic cells, which leads to specifically investigating the advantages, disadvantages, and its types. [1]

Advantages: Solar cells has many advantages, which can be investigated in terms of the environmental, economical, and maintenance aspects.

Environmentally, solar cells do not emit any gas, smoke or other chemical by-product. Which means that there are absolutely no greenhouse gases at all. As an example, Italys Montalto di Castro solar park avoids 20,000 tonnes per year of carbon emissions compared to fossil fuel energy production. [2] Economically, solar energy is one hundred percent free (beyond initial installation & maintenance). It does not require expensive and ongoing row materials like oil or coil. Also, oil, coil, and gas is often transported cross-country or internationally, which adds monetary and pollution costs of transport. Yet, solar cell can decentralize the power in most sunny locations, which leads to self-reliant societies. Of course, decentralization has its limits due to location. In addition, solar cells can work on or off the grid. This is a big advantage for people who live in isolated or rural areas; because the prices and cost of installing power lines are often exorbitantly high in these places and many have frequent power-cuts. [2] Another huge advantage of solar energy is its ability to avoid politics and price volatility that is increasingly characterizing fossil fuel markets. The ever-abundant nature of the suns energy would hint at a democratic and competitive energy market where wars arent fought over oil fields and high-demand raw materials arent controlled by monopolies. Yet, it has to said that a new form of politics has emerged regarding to government incentives and the adoption of solar. However, these politics are arguably incomparable to the fossil fuel status quo. [2] One more advantage of solar that it does not rely on constant mining of raw materials; which avoids the destruction of forests and other eco-systems that occurs with most fossil fuel

operations. Major examples include Canadas tar sands mining which involves the systematic destruction of the Boreal Forest (which accounts for 25% of the worlds intact forest land), and creates toxic by-product ponds large enough to see from space. Another example is the Niger Delta, where excessive and irresponsible oil extraction practices have poisoned fishing deltas previously used by villagers as the main source of food and employment, creating extremely desperate poverty and essentially decimating villages. A more famous example, yet less human-cost tragedy is the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. It killed 11 people and spilled 780 thousand cubic meters of crude oil into the sea. [2]

Disadvantage: As any technology, solar cells have their down side too. The first obvious disadvantage is that solar cells cannot work constantly. To be able to the best out of solar energy you have to have a bright and clear day. Winter months and clouds decreases the solar production considerably. In addition, solar cells do not work at night obviously. This means that the energy should be stored at the day, to be used at night; which leads to the next issue, which is storing solar. Solar storage technology has not reached its peak yet. The current most popular battery storage is currently costly and bulky, and more appropriate to small-scale home solar panels than large solar farms. In addition, solar inefficiency is a very common criticism to this technology. Currently, widespread solar panel efficiency is at around 22%. This means that a vast amount of surface area is required to produce a lot of electricity. [2] Yet, solar efficiency has increased

dramatically over the last five years due to the huge amount of research carried on, and shall continue to rise steadily over the next five years. Also, one of the biggest disadvantages of solar energy is its high initial installation cost. This is a big issue since an advance payment for many years has to be done at once, before starting to have the free energy. Yet, nuclear is a good example (economically) of energy production that was initially incredibly expensive, but became more feasible when appropriate energy subsidies were put in place. [2]

2.1.2 Solar cell types:

Crystalline Silicon (c-Si): In 2011, crystalline silicon solar panels took around 95% of all shipments by U.S. manufacturers to the residential sector. Almost 90% of the Worlds photovoltaics today are based on some variation of silicon. [3] The main difference between silicon-based solar panels is the purity of the silicon. Purity reflects the alignment perfection of silicon molecules in the panel, where its increase increases the conversion of sunlight into electricity. However, the processes used to enhance the purity of silicon are expensive. Crystalline silicon forms the basis of mono- and polycrystalline silicon solar cells:

Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells: Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si), also called single-crystalline silicon (single-crystal-Si) are made out of silicon ingots, which are cylindrical in shape. To optimize performance and lower costs of a single monocrystalline solar cell, four sides are cut out of the cylindrical

ingots to make silicon wafers. [3] A good way to separate mono- and polycrystalline solar panels is that polycrystalline solar cells look perfectly rectangular with no rounded edges.

Advantages: Since Monocrystalline cells are made out of the highest-grade silicon, then they have the highest efficiency rates. The efficiency rates of Monocrystalline solar panels are typically 15-20%. [3] Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. When compared to thin-film, Monocrystalline can produce up to four times of electricity in a specified area. Monocrystalline panels have a decent life span, which makes most manufacturers put a 25-year warranty on their Monocrystalline solar panels. [3]

Disadvantages: Monocrystalline panels are the most expensive panels to get. Which can be a better choice for homeowners from a financial point of view. If the solar panel is partially covered with shade, dirt or snow, the entire circuit can break down. Micro inverters should be considered in case a coverage problem is expected. Micro inverters make sure that the entire solar array is not affected by shading issues with only one of the solar panels.

 The process used to produce monocrystalline silicon is called Czochralski process. It results in large cylindrical ingots. Four sides are cut out of the ingots to make silicon wafers, which leads to a significant amount of waste out of the original silicon. [3] Performance of monocrystalline panel tends to be more efficient in warm weather; yet, it starts to suffer as temperature goes up. Still, monocrystalline heat performance is better than the polycrystalline ones.

Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells: Polycrystalline silicon panels, which also is known as polysilicon (p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si), were introduced to the market in 1981. Unlike Monocrystalline panels, polycrystalline solar panels do not require the Czochralski process. Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, which is cooled and cut into perfectly square wafers. [3]

Advantages: The process used to create polycrystalline silicon is simpler, less cost, and produces less waste when compared to the production process of monocrystalline panels. [3] Polycrystalline panels have lower heat tolerance when compared to the monocrystalline. Heat can affect the performance of solar panels and shorten their lifespans. However, this effect is minor, and most homeowners do not need to take it into account.

Disadvantages: Because of the lower silicon purity, polycrystalline-based solar panels have typical efficiency of 13-16%. Which is noticeably less than typical monocrystalline panels efficiency. A larger surface area is needed to output the same electrical power as a solar panel made of monocrystalline silicon.

Thin-Film solar cells (TFSC): Thin-film solar cells are made by depositing one or several thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a substrate. The different types of thin-film solar cells can be categorized by which photovoltaic material is deposited onto the substrate: Amorphous silicon (a-Si). Cadmium telluride (CdTe). Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS). Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC).

Solar panels based on amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium selenide are currently the only thin-film technologies that are commercially available on the market.

The market for thin-film PV grew at a 60% annual rate from 2002 to 2007. In 2011, close to 5% of U.S. photovoltaic module shipments to the residential sector were based on thin-film. [3]

Advantages: Easier to mass-produce and potentially cheaper to manufacture than crystalline-based solar cells. Thin film cells can be made flexible which opens a variety of potentially new applications. High temperature and shading have less impact on thin film solar panels performance when compared to crystalline-silicon based panels. [3]

Disadvantages: Poor space-efficiency, which also means that the costs of support structures, cables and other PV equipment increase. Thin-film solar panels tend to degrade faster than crystalline-silicon based solar panels, which is why they usually come with a shorter warranty.

2.1.3 Performance Impairments:

2.2 Series losses: Series losses are caused by an increase in the resistance in the bath of the current generated by the solar cell. This is the most common cause of PV performance problems and it can be either internal in the PV module, or external in the wiring or switchgear [4]. This increased resistance often is caused by internal interconnections beginning to crack or break completely. Corroded wires or poorly connected ones constitute most of the external causes.

2.3 Shunt losses: Shunt losses occur when there is a different path that the current generated by the solar cell and this path has relatively low resistance. As cell voltage increases through the shunt resistance, the current dissipated also increases. The increase in shunt resistance will result in the decrease of current passing through it which is more desirable. Shunt losses are located within the solar cells and are usually caused by manufacturing defects. Also faulty edge isolation and cracked cells contribute greatly in shunt losses [4].

2.4 Mismatch losses: Mismatch losses occur in PV arrays when the different panels does not have the same characteristics or conditions. Mismatch losses can occur if you connect panels that have different types, different efficiencies, or different output power [5]. Mismatch also happens when the different cells operate under different conditions that affect power generation in part of the array. This happens when different external factors affects similar cells unevenly

like temperature, shading, soiling, etc. There are two types of mismatch: series mismatch and parallel mismatch. Series mismatch occurs when the panels are connected in series. If one of the panels produce less power meaning less current- then the entire series strand must have the same current. The extra current produced by the strong panels will be dissipated within the panel itself across the shunt diode resulting in lower performance and even damage of panels if the power dissipated raises the temperature to high levels. The parallel mismatch is less dangerous than the series and its effect is only in lowering the VOC.

2.1.4 I-V curve tracers:

The IV curve tracer is the most comprehensive tools in evaluating PV systems. It is used for purposes of testing the PV system directly after installation and for regular checkups and provides a very clear figure of the performance of your solar system. After system installation, it is usually preferred to perform I-V curve tracing to provide a baseline for the performance of the PV panel to compare with the performance of the array along its life for performance degradation. IV curve tracing is performed by sweeping the voltage from zero to VOC by varying a test load. The test load can be resistive, capacitive or electronic. Therefore, this curve represents all the combinations of current and voltage of the system under the same conditions. It is very useful in performing diagnosis of any PV system. The parameters that can be taken from the I-V curve are as follows [4]: 1- Open circuit voltage (VOC) and short circuit current (ISC).

2- Maximum power that can be delivered from the system (PMP) with their associated VMP

and IMP.

3- The Fill Factor (FF): which is the ratio of the product of maximum power to the multiplication of the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current. .

The I-V curve can also help in identifying the performance impairments like shunt losses, series losses and mismatch losses: 1- Series losses: Appears as a decreased slope of the curve near the VOC. 2- Shunt losses: Show up in the IV curves as an increased slope in the region near the Isc region. 3- Mismatch losses: show up in IV curves as notches in the curve. Figure 2 summarizes the different loss types detection by I-V curve Tracers [5]. If two or more panels are connected to an array, their I-V curves are combined to create a single I-V curve. For parallel connection, the combination is done by cascading the two curves vertically. This is because their total current is the sum of both currents while their voltage is the same. For series connection, the combination is done by cascading the two curves horizontally.

Figure 2

2.1.5 Temperature:
As it is well known, temperature affects electronic and electric components in a way that it decreases the performance. As heat increases, the resistance increases and the current delivered by the PV panel decreases. Since the deployment of PV panels takes place in different regions in the world, engineers have to account for the different ambient temperatures. One of the ways of dealing with this problem is cooling the PV panels. There are two ways of cooling the PV panels: the first is passive cooling and the second is active cooling. The active requires energy for cooling while the passive requires no power. The downside of passive cooling only reduces some heat and is generally not adequate for applications in hot areas. Active cooling is only used when the increase in performance is greater than the energy cost of cooling. Moreover, it is preferred to have active cooling when

there are other uses for the excess heat taken from the panels like in heating water for domestic uses. The performance dependence on temperature differs from material to material. This gives the option for deploying different PV types according to different regions. Of course, one must compare the performance degradation with the original output power of each PV panel technology. The equation relating the output open circuit voltage to the rated voltage is: ( Where: : temperature coefficient : temperature at standard test conditions, , solar irradiance. [ ] [ ])

2.1.6 Sensors
Sensors are devices that measure a physical phenomenon and convert it into an electrical signal which can be read by an instrument. As an example, thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, most sensors are calibrated against known standards. [4] In this project, voltage, current and temperature sensors will be provided for each PV panel. In addition, a pyranometer, humidity, wind, and temperature sensors will be used for the

whole PV array system (i.e. only one sensor from each type). These sensors aim at giving the required feedback to be able to determine and locate the faults in the PV array.

2.1.7 Data acquisition

Data acquisition is the process of measuring an electrical or physical phenomenon such as voltage, current, temperature, pressure, or sound with a computer [7]. A data acquisition system has three main components as shown in Figure 3: 1- Sensors, which are used to acquire information from the physical world and convert it to electrical signal. The physical information can be temperature, light intensity, speed, voltage, etc. there are common sensor types that are displayed in Table 1. 2- DAQ device, which takes the electric signal generated by the sensor and manipulate it to be suitable for the third component in the data acquisition system. The DAQ device contains three main parts. Firstly, signal conditioning which is applied to the acquired signal to be safe and suitable for the ADC component. This includes attenuation, amplification, filtering, etc. Secondly, the ADC which samples and quantizes the signal coming from the signal conditioning and convert it to digital signal that will be transferred to the computer. This part is has a major effect in determining the strength of your DAQ system since it defines the sampling rate and the error level of your DAQ system. Thirdly, the computer bus which is the bridge between the DAQ device and the computer. The bus can be USB, PCI, Ethernet or wireless. 3- The computer, there is an interface driver that is used for communicating with the DAQ device. There is also a software that is used to facilitate the communication

between the user and the computer. It has the ability to acquire, analyze and present the data collected. It can also be used to program the DAQ device with predefined functionality or allow the DAQ device to perform operations without the need of a connected computer.
Table 1:

Sensor Thermocouple, RTD, Thermistor Photo Sensor Microphone Strain Gage, Piezoelectric Transducer Potentiometer, LVDT, Optical Encoder Accelerometer pH Electrode

Phenomenon Temperature Light Sound Force and Pressure Position and Displacement Acceleration pH

Figure 3

2.1.8 CompactRIO
CompactRIO stands for Compact Reconfigurable Input Output [5]. It is an embedded control and acquisition system provided by National Instruments [8]. It is designed mainly to be operating in harsh conditions and usually without the need of a graphical user interface though new models may include a built-in VGA. Figure shows the CompactRIO device.

There are four main components of CompactRIO: 1. The controller: it provides the stand-alone capabilities of the CompactRIO where you can run your LabVIEW real-time applications. 2. The chassis: it contains the reconfigurable I/O FPGA core. 3. The I/O modules: there are more than fifty modules that can be used with CompactRIO for DAQ and control. For example, there are temperature, voltage input and output, current input and output, microphones, strain, digital, etc These modules are equipped with built-in signal conditioning to get the most of your DAQ system. There are universal digital and analog modules that can support many types of inputs and outputs. 4. The software: there are several layers of programming that can be done in CompactRIO. Firstly, the FPGA which is embedded in the chassis. You can use the FPGA to perform fast operations on the data very fast by rewiring the chip itself. The FPGA program can be generated using the graphical environment of LabVIEW which is then compiled using the Xilinx compilation tool for LabVIEW. Secondly, the real time module which allows the CompactRIO to run LabVIEW programs

within the controller itself without the need of computer. This is very useful for installing CompactRIO in the field. Thirdly, the computer LabVIEW software. This layer allows for the full usage of the computer resources to perform more complex operations on the signals acquired by the DAQ and present them to the user or take the necessary actions.

2.1.9 Arduino
Arduino is a tool for making computers that can sense and control more of the physical world than your desktop computer. It's an open-source physical computing platform based on a simple microcontroller board, and a development environment for writing software for the board1. There are several types of boards satisfying various needs in DAQ and control. The project gives you the option of purchasing the boards or assembling your own board based on the original Eagle CAD that the project provide you with. The Arduino Uno shown in Figure 4- is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega3282. It has 14 digital input/output pins, 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. The core libraries of Arduino are written in C and C++ and compiled using avr-gcc and AVR Libc. Arduino hardware is programmed using a Wiring based language, similar to C++ with some simplifications and modifications, and a Processing based IDE.

1 2

http://www.arduino.cc/en/Guide/Introduction An Atmel microcontroller.

This platform gives the ability for sensing the environment through variety of input channels that can be connected to different sensors. The platform also has the ability to control digitally by configuring the digital pins as outputs.

Figure 4

2.2 Target Market and their needs

Many parties can benefit from such monitoring system starting from small houses to huge solar farms. The system can be scaled up or down depending on the customers need and financial capabilities. UAE is one the biggest markets for solar energy, and shows many promises to continue the investment in this sustainable energy sector, starting from MASDAR city and ending with SHAMS 1. Although SHAMS 1 is not using PV technology, it shows the great interest of the country in constantly increasing the efficiency of any sustainable energy technology.

2.3 Prioritized Needs / Requirements

Some requirements are thought to be of a high priority in order to operate and maintain a truly efficient fault detection and monitoring system. considered as the following: Reliable mathematical modeling for the fault criteria. Easy to use and read GUI. Use of highly reliable isolation relays and sensors. Simple design to enable easy integration with any running system. The main requirements are

Chapter 3 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

3.1 Decision Matrices: 3.1.1 Solar cell types
Criteria Weighting factor Alternatives monocrystalline polycrystallin thin film size 25% 9 8 5 performance 17% 8 7 3 cost 30% 5 8 9 weight 13% 7 6 8 lifespan 5% 9 8 6 10% 8 7 1 sum 100% 72.70% 74.70% 59.00%

3.1.2 DAQ
The alternative to CompactRIO that can be used in this project is Arduino Uno. As explained earlier in the literature review, Arduino is an open hardware/software device used for DAQ and control. When comparing the two devices with each other we chose the following criterion: Price: the Arduino UNOs price is less than 20$3. also, the Arduino platforms can be created locally by downloading the EAGLE design file. On the other hand, CompactRIO chassis alone costs 6,803$4 and any added module has its own price.

3 4

http://store.arduino.cc/eu/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=195 http://sine.ni.com/nips/cds/view/p/lang/en/nid/202249

Ruggedness: CompactRIO has a metal casing unlike Arduino Uno- which makes it more suitable outdoor use. Arduino Uno can operate under temperatures between CompactRIO are between and and
5

. the operating temperature of

[ ] . [8] and the

Performance: CompactRIO has an operating speed of

performance is increased with the implementation of FPGA in programming. Arduino UNO has the operating speed of [10].

Ease of programming: CompactRIO the graphical programming language LabVIEW with accompanying add-ons and toolkits. Arduino UNO is programmed using a Wiring language based on C++- and it also can be programmed by LabVIEW using the NI LabVIEW Interface for Arduino Toolkit. Availability: the CompactRIO device is already available in the department with its accompanying modules and the necessary programming software and training sessions.
Criteria Price Ruggedness Performance Ease of Programming Availability sum Weighting factor 25% 7% 8% 25% 35% 100% Alternatives CompactRIO 1 7 10 10 10 75% Arduino UNO 10 8 4 10 0 59%

http://www.atmel.com/Images/doc8025.pdf

3.1.3 I-V Curve Tracers

There are five I-V curve tracers considered for this project: Daystar DS-100C, EKO MP-160, HT-Italia Solar I-V, Solmetric PVA-600 and Amprobe Solar 600. They are compared using four criterions: price, wattage range, availability in the UAE and portability. Price and portability are the main criterions because of the limitations in budget and the requirement of light portable device for usage outdoor. Table xxx shows the pricing of the five curve tracers.

Criteria Weighting factor Alternatives Daystar DS-100C EKO MP-160 HT-Italia Solar I-V Solmetric PVA-600 Amprobe Solar 600

Price 40% 2 4 8 9 10

Range 15% 10 5 7 7 6

Availability in the UAE 10% 0 0 0 0 1

Portability 35% 1 3 10 8 10

sum 100% 26.5% 34.0% 77.5% 74.5% 94.0%

Chapter 4 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

4.1 Block Diagram

Figure 5 shows the block diagram of the proposed system. A 3x2 PV array with 3 panels connected in parallel, then connected to anther 3 parallel panels. Two panels (i.e. one in each group) is considered as a stand by panel to replace any damaged or faulty panel in each column. This makes the system operate as 2x2 in real time. Each panel has its own isolation relay, voltage, current, and temperature sensors. The voltage sensor is connected in parallel with the solar panel, the current sensor in series; while the temperature sensor is attached under the panel. In addition, there are an ambient temperature, pyranometer, and wind sensors shared for the whole system. All the sensors are connected to the DAQ system (i.e. CompactRIO), along with the isolation relays to control the array. The DAQ system will be responsible for making the isolation decision based on certain failure criteria. The array is connected then to a charge controller, which in turn responsible for charging the batteries. Finally, the batteries can supply electricity either directly as DC, or as AC through a DC-AC converter.

Figure 5:

References

[1] Wikipedia,

"Solar

energy,"

May

2013.

[Online].

Available:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy. [2] G. Whitburn, "13 Fundamental Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy," [Online]. Available: http://exploringgreentechnology.com/solar-energy/advantages-anddisadvantages-of-solar-energy/. [Accessed 2013]. [3] M. A. Mhlum, "Which Solar Panel Type is Best?," [Online]. Available: http://energyinformative.org/best-solar-panel-monocrystalline-polycrystalline-thin-film/. [Accessed 2013]. [4] C. Honsberg and S. Bowden, Photovoltaic Education Network, [Online]. Available: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/. [Accessed April 2013]. [5] P. Hernday, "Field Applications for I-V Curve Tracers," SolarPro, pp. 77-106, August/Septemper 2011. [6] Wikipedia, "Sensor," [Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor. [Accessed 2013]. [7] "Acronyms," Farlex, Inc., [Online]. Available:

http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/CRIO. [Accessed May 2013]. [8] "CompactRIO," National Instruments, [Online]. Available:

http://www.ni.com/compactrio/whatis/. [Accessed May 2013]. [9] "DAQ," National Instruments, [Online]. Available: http://www.ni.com/data-

acquisition/what-is/. [Accessed May 2013].