Development and Validation of Model for 95% Efficiency, 220 W Wireless Power Transfer over a 30cm Air-gap

Seung-Hwan Lee
Student Member, IEEE

Robert D. Lorenz
Fellow, IEEE

University of Wisconsin-Madison, WEMPEC 1513 University Avenue, Madison, WI, 53706 lorenz@engr.wisc.edu
Abstract Although 60W wireless power transfer was demonstrated in 2007, still there is no equivalent circuit model for a sub-meter air-gap, hundreds of Watts, high efficiency wireless system. A design-oriented circuit model is needed for this technology to evolve. This paper proposes an equivalent circuit model for the wireless system and analyzes the system based on the proposed model. The proposed model and its analysis are validated by means of FEA and experimental results. Furthermore, as a viable solution for high power (over 10kW) applications, losses in the wireless power transfer system are investigated in the following section. Because of the high operating frequency (MHz), skin- and proximity effect were shown to be dominant. New spatial layout of a coil is proposed that significantly reduces losses caused by skin- and proximity effect. Proposed coil design is evaluated by means of FEA. Index Terms equivalent circuit, large air-gap, proximity effect, skin effect, spatial layout, wireless power transfer.

I. INTRODUCTION Removing the cable between a power source and a load is very important in many applications; e.g. for a plug-in hybrid vehicle or for a plug-in electric vehicle battery charger, the power cable is the bottleneck for reliability and maintenance performance, since the exposed power cable is subjected to mechanical deterioration caused by outdoor environments and users. Thus, wireless power transfer with air-gaps greater than ten centimeters, kWatt rating, and high efficiency is a very important technology. One of the earliest research papers about sub-meter, high power, and efficient wireless power transfer was published by Karalis et al. in 2007 [1]. In that paper, authors presented a non-radiative scheme based on magnetic resonance coupling. They analyzed the strong coupling regime of two resonating dielectric disks, capacitively-loaded conducting-wire loops with coupled mode theory (CMT). Since they used CMT, the characteristic equations of the two resonating objects were decoupled, the analysis of the system was very simple and quality factor and power transfer efficiency of coupled objects could be easily calculated. However, the paper did not provide a design-oriented model for such wireless power transfer systems, suitable for designing or validating a design.

In 2009, Waffenschmidt and Staring [2] published a paper about the limitations of the inductive power link system in consumer electronics. They derived optimal system parameters for efficient power transfer and investigated the effects of distance and size of coil on power transfer efficiency. However, their analysis only used a resonant circuit on the receiver coil, not on the transmitter, and as a result, they concluded that inductive power transfer is only effective over short distances. They did not explore how power transfer capacity, distance, and efficiency of a wireless power transfer system can be improved significantly if both the transmitter and the receiver are tuned LC resonant circuits as demonstrated in [1]. Yang et al. published a paper about inductor modeling in wireless links for implantable devices design [3]. However, in general, the rated power of these applications was a few milliWatts and the distance between two coils was just a few centimeters [4]. As a result, the models in these papers are not applicable to larger distances and higher power systems. In the first part of this paper, a model for a 30cm air-gap, 220W, high efficiency wireless power transfer system is proposed. Based on electric and magnetic field analysis, the two coils of the system are modeled as two inductors having low coupling coefficients. With the equivalent circuit model, the efficiency of wireless power transfer system using two tuned LC resonant tanks is analyzed. Using closed form expressions for inductance and resistance of the coils, theoretical power transfer efficiency is presented. By means of finite element analysis (FEA) and experimental results, the proposed model is verified. In the second part of this paper, losses in the wireless power transfer are analyzed. In a low power application, losses are not the critical limitation in implementing the system because the system voltage and current are usually small. There are no significant difficulties in building a power converter, a transmitter, and receiver coil. However, in high power applications, loss is the key limiting factor in system implementation. The required voltage and current specifications of switches in a power converter increases

978-1-4244-5287-3/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE

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significantly as the loss increases. Also, the overall size of the system increases because of the high rated voltage, current, and losses. Although loss analysis is very important in implementing the wireless power transfer system for high power applications (over 10kW), it has not been covered in the literature [1-4]. This paper investigates the origins of losses in the non-radiative magnetic resonant wireless power transfer system as its second major focus. Based on detailed loss analysis, a new spatial configuration of a coil is proposed and its suitability is evaluated by comparing its equivalent series resistance to that of a conventional spiral shaped coil. The paper begins by developing a lumped parameter equivalent circuit model for non-radiative coupled magnetic resonance wireless power transfer systems based on electric and magnetic field equations. In the following section, the developed theoretical model is evaluated by FEA and experimental results. In the last section, the origins of losses in the system are analyzed. A new spatial design of a coil is proposed, having low loss when compared to conventional helical or spiral shape coils. That design approach is evaluated with FEA results. II. WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER SYSTEM MODELING

R1 L1

R2 L2

(a) Large air-gap WPT system (b) Equivalent circuit model Fig. 1. Schematics of 30cm air-gap wireless power transfer system
IS

sLm

I L1
R1

IL2
sM

VR I RL

R2 VL 2
1 sC2
RL

Vs

Yin

1 sCm

1 V sC1 L1

sL1

sL2

Because the non-radiative wireless power transfer (WPT) scheme presented in [1] utilizes the near-field of a current carrying coil as a power transfer medium, the characteristics of an electric and magnetic field in the near-field of a coil can be formulated to build an equivalent circuit model. According to Balanis [5], phasor expressions of the electric and magnetic fields of a current carrying circular coil in spherical coordinates follows (1) and (2), ka2I0cos 1+ 1 e-jkr, H = 0 Hr = j jkr 2r2 (ka)2I0sin 1+ 1 - 1 e-jkr, H = -j 4r jkr (kr)2 Er = E = 0, (ka)4I0sin 1+ 1 e-jkr. (2) E = 0 4r jkr where: a is radius of a circular coil, r is the distance from the center of the coil to an observing point, k is the wave number, 0 is the intrinsic impedance of air, and I0 is the current in the coil. From (1) and (2), the total radiated power over a closed spherical surface s follows (3), 1 1 P=2(EH*)ds = 012(ka)4|I0|21+j 3 ^ r. (kr) (3) (1)

As can be seen in (3), the second, purely imaginary term is dominant in the near-field zone (kr<<1), and the real term is dominant in the far-field zone (kr>>1), so the radiated power in the near-field is reactive and inductive. Furthermore, Inan showed in [6] that a circuit can be approximated by an equivalent lumped parameter circuit if its characteristic length is less than one-tenth of the relevant wavelength. This is because spatial distribution of current and voltage do not change along the circuit elements if the characteristic length is very small. As a result, the transmitter and receiver coil used in this research can be modeled as lumped elements because their diameter is usually smaller than one-tenth of a wavelength. Consequently, two coils of the non-radiative power transfer scheme of [1] can be represented as two lumped inductors as shown in Fig. 1(a) and (b). The non-radiative wireless power transfer system of this paper, two coaxial coils with 30cm air-gap, can be represented as two inductors and parasitic resistors with weak mutual-inductance between the coils. Parasitic resistors R1 and R2 are caused by skinand proximity effect losses and radiation losses because the operating frequency is as high as a few MHz. To maximize power transfer capacity and efficiency, two tuned LC resonant tanks are used as the transmitter and receiver as discussed in [1]. The steady state circuit diagram is depicted in Fig. 2. An impedance matching Lnetwork, Lm and Cm, was added in the transmitter circuit of Fig. 2, to maximize input power at the resonant frequency. Based on the circuit in Fig. 2, steady state expressions for the voltage and current of every node and branch can be calculated. The power transfer efficiency follows (4), PRL |IRL|2RL . (4) = P = in |IL |2R1+|IL |2R2+|IR |2RL
1 2 L

Fig. 2. Steady state circuit model of 30cm air-gap wireless power transfer system

If the resonant frequency of two tanks 01 and 02 are equal, i.e. 01 = 02 = 0 and the load resistance RL is greater than 0L2, the expression for efficiency of the system

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can be simplified to (5), 1 RL RL 1+ 2 2 R + R 0 M (1+02C22RL2) 1 02L22 2 (5)

As can be seen in (5), resonant frequency 0, mutualinductance M, and self-inductance L2 must be increased for high efficiency, and the parasitic resistance R1 and R2 should be decreased. However, it should be noted that there are trade-off relationships between the efficiency and the system parameters; e.g. the Ohmic losses caused by skin- and proximity effects as the resonant frequency increases. In addition, the radiation losses increase significantly as the frequency increases, therefore, the efficiency begins decreasing as the frequency exceeds a certain limit. Another important point is that there is an optimal load resistance that maximizes power transfer efficiency in a given system. The optimal load resistance expression was derived by differentiating (4), L2 - C2M202 - LmC12M204 = (6) RL max C1C22M204+C12C22LmM206 efficiency III. DEVELOPED MODEL EVALUATION The developed model was evaluated using a lab testbed wireless power transfer system. Theoretical efficiency was calculated based on the equivalent model. The theoretical efficiency was compared with finite element analysis (FEA) results and experimental results. The radius of the coil of the testbed system was 17cm, the diameter of the wire was 2mm, turn spacing was 2cm, and the number of turns was three. The distance between two coils was 30cm and the resonant frequency of two resonant tanks was 3.7MHz. Analytical Model of the Testbed Coil To validate the model, electric parameters were estimated based on existing models [7-13]. According to Miller [7], self- and mutual inductance of coils follow (7) and (8), 0N2a2dc 4d 8a [F(k)-E(k)] + c E(k) c [H] (7) L= 3c a2 20 2 M= (ab)1/2[(1 - 2 )F() E()] [H] (8) where a, b are the radii of the two coils, c is axial length of the coils, d = (4a2 + c2)1/2, N is number of turns, 0 is permeability of air, k = 2a/d, 2 = 4ab/[(a+b)2+z2], z is the distance between coils and F(k) and E(k) are the complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind, respectively. Radiation loss is calculated per Balanis [5], Rrad = 202N2(C/)4 (9) A.

(b) Two coupled coils (a) Isolated coil Fig. 3. Drawings of an isolated coil and mutually coupled coils TABLE I ANALYTICALLY CALCULATED, CALCULATED FROM FEA, AND EXPERIMENTALLY MEASURED PARAMETERS Analytic FEA Experimental Calculation Results Results 5.06 5.3 5.1 Self-inductance (H) deviation (%) 4.7 0.8 0.28 0.285 0.31 Mutual-inductance (H) deviation (%) 1.8 11 0.126 0.12 0.15 Parasitic Resistance () deviation (%) 4.7 19

Equation (10) for the skin effect loss of solid circular conductors was that presented by Kelvin [11]. mr bei(mr)ber(mr)- ber(mr)bei(mr) Rac= Rdc 2 bei2(mr) + ber2(mr) (10)

where r is the radius of the conductor, m = , = 2f, f is the excitation frequency, is the permeability and is the conductivity of the conductor, ber and bei are the real and imaginary parts of Bessel functions and prime in the above equation is the first derivative with respect to mr. The proximity effect loss of a single-layer solenoid coil is calculated per Smith [12]. An additional factor was included in the total ac resistance expression as ROhmic = Rac(1+Gp), where Gp is the proximity effect factor [12]. Calculated self- and mutual inductance of two coaxial coils were 5.06H and 0.28H, respectively. The resistance calculated from the Ohmic loss terms was 0.09, and the radiation resistance was 3.4 at 3.7MHz. When RL is 2k, the peak theoretical efficiency at the resonant frequency was 97%. To validate the proposed lumped circuit model and theoretical value of the parameters, FEA results and experimentally measured parameters values are compared in Table I. B. Finite Element Analysis of the Test Coil To check and validate the analytical model, the testbed system was modeled using the JMAG-designer 3-D FEA package. At first, a 17cm radius, 4mm wire-diameter, 3 turn, solid circular cross-sectional single copper coil was implemented in a three dimensional space as shown in Fig. 3(a). Self-inductance of the coil was obtained by static analysis. A current of 1Ap-p was applied to the wire and total flux linkage was measured.

where C is the perimeter of coil, is the wavelength, and N is the number of turns of the coil.

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(a) Sectional (c) 3.68MHz (b) 3.34MHz view (resonant frequency) [T] Fig. 4. Magnetic flux density dependence on operating frequency

The resistance of the coil was determined by frequency analysis. At 3.7MHz, 1Vp-p was applied to the coil and total power loss of the single coil was measured and used to calculate resistance. Then, a 30cm distance coupled coil model was tested to measure mutual inductance of the coils as shown in Fig. 3(b). Resultant parameters are shown in Table I. By FEA, a virtual wireless power transfer experiment via resonant magnetic field was performed as well as parameter extraction. The magnetic flux density of the coupled resonating coils in the cross-sectional plane A-A is presented in Fig. 4. It should be noted that the resonating magnetic field is the key component in the power transfer. If the input frequency is not same as the resonant frequency of the two coils, the magnitude of induced magnetic flux density in secondary coil (upper coil in Fig. 4(b)) is small whereas it is very large when the operating frequency is the same as the resonant frequency of the transmitter and receiver resonant tanks in Fig. 4(c). Experimental Results Fig. 5 shows the configuration of the experimental setup. A HF transceiver, ICOM-718, is used as the power source. It generates radio frequency power and its maximum power rating is 100W. A linear amplifier, AL-811, is used to amplify input power up to 600W. MFJ-993b automatic antenna tuner is used for the impedance matching L-network. Inductance of the L-network was 4H and the capacitance was 470pF. Self-inductance and resistance of the sample system was measured by an HP4263A LCR meter. L1 and L2 was 5.1H and R1 and R2 was 0.15 at 3.7MHz. Mutualinductance of the system was measured by a short circuit test whereby the secondary coil was shorted out, and then the voltage of the primary side and the current of the primary and secondary side were measured. From this, the mutualinductance calculated as 0.31H. Measured parameters are shown in Table I. Based on (6), a load resistance RL of 3k was selected. Fig. 6 shows the photos of the HF transceiver, power amplifier, antenna tuner, and two resonant tanks. In Fig. 7, measured input and output voltage and current are shown. Simulated input and output voltage and current, based on the proposed model, are shown in Fig. 8. C.

Fig. 5. The block diagram of experimental setup

(a) HF transceiver

(b) Antenna tuner

By comparing Fig. 7 and 8, it is shown that the proposed model is quite accurate in high power, large air-gap wireless power transfer system. In Fig. 7, measured average input power was 220W, and the measured average output power was 215W which shows 96% power transfer efficiency. In Fig. 9, analytical, FEA, and experimental power transfer efficiencies were compared. This result experimentally verified that 30cm air-gap, 220W, wireless system has 96% power transfer efficiency. IV. COIL DESIGN FOR HIGH POWER APPLICATIONS There are two components causing losses in a wireless power transfer system: radiation loss and Ohmic loss. These two loss components are very critical in MHz operating frequency since radiation loss is proportional to the fourth power of the operating frequency, and Ohmic loss, especially skin effect loss, is nearly proportional to the square root of the frequency. However, radiation loss is negligible in the non-radiative wireless power transfer system because the ratio of the perimeter of the transmitter and receiver coil to the wavelength of electromagnetic field is usually less than one-tenth. Then the radiation resistance of the coil is approximately equal to 10-4. Thus, Ohmic losses caused by skin- and proximity effect are the dominant parts of losses while the radiation to the far-field is negligible in this system. Ohmic losses depend on the cross-sectional shape and the spatial configuration of each turn of a coil. In this section, the effect of cross-sectional shape on the skin- and proximity effect loss variation is investigated by means of FEA.

(c) Linear Amplifier (d) Two resonant tanks Fig.6. Photos of the experimental setup

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Time [s] (a) Measured input voltage and current Output voltage [V] Output current [A]

Legend: Solid line Theoretical efficiency -o- FEA efficiency -- Measured efficiency Solid circular crosssection coil Pin : 220W Frequency [MHz] Fig. 9. Theoretical, FEA and measured efficiency comparison

Input voltage [V]

Input current [A]

Power [W]

Time [s] (b) Measured output voltage and current Legend: Blue - Pin Red Pout Pin : 220W Pout: 215W

Efficiency [%]

Fig. 10. Schematic of a single turn coil with 5 different cross-sections

A.
Time [s] (c) Measured instantaneous input and output power Fig. 7. Measured input and output voltage and current waveforms Input voltage [V]

Time [s] (a) Simulated input voltage and current Output voltage [V] Output current [A]

Time [s] (b) Simulated output voltage and current

Power [W]

Legend: Blue - Pin Red Pout

Time [s] (c) Simulated input and output power Fig.8. Simulated input and output voltage and current waveforms

Skin Effect Loss Depending on Cross-sectional Shape To investigate the impact of skin effect on equivalent series resistances (ESR) of a single turn circular loop coil, five different cross-sectional shapes are modeled and their ESR are compared using FEA. Five different crosssectional shapes are shown in Fig. 10. For fast simulation and comparison, a solid conductor having very small radius (200m) is used as a baseline in the FEA. All the crosssectional shapes are hollow tube type except the baseline. The wall thicknesses of the hollow tubes are equal to the skin depth: 34m at the test frequency, 3.6MHz. The areas of all the different shapes are identical to the area of the solid circular shape in order to have same DC resistance. To maintain the same cross-sectional area, the outer radius of the hollow circular cross section and the length of the sides in each polygon were adjusted. JMAG-Studio, 2-D axissymmetric simulation was used for finite element analysis. In Fig. 11, current density contours of the single turn coil for each cross-sectional shape are shown. It should be noted that in Fig. 11(a), a negative current is flowing in the center of the solid circular (SC) coil while the current densities of the other four coils are positive in the entire cross-section. The negative current in SC is caused by an internal magnetic field which is generated by the current flowing in the skin depth layer [6]. It is known as skin effect and the negative current in SC causes heavily concentrated current distribution on the outer circumference of the coil to compensate the negative current. The effect of the concentrated current density on equivalent series resistance is shown in Fig. 12. It is showing that using a solid conductor in high frequency

Input current [A]

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(a) Solid circular (SC)

(b) Hollow circular (HC)

(c) Hollow octagonal (HO)

Fig. 13. Conventional spiral wound coil with 5 different numbers of turns.

(d) Hollow hexagonal (e) Hollow square (HH) (HS) [A/mm2] Fig. 11. Current density distribution of a single turn coil for 5 different cross-sections Legend: AC resistance [] SC: Solid circular HC: Hollow circular HO: Hollow octagon HH: Hollow hexagon HS: Hollow square

(a) Two turn coil (HC)

[A/mm2] (b) Three turn coil (HC) Fig. 14. Current density distribution of conventional spiral wound coils

Fig. 12. Single turn coil resistances depending on the cross-sectional shape

and high power applications is inefficient. In Fig. 12, it should be noted that the hollow circular (HC) cross-sectional shape has the lowest AC resistance compared to solid circular conductor and any other polygonal shape conductors. The HCs ESR is three times smaller than the SCs ESR. A primary reason for this is because there is no current density concentration caused by skin effect in HC conductor as shown in Fig. 11(b). Since the wall-thickness of the hollow tube is equal to the skin depth, current is distributed uniformly. Secondly, since the current density distributions of polygonal conductors are concentrated on the sharp corners as shown in Fig. 11 (c-e), their ESR is higher than hollow circular type coil. Because of its low skin effect loss, a hollow circular tube having skin depth equal to the wall thickness will be used as the basic geometry for the following discussion of spatial configuration. B. Proximity Effect Loss Depending on the Spatial Configuration of Each Coil Turn Another Ohmic loss mechanism of the coil in wireless power transfer system, proximity effect loss, is caused by interaction of magnetic fields between adjacent current carrying conductors. Proximity effect induces additional non-uniformity on the conductor current distribution [12]. To investigate proximity effects role on ESR, a spiral coil having a hollow circular cross-section is analyzed in this paper. An isometric view of the spiral coil and its A-A

(a) Schematic of magnetic field interaction between adjacent current carrying conductors

[T] (b) Magnetic flux intensity contour for three turn conventional spiral coil Fig. 15. Magnetic flux re-distribution due to an adjacent conductor

cross-sectional drawing is depicted in Fig. 13. In this analysis, five different cases were tested, from two-turn to six-turn coils. Turn-to-turn spacing was 40m, which is almost the same as the skin depth. The resulting current distribution for the two-turn and three-turn coil cases are shown in Fig. 14. The non-uniformity of the current density distribution for the twoturn coil is clearly shown by comparing Fig. 11(b) and Fig. 14(a). In Fig. 14 (a), current density is very high at the outer circumference of each coil while it is low in the center

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AC resistance []

Frequency: 3.6MHz Cross-section shape: Hollow circular Coil shape: spiral

Number of turns [turns] Fig. 16. ESR depending on the number of turns AC Resistance [] Frequency: 3.6MHz Cross-section shape: Hollow circular Coil shape: spiral Number of turn: 2

Fig. 18 Schematic of the proposed conductor design

2Rskin

Rproximity (a) Two-turn Frequency: 3.6MHz Cross-section shape: Hollow circular Coil shape: spiral Number of turn: 6

[T] Fig. 19. Magnetic field intensity contour of the three-turn plated coil

6Rskin

Rproximity (b) Six-turn Fig. 17 ESR change due to proximity effect

region and it is even negative on the right side of the left turn coil. The reason for non-uniformity is shown in Fig. 15. The magnetic fields generated by turn 1 (solid line) and turn 2 (dotted line) are interacting destructively in this center region (region 2) while they interacts constructively in region 1 and 3. As a result, the magnetic field intensity is very high in region 1 and 3 while it is very low in region 2, which causes high current density in blue area and low current density in green area of Fig 15 (a). The situation degrades as the number of turns increases as can be seen in Fig. 14 (b) and Fig. 15 (b). As depicted in Fig. 16, the ESR of a spiral wound coil increases non-linearly as the number of turns of the coil increases. Fig. 17 shows the impact of proximity effect on ESR by comparing the resistance of a coil with the resistance assuming only skin effect exists. If proximity effect does not exist, the ESR of a two-turn coil should be equal to two times of the skin effect resistance (R skin ). However, because of the proximity effect, total resistance is 1.3 times larger than 2*Rskin for the two-turn coil and it is 3.3 times larger than 6*Rskin for the six-turn coil. C. Proposed Conductor Design According to Fig. 14 - 17, ESR of a current-carrying coil

increases rapidly if the magnetic field of a turn interacts with an adjacent turns magnetic field (proximity effect loss). It should be noted that both constructive and destructive interaction causes an increase in the ESR because of concentration of current density in a small part of the conductor. Also, it is shown in Fig. 11 and 12, that skin effect loss is significantly increased if a solid circular conductor is used instead of a hollow tube conductor. Based on analysis of skin- and proximity effect losses, a new spatial layout of three-turn plated coil is proposed in Fig. 18. In this design, an individual turn constitutes an arc component of total circular hollow cross-section. For example, each turn of a three-turn coil occupies 120 degrees as shown in Fig. 18. By this spatial layout, magnetic flux interactions between the turns are significantly decreased because the inside of the circular coil has nearly zero magnetic field by symmetry and the magnetic fields of the outside of the circular coil are connected smoothly without adding or subtracting the fields. As shown by FEA in Fig. 19, the magnetic flux contour does not change abruptly while the magnetic flux of the three-turn conventional spiral coil changed significantly in the neighboring area of the each turn as shown in Fig. 15 (b). Fig. 20 shows the current density distribution of the proposed design coil. As expected, current distribution is almost uniform and there is no reverse direction current flow. Resultant ESR of the proposed design is shown in Fig. 21 with ESR of other conventional spiral coils. By this comparison, it is demonstrated that the proposed spatial layout of the plated multi-turn coil decreases the losses caused by skin- and proximity effect. Although only a three-turn example is shown here, this spatial layout principle can be extended to any multi-turn coil layout. Implementation of the proposed conductor geometry can be achieved by plating copper on a dielectric tube since the wall-thickness is equal to the skin depth. Because of the

AC Resistance []

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Skin- and proximity effect losses were shown to be dominant. A new spatial layout for multi-turn coils was proposed that has very low losses compared to conventional coil geometries. The proposed spatial layout of the new multi-turn coil was evaluated by comparing its ESR to the ESR of conventional designs since that is a primary metric for the power conversion efficiency.
[MA/m2] Fig. 20. Current density distribution of the proposed three-turn plated coil Legend: Conventional: HC: Hollow circular HO: Hollow octagon HH: Hollow hexagon HS: Hollow square Proposed: PC: Plated circular Frequency: 3.6MHz Fig. 21. Resistance comparison of three-turn coils

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the motivation provided by the Wisconsin Electric Machines and Power Electronics Consortium (WEMPEC) of the University of WisconsinMadison. REFERENCES
[1] [2] A. Karalis, J. D. Joannopoulos, and M. Soljai, Efficient wireless non-radiative mid-range energy transfer, Ann. Phys., vol. 323, pp3448, Jan. 2008. E. Waffenschmidt and T. Staring, Limitation of Inductive Power Transfer for Consumer Applications, in Proc. 13th European Conf. on Power Electronics and Applications, EPE 2009, Barcelona, Spain, Sept. 2009. Z. Yang, W. Liu, and E. Basham, Inductor Modeling in Wireless Links for Implantable Electronics, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, vol. 43, pp.3851-3860, Oct. 2007. R. R. Harrison, Designing Efficient Inductive Power Links for Implantable Devices, in Proc. 2007 IEEE Intl. Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2007), New Orleans, LA, pp. 2080-2083, 2007. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 3rd ed., New York: Wiley, 2005, pp. 231-246. U. S. Inan and A. S. Inan, Engineering Electromagnetics and Waves, Boston: Addison Wesley, 1999. H. C. Miller, Inductance Formula for a Single-Layer Coil, in Proc. IEEE, vol. 75, no.2, pp.256-257, Feb. 1987 R. Lundin, A Handbook Formula for the Inductance of a Single-Layer Circular Coil, in Proc. IEEE, vol. 73, no. 9, Sep. 1985. F. W. Grover, Tables for the Calculation of the Mutual Inductive of Any Two Coaxial Single-Layer Coils, in Proc. Inst. Radio Engineers, vol. 21, no. 7, Jul. 1933. F. W. Grover, The Calculation of the Inductance of Single-Layer Coils and Spirals Would With Wire of Large Cross Sections, in Proc. Inst. Radio Engineers, vol. 17, no. 11, Nov. 1929. L. F. Woodruff, Principles of Electric Power Transmission, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons In., 1938. G. S. Smith, Radiation Efficiency of Electrically Small Multiturn Loop Antennas, IEEE Trans on Ant. and Prop., vol. 20, pp.656-657, Sep. 1972. G. S. Smith, Proximity Effect in Systems of Parallel Conductors, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 2196-2203, 1972. D. Kurschner and C. Rathge, Contactless Energy Transmission Systems with Improved Coil Positioning Flexibility for High Power Applications, in Proc. IEEE PESC, pp.4326-4332, Rhodes, Greece, Jun. 2008. H. Abe, H. Sakamoto, and K. Harada, A Noncontact Charger Using a Resonant Converter with Parallel Capacitor of the Secondary Coil, IEEE Trans. on Ind. App., vol. 36, no.2, pp. 444-451, 2000. C. M. Zierhofer and E. S. Hochmair, Geometric Approach for Coupling Enhancement of Magnetically Coupled Coils, IEEE Trans. on Biomedical Eng., vol. 43, no. 7, pp. 708-714, 1996. B. L. Cannon, J. F. Hoburg, D. D. Stancil, and S. C. Goldstein, Magnetic Resonant Coupling As a Potential Means for Wireless Power Transfer to Multiple Small Receivers, IEEE Trans on Power Electronics, vol.24, no.7, Jul. 2009. A. Kurs, R. Moffatt, and M. Soljai, Simultaneous mid-range power transfer to multiple devices, in Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, vol. 96, 044102, 2010.

AC Resistance []

[3] [4] Isometric view Bottom view Fig. 22. 3-D drawing of the proposed conductor layout [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

high operating frequency, (several MHz), skin depth is about 30m that is suitable for plating. By transposing each turn by 360/N degrees, where N is the number of turns, an N turn inductor can be built easily. An example spatial layout for three-turn inductor is shown in Fig. 22. The first turn, (yellow face), is transposed by 120 degrees to meet the second turn, (red face). The second turn is transposed by 120 degrees to meet the third turn, (blue face). CONCLUSIONS The first focus of this paper is on development of an equivalent circuit model for 30 cm distance, 220W, high efficiency, wireless power transfer system. By using electric and magnetic field analysis of the current carrying coils in the system, it was shown that the coils can be represented as two lumped inductors and resistors with very weak mutual inductance. All the inductances and resistances were also estimated by closed form expressions. Based on the proposed model and the estimated circuit parameters, the equation for power transfer efficiency was derived. It was shown by finite element field analysis and experiments that for high efficiency power transfer over large air gaps, matched tuning of the resonant transmitter and resonant receiver is critical. As a second focus, the origins of losses in a non-radiative mid-range wireless power transfer system were investigated.

[15] [16] [17]

[18]

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