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Montessori and Gardner'sTheory of Multiple Intelligences

By PatriciaA. Vardin he revolutionary work of Howard T Gardner has been given much attention in the past decade. Opposing the notion of a unitary IQ and proposing thatintelligence be thought of as a wide k range of human capabilities, Gardner challenged the status quo in the field of psychology. Many years before his time, however, Maria Montessori also challenged the status quo regarding human abilities and potential, demonstrating that children who were "slow," deprived, and poor could thrive and grow under the right set of conditions. This article attempts to review Gardner's theory ofMultipleIntelligences, show how Montessori and Gardner drew similar conclusions regarding human capacity and potential, and examine how Gardner's eight intelligences and underlying core operations lie at the heart of the Montessori exercises and activities. In Framesof Mind: The Theory ofMultipleIntelligenzces, written in 1983, Howard Gardner defined intelligence as "the ability to solve problems or to create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings" (1999, p. 33). Revising his definition in 1999, he defined intelligence as "a biophsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture" (p. 34). Gardner sees intelligences as potentials, possibly neural ones, that may or may not be activated depending upon the values of a culture, the opportunities available in that culture, and the personal decisions madeby individuals and/or their families, teachers, and other members of the society. Gardner (1999) applied the following eight criteria derived from disciplines such as biology, anthropology, psychology, and psychometrics to determine if a mental faculty could be classified as a human intelligence: 40
Montessori LIFE *Winter 2003

*the potential isolation weakness in other areas. Gardner also beby brain damage; lieves that any intelligence can be enhanced * an evolutionary hisby concerted effort. tory and evolutionary Table 2 presents Gardner's description plausibility; of the eight intelligences and examples of * an identifiable core end-state performances. Gardner is still , operation or set of considering other possible candidates as core operations; intelligences, including existential intel* susceptibility to enligence, observed in individuals concoding in a symbol cemed with questions regarding life's system; meaning and issues of human existence. * a distinct developShared Conclusions mental history, along with a definable set of Although working in different cultures expert "end-state" performances; and different times, Montessori and Gard* the existence of idiot savants, prodigies, ner came to many of the same conclusions and other exceptional individuals; regarding human development. First, both * support from experimental psychoMontessori and Gardner derived their theological tasks; riesbasedupon daily, firsthandobservation * support from psychometric findings. and experience working with people, both Gardneridentifiedeighthumanintelligennormal and with exceptionalities. Montesces (see Table 1), each one having certain sori worked first with retarded, then urban, coreoperations-capacities that seem cendeprived children. Gardner focused his attral to an intelligence, for example, as photention upon adults with various forms of nemic discriminations would be to linguisbrain damage, as well as normal and gifted tic intelligence or mental calculations of children. These experiences enabled them both to understand and appreciate the wide numbers would be to logical-mathematical range of abilities and capacities found in intelligences. He believes these capacities human nature and to challenge rigid and are likely to be mediated by specific neural narrow beliefs about human potential. mechanisms and triggered by relevant intemal or extemal types of information. Table 1. Intelligence and Core Operations Gardner originally described sevenintelliType of Intelligence Examples of Core Operations gences and then several years ago added an Linguistic Syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics eighth. He believes that Logical-mathematical Patterns, calculations, number, relations all human beings posMusical Pitch, rhythm, timbre sess the eight different intelligences, that each Bodily-kinesthetic Control of bodily motions, skillful object person has a unique handling blend of intelligences, Spatial Mental visualization, mental manipulation and that no two people and transformation of images have exactly the same Interpersonal Awareness of the feelings, moods, profile of strengths and motivations, and desires of others weaknesses with respect to intelligences. Intrapersonal Awareness of one's own feelings, desires, He also points out that capacities strength in one area of Naturalist Recognition, classification of objects inthe intelligence does not environments predict strength or

Second, as a result of their shared understanding and appreciation of human nature, both Montessori and Gardner noted the uniqueness of each individual. They observedthatindividual differences begin tobe revealed in the earliest years of life, and that individual strengths in one area of ability do not necessarily ensure or predict strengths in other areas. Montessori writes, "little children soon reveal profound individual differences which call for very different kinds of helpfromtheteacher" (1964,p.231).Gardner (1997, 1 999) states that.in the area of intelligence, no two people have exactly the same intelligences, nor in the same combination, and that understanding and valuing these uniquenesses and differences and utilizing them for the benefit of society is of utmost importance. He states, in fact, that taking human differences seriously lies at the heart of Multiple Intelligence Theory. Third, forboth Montessori and Gardner, the interaction of nature and nurture plays a significant role in the development of human capabilities. With respect to genetic heritability, Montessori observes that the origins of development lie within the individual and that children seem to possess what she calls naturaltendencies.

Both Montessori and Gardnersee human development as the result of an ongoing and dynamic interaction between genetic and t k environmentalfactors.

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Despite similarities in their viewpoints, Montessori and Gardner differ to some ---- degree in the focus of their work. First, from the beginning of her career, Table 2. Gardner's Description of Intelligences Montessori was concerned with the educaExamples: End-state Performances Intelligence and Description tion and welfare of children, especially poor children. Her concern and passion for the Lawyers, speakers, writers, teachers 1.Linguistic: sensitivity to spoken and written needs of children translated directly into the language; the ability to learn language; the capacity to establishment of a school, the development use language to accomplish goals i of ateaching method, a curriculum, didactic Mathematicians, logicians, scientists 2. Logical-mathematical: capacity to analyze materials, parent education, teachertraining, problems logically, carry out mathemafbcal operations and social action in the community. Montesand investigate issues scientifically sori based her philosophy and methodology 3. Musical: entails skill inperformances, composition, Instrumentalists, composers, on her work with children and teachers and, and appreciation of musical patterns conductors I intum,herdevelopingphilosophyandmethodology influenced her practice. 4. Bodily-kinesethetic: entails the potential of using Dancers, actors, athletes, surgeons, In contrast, Gardner's work frorii its one's whole body or parts of the body (like the hand or mechanics, artisans inception was theoretical, based upon mouth) to solve problems or fashion products observation and research, not practice. Navigators, pilots, sculptors, chess 5. Spatial: involves the potential to recognize and 1His work led him to the redefining of manipulate the patterns of wide spaces and confined players, graphic artists, architects human intelligence and the construction spaces of a new theory of human intelligence. Gardner did not develop a specific educa6i Interpersonal: denotes a person's capacity to Salespeople, teachers, clinicians, tional approach or specific application of understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of politicians, actors, religious leaders multiple intelligence theory to practice, other people nor view his theory as an educational 7.Intrapersonal:involves the capacity to understand prescriptive. He believes that educators oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself, should determine how multiple intelliincluding one's own desires, fears, and capacities, and to gence theory should guide their practice use such information effectively inregulating one's own life andwams against superficial or self-serving applications of the theory in educaFarmers, botanists, geologists, 8. Naturalist:demonstrates expertise inthe tional settings. recognition and classification of the numerous archeologists Second,Montessori'sphilosophy, theory, species-the flora and fauna-as well as artificial and method encompass all aspects of huobjects inthe environment man potential, including character, moral
Montessori LIFE *Winter 2003

In a similar vein, Gardner posits thiat human abilities, like human difference es, have a genetic base. Both Montessori aiid Gardner, however, see human develo pment as the result of an ongoing and dynamic interaction between genetic and e nvironmental factors. Montessori (199.5) strongly believed that the child's mind a bsorbs the environment, leaving lasting irnpressions upon it, forning it, and providihig he nourishment for it. She warned that tl quality of the environment can greatly e nhance a child's life or seriously diminish it. Gardner, too, emphasizes the importanice

of the environment on the development of human capabilities. Gardner believes that the "smarter" the environment and the more powerful the interventions and resources, the more competent individuals will become and the less important will be their particular genetic inheritance. He asserts that even individuals who seem gifted in a specific intelligence will accomplish little if they are not exposed to resources and materials that support that intelligence.

Differences In Focus

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Area/Exercise Practical Life Pouring Buttoning Sweeping Sensorial Touch: Geo. Solids Intelligences Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial

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Intelligences Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial Logical-mathematical Naturalist Interpersonal Caring for animals inthe classroom Naturalist Bodily-kinesthetic Linguistic Spatial Naturalist Bodily-kinesthetic Linguistic Spatial Puzzle maps Bodily-kinesthetic Naturalist Linguistic Core Operations Bodily motions Object handling Mental visualizations Patterns Recognition Classification Awareness of desires of others Classification Object handling Semantics

Table 3. Relation of Montessori Curriculum to Gardner's Intelligences ArealExercise Object handling Mental visualization Core Operations Nature Planting a garden

Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial Logical-mathematical

Object handling Mental visualization Relations Classification Semantics Object handling Mental visualization Relations Semantics Awareness of intentions of others Pitch Awareness of feelings of others Recognition Classification Object handling Mental visualization Phonology Object handling Mental visualization Phonology Semantics Awareness of desires & intentions of others Object handling Mental visualization Recognition Object handling Mental visualization Relations Object handling Mental visualization Number relations Calculations Classification Gymnastics Marching Broad Jump

Visual. Solid insets Cylinder boxes (2-3 children)

Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial Logical-mathematical Linguistic Interpersonal Musical Interpersonal Naturalist

Social Studies Land & water forms

Auditory. Set of Bells (2-3 children) Smell: Smelling Boxes Language Sandpaper Letters Movable Alphabet Objects with words on cards (2-3 children)

Mental visualization Recognition Classification Object handling Semantics Mental visualization Mental manipulation Object handling Classification Semantics Control of movement Rhythm Control of motions Number Mental visualization Object handling Mental visualization Mental transformation Pitch Object handling Pitch Rhythm

Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial Linguistic Bodily-kinesthetic Linguistic Interpersonal

Bodily-kinesthetic Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Logical-mathematical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial

Mathematics Sandpaper Nurnerals

Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial Naturalist Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial Logical-mathematical Bodily-kinesthetic Spatial Logical-mathematical

Art Clay Construction Free Drawing Music Set of Bells Singing

Number Rods

Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Musical

Golden beads

development, and spiritual growth. She writes, "Our educational aim with very young children must be to aid the spontaneous development of the mental, spiritual and physical personality" (1964. p. 230). Gardner's focus, however, remains specifically on those areas of human potential he has defined as intelligences, in their various forms and combinations. Although he has considered character, 42
Montessori LIFE-- Winter 2003

moral, and spiritual issues in his work, they are not considered a part of Multiple Intelligence theory because they do not

meet his criterion for an intelligence. Long before the introduction of Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory of children's intelligence, Kohlberg's theory of moral development, and Gardner's theory of multipleintelligences, MariaMontessori (1912) wrote about amethod and curriculumforthe

teaching and development of young children. In the description of her method and techniques, she reveals her deep regard for all aspects of the child's development and profound respect for the innate, unique potential she sees within each individual child, needing only the right environment to encourage what is within to evolve. Montessori realized the significance of each area of human potential or intelligence

in the experiences and materials she created for the children in her school. She seems to have created her exercises to touch upon many of the core operations of the eight intelligences described by Gardner and created multisensory experiences which activate combinations of intelligences. For example, aMontessori mathematics lesson on the geometric solids uses bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in feeling the forms, visual/spatial in observing and intemalizing images of theforms,logical-mathematicalintelligence in establishing relations between them, naturalistic intelligence in observing and classifying them, and linguistic in labeling them. If the child did this activity with other children, he or she could also exchange ideas about the forms and share them, thus utilizing interpersonal intelligence. Table 3 is an analysis of Montessori's curriculum as it relates to Gardner's eight intelligences. A brief overview of the Montessori curriculum areas indicates how each of the materials encompasses at least one intelligence and several core operations. For example, the Practical Life area exercises combine the use ofBodily-kinesthetic and Spatial intelligences. The Sensorial exercises include many ofthe intelligences, such as Bodily-kinesthetic, Spatial, Logical-mathematical, Naturalist, Linguistic, and Interpersonal, if children are working
together.LanguaageexercisesutilizeBodily-

Montessori seems to have createdher exercises to touch upon niany of tlhe core operationsof the eight intelligences describedby Gardner and createdmultisensory experiences vhich activate combinationsof intelligences.

enter into human society. But more important was that her children leamed to respect each other, help and teach one another, and share andenjoy games, activities, andmusic. Thesepractices and activities oftheMontessori classroom encompass aspects of what Gardner calls Interpersonal intelligence.

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In Summary
This article has provided an updated overview of Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences and pointed out ways in which Maria Montessori and Howard Gardner, although differing in the focus of their work, came to very similar conclusions about human abilities and potentials. The exercises and activities in Montessori's curriculum engage many of the core operations in the eight intelligences described by Gardner. Both Maria Montessori and Howard Gardner were revolutionary figures in their fields. By challenging the status quo, they have brought us to a greater

understanding of the potential of human beings through their gift of penetrating observation and analysis of little children and adults with exceptionalities.
DR. PATRICIA A. VARDIN, educational consultantand parenteducator, is associate professor and chair of the Early Childhood Department at Manhattanville College, Purchase, NY.
References Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of muiltiple intelligences. New York: Basic. Gardner, H. (1997). Extraordinary minds. New York: Basic. Gardner. H. (1999). Intelligence refrained: Mlltiple intelligencesforthe21' centutry. New York: Basic. Montessori, M. (1964). TheMontessorimethod New York: Schocken. Montessori, M. (1995). The absorbent mind. New York: Holt.

kinesthetic, Spatial, Linguistic, and Interpersonal intelligences, and mathematics.

Nature and Social Studies engage Natural-

ist, Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Interpersonal, and Linguistic

intelligences. Art, Gymnnastics, and Music

involve Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, andMusical intelligences. Montessori addressed the personal and social life of the child, as well. For example, she wrote extensively about the importance of self-knowledge and self-regulation, (Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence). She writes: 'We call an individual disciplined when he is master of himself and can, therefore, regulate his own conduct when it shall be necessary to follow some rule of life ....Each one of [the children] perfects himself through his own powers, and goes forward guided by that inner force which distinguishes him as an individual" (1964, p. 86). Many Montessori activities and exercises support the development of independence, decision-making, self-control, mastery, and discovery. She also recognized that children need to function in a social world and in community with others. By developing self-care skills, self-control, manners, good habits, and polite conversation, Montessori prepared her children to

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