marketing sustainable concrete through advice, education & information

sustainable concrete

Concrete is the most commonly used building material on the planet and most of the infrastructure for modern civilization has been built using concrete in some form or other. Concrete has a low embodied energy and a significant number of inherent characteristics which contribute to sustainablity of concrete structures.

sustainable concrete

Cement & Concrete Institute 2011

ISBN 978-0-9584779-4-9

Copyright, 2011, by Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand, South Africa

This publication may not be reproduced in whole or in part without the written permission of the Cement & Concrete Institute.

Design, layout and production by DesignWright Printing by the Bureau Digital Media (Pty) Ltd on 100% recycled paper

introduction
Concrete is the most commonly used building material on the planet and most of the infrastructure for modern civilization has been built using concrete in some form or other. Concrete has a low embodied energy and a significant number of inherent characteristics which contribute to sustainablity of concrete structures. This document deals with the issue of sustainability, what it is and why it is important and more importantly the role which concrete can play in the provision of sustainable buildings and infrastructure. The owner, developer, designer and contractor are provided with information indicating that by using concrete wisely, they will be contributing to sustainability and by incorporating some of the benefits of concrete, save money and resources during the life of the structure. Sustainability is defined and a number of ways in which it is assessed are mentioned. The document goes on to indicate the various ways concrete can contribute to sustainability by reducing embodied energy, consumed energy and in the use of resources. Finally guidance is given to indicate where and how all these benefits can be used during the design, construction, use and end-of-life phases of a building or structure. Embodied energy and embodied carbon are linked. Embodied carbon can be reported as embodied energy using the various emission factors. Due to the complex nature and multiple energy sources contained in the embodied energy of a structure, in this document the embodied energy will be reported using embodied carbon measured in tons of CO2e per ton or cubic metre of concrete (CO2e/ton or CO2e/m3). In the context of this report, the terms embodied energy and embodied carbon are interchangeable. As the primary energy consumed during the life of a building is electricity, and to be able to compare the embodied carbon with the energy during use, the Eskom electricity factor of 1 200 tons CO2e/MWh can be used to convert consumed energy into carbon emissions. In the case of transport infrastructure, the energy consumed will be primarily in terms of petrol and diesel consumption.

what is sustainability?
In order to save the planet and leave a legacy for our children and their children, we all need to ensure that everything we do is sustainable, be it at work or home. The Bruntland report commissioned by the United Nations defined sustainable development as, Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability therefore means balancing various economic, environmental and social factors (See Figure 1). This is often referred to as the Triple Bottom Line. Making sure that these three factors are in balance will result in increased sustainability. Emphasis on any one factor at the expense of others takes the system out of balance, whilst moving towards the green centre balances the system. However each of these factors is complex and multi-faceted.

definitions
Sustainability is usually expressed or assessed in terms of either embodied energy or embodied carbon expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e ) and consumed energy. For the purpose of this document the following definitions will be used. Embodied energy (EE) the energy consumed for the raw material extraction, transportation, manufacture, assembly, installation, disassembly and deconstruction for any product system over the duration of a products life. Embodied Carbon (EC) the CO2e released for the raw material extraction, transportation, manufacture, assembly, installation, disassembly and deconstruction for any product system over the duration of a products life. Consumed energy (CE) the energy consumed during the life or use of a building or structure.

Concrete has a low embodied energy and a significant number of inherent characteristics which contribute to sustainablity of concrete.

Making structures and buildings sustainable is good engineering practice and involves using limited resources to achieve design objectives and balancing competing and often contradictory interests over the full life-cycle of the structure. This has always been good engineering, but now far more consideration has to be given to environmental issues (primarily energy consumption and the depletion of natural resources) and social issues (the effect the building or structure has on the community) both during and after construction. Sustainability in this context refers to buildings and infrastructure and their energy consumption during their lifespan.

In terms of environmental factors influencing sustainability, the primary issue often considered when assessing sustainability is energy usage. This includes the embodied energy in the materials and products used in the construction of the structure and the energy consumption during the life of the building. The energy usage is affected by a large number of design and other factors, not necessarily all of which are addressed in this document. The depletion of natural resources also needs to be considered. A number of ways of assessing the sustainability of structures exist. These include rating systems such as the Green Star system of the Green Building Council in South Africa and the LEED system in the USA. These systems award points for various sustainability initiatives during the design and life of the building. Unfortunately, these systems often lead to chasing points for a particular rating rather than to concentrating on real sustainability. In South Africa bicycle stands were provided at a building to gain a point or two: the surrounding environment is not conducive to cycling, i.e. no cycle paths, etc. and very few people cycle.

Environmental

Increased sustainability Social Economic

Figure 1: The Triple Bottom Line concept

Compliance Vanilla

Beyond Compliance Green

Future Proof Deep Green Net Zero Primary Energy

Energy local codes, standards and regulations in place Near Zero Carbon Construction
Zero Unsustainable Materials

Carbon

Materials

Zero Waste Net Zero Water

Water

Figure 2: The Skanska approach to providing sustainable structures

Skanska1, a large construction company which operates in Europe and North America, found the existing rating systems such as Green Star and LEED to be very complex and not entirely appropriate. They therefore developed their own approach (See Figure 2) which was to aim for the following during the life of a structure: Zero net primary energy consumption Zero net carbon construction Zero use of unsustainable materials Zero waste and Zero net water consumption. The Cement and Concrete Institute (C&CI) believes this is a very pragmatic approach which focuses on sustainable issues by setting targets rather than scoring points as in most current rating systems. While the zero target may be difficult to achieve it is a worthwhile target towards which to strive. C&CI supports the Skanska approach in this document together with the life cycle perspective shown in Figure 3. The National Ready Mixed Concrete Association in the USA has indicated the following average savings of sustainable buildings over conventional buildings:

Energy use...................... 30% lower Carbon emissions............ 35% lower Water use........................ 30 to 50% lower Waste generation. ........... 50 to 90% lower

current situation
To a large extent, engineers primarily focus on structural design, construction materials and the construction process itself, and may also consider the use of secondary industrial products, recycling, resource conservation and embodied energy. The material supply industry is concentrating on whether one product is greener than another or has lower embodied energy. While these are important, real opportunities are being missed by ignoring the operational or use phase of buildings and structures. Research suggests that the long-term, cumulative benefits of considering the whole life cycle of structures are staggering. While it is important to consider and embrace all sustainability strategies to reap the full benefit, far more attention needs to be paid to the use phase and a full life-cycle assessment (LCA) of any structure. A life-cycle assessment involves a cumulative analysis of all impacts throughout all stages of the life cycle. Recent comprehensive LCA studies have given us clues as to where we be can be most effective in ensuring sustainable structures.

70% Product Use Phase

16% Recycling Phase

20% Materials Acquisition, Production and Construction Phases Figure 3a: The life-cycle approach to sustainable development

While it is important to consider and embrace all sustainability strategies to reap the full benefit, far more attention needs to be paid to the use phase and a full life-cycle assessment (LCA) of any structure.

Materials for concrete Recycling

Concrete production

30%
Concrete placing

70%

Concrete structures in service

Figure 3b: The life-cycle approach to sustainable development

% 100 End of Life Truck Traffic Car Traffic Construction & Maintenance Percent of each Item Used or Produced during Each Stage in the Life of the Road 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Ecotoxicity Human toxicity Energy Water Resources Waste Nuclear waste O3 Smog Odours Co2 SO2 PO4 0

Figure 4: Ecoprofile of different life cycle stages of a typical road

An example from the roads industry illustrates this point. Research from the Centre dEnergetique de lEcole des Mines de Paris2 determined an ecoprofile of different life stages of a typical road (See Figure 4). It can be seen that the bulk of the impacts occur during the use or life of the road. Our current conventional tools for improving sustainability in roads include the use of recycled concrete and asphalt, the use of extenders, warm mix asphalt, etc. Even if a 30% improvement is made in the embodied energy (which is highly unlikely in the short term) during the initial phase, the improvement is shown by the yellow line in Figure 6. If however we could reduce the use phase portion by 5% (which is far more possible) this would be represented by the red area in Figure 6.

There is a similar pattern reported in the building industry where a report from the Athena Institute3 showed that a buildings operating energy consumption over its lifetime is between 87 and 97% of the total energy requirement while the embodied energy only accounts for between 3 and 13 % of the total energy. These two examples clearly illustrate the need to consider a full life-cycle assessment of all the likely impacts of the structure and particularly those during the use phase of the structure which is where the greatest impacts are going to be made. This is very similar to the challenge with project cost where it emerged that initial cost was not a good indicator of total cost.

Extraction Production Construction Figure 5: Overall ecoprofile

USE PHASE

End of Life

USE PHASE Extraction Production Construction Figure 6: Overall ecoprofile showing impact of improvements End of Life

As the operational energy of a structure is reduced, the relative proportion of embodied energy will increase. (See Figure 7).

co 2 emissions from concrete

The current average worldwide consumption of concrete is about one ton per year for every living human being. Because of this extensive use, concrete has a relatively large environmental footprint, but worldwide the cement industry still only accounts for approximately 5% of man-made CO2 emissions. Approximately 40% of this is from burning coal and 60% is from the calcination of limestone. While the above information on the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) of cement is readily available, structures are not constructed out of cement but rather from concrete, of which cement is but one ingredient.

Due to an increased demand for information on the carbon footprint of concrete, the C&CI commissioned a study to determine the CO2e values for all the ingredients in concrete and ultimately, the concrete itself. The environmental impact of the production of the most commonly used raw materials (cement, ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA), aggregates, water and admixtures) as well as the production of ready-mixed and precast concrete was assessed, resulting in: A report assessing the cradle to site CO2e emissions of raw materials used in concrete, including transport of those materials, and quantifying average CO2e emissions for each of the raw materials used in concrete

Embodied Carbon 19%

Embodied Carbon 38% Operational Carbon 81%

20% Energy Reduction

Operational Carbon 62%

Operational Carbon 37%

20% Energy Reduction Embodied Carbon 63% Increased Focus on Construction Figure 7: Increasing effect of embodied energy as operational energy is reduced

 A model based on the report, allowing the designer to experiment with different material combinations for concrete mixes to accurately quantify the CO2e impact for one cubic metre of concrete cast in situ or precast, and assess the effect of different raw material properties on the R/m3 cost and the environmental impact of the concrete. The report and model are freely available at: www.cnci.org.za

The direct, indirect and other indirect emissions as defined by the Green House Gas Protocol were determined and incorporated into the model, using the data gathered from 128 production activities of the concrete industry based on 2007 data. The total CO2e emissions from each contributing activity were then compiled into a single model to determine the overall emissions per cubic metre of concrete specific to the South African industry.

cement
An accepted international figure for CO2e is approximately 1 000 kg per ton of cement. This value is being reduced by new technology and the use of alternative fuels in cement kilns. The primary method of significantly reducing the emissions is to reduce the clinker factor in cement by extending the cement using materials such as GGBS, FA, limestone and other materials. The sourcing of synthetic gypsum from other industries such as industrial by-products from the fertilizer and sulphuric acid industries for use in cement further contributes to sustainability. The cement industry is active in reducing energy consumption and in particular in reducing the amount of non-renewable fossil fuels through the introduction of modern technology and equipment. This includes the use of alternative fuels and resources. The introduction of waste tyres in current kilns will also address the sustainable management of used tyres. Table 1 below shows average CO2e emission values for different cements and the effect of extenders on the overall CO2e per ton. Note that these are average figures and the actual figures will vary from supplier to supplier. Your supplier should be contacted for the CO2e for the particular cement that you intend to use.

cement extenders
Cement extenders have a dramatic effect on reducing the CO2e per ton of cement as well as adding benefits ranging from better workability of fresh concrete through to more durable, impermeable concrete. These materials are generally secondary products which end up in landfills if not used by the concrete industry. The average values for South African extenders are shown below.

Table 2: Average CO2e per ton of extender Extender Type Average Emission Values (kg CO2e/ton) FA GGBS 2 130

aggregates
The average value for aggregates is 5 kg CO2e per ton. Aggregates are high-volume, low-cost materials. It is energy efficient and sustainable to extract them close to communities and industries where they are to be used. In terms of choosing aggregates for sustainable concrete, it is important to not only take immediate cost implications into account. Less may be more: choosing the less expensive option may affect both short- and long-term savings. The C&CIs CO2e emissions model allows assessment of the effect of different aggregates on concrete properties, and in particular highlights the cost implications of choosing poor quality sands. The use of recycled concrete as an aggregate will further reduce the CO2e of the concrete and at the same time reduce the depletion of natural resources and the dumping of old concrete at landfill sites.

Table 1: Average CO2e per ton of cement Cement Type CEM I CEM II A-L CEM II A-S CEM II A-V CEM II B-L CEM II B-S CEM II B-V CEM III A CEM IV A CEM IV B CEM V A CEM V B Average Emission Values (kg CO2e/ton) 985 840 815 790 720 730 690 560 640 570 590 415

admixtures
The average value for admixtures is 220 kg CO2e per ton. Although the proportion of admixture in a concrete mix is tiny compared to other raw materials, recent developments in admixture technology now allow admixtures to be used to control properties of concrete such as workability or pumpability, durability, aesthetics and cost effectiveness very precisely. Although the negative impact on the environment is minimal, admixtures have a major positive effect on sustainability.

water
The average value for water is 1kg CO2e per ton. Concrete ready-mix plants are recycling wash and waste water, saving costs and reducing consumption of this precious resource.

10

Durability, economy, energy efficiency, fire resistance, low maintenance costs, recycling and thermal mass, all add to the sustainability of concrete in our built environment

11

concrete
With the intention of determining the CO2e emissions resulting from the production of a cubic metre of concrete in South Africa, the C&CI developed a model for the determination of CO2e emissions related to the production of concrete. The production energy information gathered was used to determine the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions of each sector. The total emissions from all sectors were then compiled into a single model to determine the overall emissions per cubic metre of concrete specific to the South African industry. The C&CI model allows the user to input specific concrete mixes to determine the CO2e emissions resulting from a cubic metre of the specific concrete going into products such as roof tiles, bricks, precast concrete slabs or in-situ concrete. In order to determine the effects on CO2e emissions of varying a concrete mix design, the C&CI commissioned the design of specific mixes. All the mix designs used raw materials in varying amounts in order to quantify the CO2e emissions and to evaluate the effects of: Blending extenders such as GGBS and FA with a CEM I 42.5 Admixture (water reducer) usage and Aggregate characteristics.

A total of eight 30-MPa concrete mixes were designed. Dolomite aggregates (with low water demand) were used for six of the mixes. Mixes were carried out with and without a water-reducing admixture as indicated in Table 3. In addition two mixes were made with CEM l and decomposed granite sand rather than dolomite, to illustrate the effect of using sand with a high water demand as opposed to one with a low water demand. The model was used to determine the effect of these different combinations on the CO2e emissions and the results are shown in Figure 8. It was found that an average cubic metre of in-situ concrete containing CEM I 42.5 with an extender (GGBS) and a water reducing admixture with a specified strength of 30 MPa, resulted in a range of between 215 and 240 kg CO2e/m3 or 90 to 100 kg CO2e/ton. An equivalent strength mix using CEM I without extender or admixture resulted in 376 kg CO2e/m3 or 157 kg CO2e/ton. These figures should be compared with the average CO2e for a CEM l of 985 kg CO2e/ton. As stated previously, structures are constructed with concrete (not cement) and the above example indicates that the carbon footprint of concrete is significantly less than previously thought.

Table 3: Mix details Mix No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Binder CEM l CEM l 70/30 CEM l/FA 70/30 CEM l/FA 50/50 CEM l/GGBS 50/50 CEM l/GGBS CEM l CEM l Water Reducer Y N Y N Y N Y N Water Demand of Aggregate Low Low Low Low Low Low High High

12

kgCO2/m3 600 Admix No admix 500 400 300 200 100 0 CEM I 70/30 FA 50/50 GGBS CEM I Decomposed Granite Sand

Dolomite Sand Figure 8: CO2 emissions resulting from various mix designs

Concrete carbonates during its life and absorbs CO2 from the environment. This process is generally very slow and is deleterious to the concrete in that it can promote the corrosion of steel reinforcement. Steps are therefore taken to reduce as much carbonation of the concrete as possible during the life of the structure. However, the concrete will still carbonate. The carbonation or absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere increases significantly when the concrete is demolished and crushed. Concrete has an excellent ecological profile compared to other construction materials, with a number of inherent characteristics that contribute towards achieving balance in accordance with the Triple Bottom Line concept. The social contribution of concrete to our civilization cannot be overestimated. Concrete is the second most used resource in the world after water and contributes significantly to our standard of living, from the houses we live in, the schools and universities that we attend, the offices we work in, the infrastructure of water reticulation and sewers, the dams that hold our water, to the roads that make transport for us and all our needs possible.

Using concrete makes environmental sense. Properties such as economy, thermal mass, fire resistance and water-tightness add to the sustainability of concrete in our built environment. And at the end of the usage phase, concrete can easily be recycled. From an economic viewpoint, although cement is relatively costly to produce in both financial terms and in terms of embodied energy, concrete is a cost-effective material with low embodied energy. In the long-term, concretes durability, low maintenance and re-usability have very positive economic effects, and concrete structures have optimal energy performance with associated positive effects on whole-life energy usage. Up to 40% of all materials used in human activity are directed into the built environment. This has a direct and visible impact on the worlds finite resources. The concept of sustainable development includes the ability to build the facilities and structures needed today without compromising resource supply for the future.

Using concrete makes environmental sense. Properties such as economy, thermal mass, fire resistance and water-tightness add to the sustainability of concrete in our built environment. And at the end of the usage phase, concrete can easily be recycled.

13

In practice, many of the factors affecting the contribution of concrete to sustainable development are inter-related: the use of cement extenders has a positive environmental impact (less production of cement = less CO2 emissions, use of other industry secondary products, resulting in waste minimisation and hence saving in landfill space), social impact (less use of finite resources, better durability, less secondary products dumped in landfills), and economic impact (better value for money in the long-term). To achieve substantial sustainability benefit during a building or structures life cycle, the designer, specifier and owner need to take into account a myriad of factors

during the design, construction, usage and end-of-life phases, not only in terms of saving energy and reducing the use of finite resources, but also in terms of exploring other inherent advantages of concrete. Some of these advantages and attributes of concrete are dealt with below.

local material
All the primary materials used in concrete, with the possible exception of some sophisticated admixtures, are produced locally. The extenders and slag aggregates

Figure 9: Labour-intensive construction

Figure 10: Bus stop showing design flexibility of concrete

14

used are secondary products and would otherwise be dumped if not used by the cement and concrete industry. While the cement factories are generally located close to their raw material sources, sources of aggregates and ready-mix plants can be placed close to the areas of demand therefore reducing the energy required for transport. The materials used in concrete make efficient use of natural resources, and again the potential for recycling at life-end saves quarrying of finite resources. Concrete mixes for ready-mix plants and precast yards are designed specifically to use aggregates sourced from local quarries, and more recently, recycled concrete, thus saving fuel in transporting these materials. Importing cement would increase its embodied energy due to the energy involved in transport.

construction uses a significant labour component thereby creating jobs when concrete is used.

design flexibility
As concrete products and elements can be constructed into any shape and can be cast in various ways including in situ, precast, etc., this offers the designer a large amount of flexibility. For the architect this allows expression in different forms while for the engineer, the flexibility allows for complex sections and shapes. The fact that concrete can be constructed in situ or by precasting, or using a hybrid of the two methods provides the designer a large degree of flexibility when programming a project, particularly if the project needs to be fast-tracked.

labour intensive construction

Concrete and concrete products lend themselves in most cases to labour-intensive construction whether this is the small-scale manufacture of concrete products or the use of concrete in various forms of construction. In the provision of human settlements, concrete roof tiles, concrete bricks or blocks, concrete kerbs, concrete reticulation poles, concrete block paving and concrete pipes may be used, all of which may be installed using labour-intensive construction methods. Most concrete

variety of finishes
There are unlimited possibilities for finishes when concrete is used. Concrete finishes can be designed in a range of attractive colours and a multitude of textures and finishes. In effect, the finish is put into the concrete during the construction stage, rather than applied later as a separate operation. The use of concrete as a final finish means no other finishing activities such as painting, tiling or coating are required. This saves energy and materials at construction stage and also reduces future maintenance costs. In addition, concrete finishes do not emit any toxic or volatile products into the environment and have no detrimental effects on the environment during their entire lifecycle.

Figure 11: Concrete finish

15

Figure 12: A durable strong structure

16

cost-effectiveness
The initial costs of well-engineered designs for appropriate products constructed with concrete as the major material should be equally or more cost effective than designs using other materials. Life-cycle cost analyses show that, because of concretes durability, the whole life cost of many projects is lower when concrete is used as the major construction material.

Concretes inherent fire resistance can restrict smoke from spreading, and will largely maintain the buildings strength during a fire. After a fire, the continuing structural integrity and reduction in smoke damage also reduces the magnitude of insurance claims. After a fire, concrete structures generally remain intact, allowing for relatively quick repair and re-occupation, saving time and money, as well as finite resources. Fire-damaged concrete buildings generally do not require demolishing and rebuilding. Concrete structures both protect life and preserve property, thereby contributing to enhanced social and economic performance of the built environment.

structural integrity
The structural design and construction of concrete elements in buildings (including in-situ reinforced concrete, precast concrete, tilt-up, hybrid construction and post-tensioned concrete elements) is well understood by architects, structural engineers and contractors. South African design and construction codes regulate the structural requirements of concrete buildings. This leads to safe structures, able to withstand any permanent, imposed, wind and earthquake actions. For common spans, the relatively high mass of concrete floors leads to natural damping and low vibration. For more-stringent criteria, such as for laboratories or hospital operating theatres, the additional cost to meet stricter vibration criteria is negligible.

durability
Concrete is one of the most durable materials on earth. Well-designed, well-constructed concrete offers exceptional durability and long life in any structure. Concrete structures built over 100 years ago (some as long ago as Roman times) are still in active service today. Such extended life span results not only in less expenditure of energy in building new homes, infrastructure, etc. but also in less maintenance and impact on the use of finite resources. The first line of defence against deterioration is good quality, impermeable concrete. In the case of reinforced concrete, the quality of the cover concrete is extremely important in protecting the reinforcing steel against aggressive agents and fire. This zone of concrete is intended to act as the barrier between the reinforcing steel and external aggressive environment and its quality is of primary importance in durability considerations. Good material choice, mix proportioning and good construction practice are essential to ensure durable concrete. Ensuring the concretes integrity and durability is essential in order to utilize the equity already in the existing structure and not to re-invest in materials and energy sooner than is necessary.

fire resistance
Concrete does not burn and does not emit any toxic fumes when subjected to fire. It will not produce smoke or drip molten particles. For these reasons, in the majority of applications, concrete can be described as fire resistant. The concrete in structures, unlike a number of other construction materials, generally does not require fire-proofing or protection if appropriately designed, because of concretes inherent fire resistance. This obviates the time, cost, additional materials and labour required to provide separate fire protection measures. During a fire, the concrete cover will protect the reinforcement from buckling or yielding.

17

Peak temperature delayed by up to six hours

30C

Up to 6-8C difference between peak external and internal temperature

15C

Day

Night

Day

Internal temperature with high thermal mass

Internal temperature with low thermal mass

External temperature

Figure 13: Stabilising effect of thermal mass on internal temperature

energy efficiency
The use of local materials in the production of concrete minimises fuel requirements for handling and transportation. Once in place, concrete offers significant energy savings over the lifetime of the structure. The embodied energy in the construction of a structure is generally minimal relative to the energy likely to be consumed during the life or use phase of a structure. This has been illustrated earlier. Any reduction in energy during the use phase is likely to have a significant effect when the life cycle assessment is analysed. See also the effect of thermal mass on the energy consumption of structures below. In the case of roads and transport infrastructure, any aspect reducing fuel consumption will have a major impact on the energy usage over the lifetime of a busy motorway. A large Canadian study quantified a 2.35% fuel saving by using concrete roads, with a subsequent reduction in the emission of polluting gases. See also the section on reduced lighting energy later in this document.

thermal mass
Thermal mass (also called thermal capacitance or heat capacity) is the ability of a body to store heat. Together with effective ventilation, solar shading and building orientation, the use of thermal mass is a critical component of passive solar design of buildings. Buildings with a medium to high level of thermal mass are characterised by their inherent ability to store thermal energy, and then release it several hours later. Thermal mass can make a significant contribution to reducing energy consumption and green house gas emissions, while maintaining occupancy comfort during the life of the building (See Figure 13). For a material to provide a useful level of thermal mass, a combination of three basic properties is required: High specific heat capacity to maximise the heat that can be stored per kg of material High density to maximise the overall weight of the material used Moderate thermal conductivity so that heat conduction is roughly in synchronisation with the diurnal heat flow in and out of the building.

Table 4: Thermal properties of common construction materials Building Material Timber Steel Concrete Brick Density (kg/m3) 500 7 800 2 400 1 750 Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K) 0.13 50 1.75 0.77 Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg.K) 1 600 450 1 000 1 000 Effective Thermal Mass Low Low High High

18

Winter day During the cold season in South Africa, the low angle of the sun shines through north-facing windows, and heat is absorbed by thermal mass in the floor and the walls. In the evening when the sun goes down and the temperature drops, heat flow is reversed and passes back into the room.

North

Winter night At night, curtains are drawn and windows kept shut to minimise heat loss. Heat continues to be released by the thermal mass, and supplementary heating is adjusted so only the minimal amount is used. By morning the thermal mass will have given up most of its heat and the occupants rely on supplementary heating until later in the day.

Figure 14: Thermal mass in summer

Summer day During very hot weather, windows are kept shut to keep warm air out. Overhangs on the north elevation can keep out the high angle of the sun during the hottest part of the day. Cooling is provided by thermal mass in the floor and walls.

North

Summer night The windows are opened at night to ventilate the building and cool the thermal masses. If another hot day is expected, the windows are closed again in the morning and the cycle is repeated.

Figure 15: Thermal mass in winter

19

This is summarised for different materials in Table 4. Harnessing the effect of concretes high thermal mass has positive implications in terms of energy usage during the buildings entire life cycle. Using heat or cold absorbed by exposed thermal masses gives an increased time-lag between peak heating/cooling loads and outside temperatures, allowing the use of off-peak energy as a top-up instead of the primary source. This also allows the use of smaller, more efficient heating/ cooling equipment, with less energy usage to maintain the same interior temperatures. The process can be assisted by natural ventilation or by water-cooling (up to 80 W/m2), and exposed soffits and underfloor heating can exploit the thermal mass in 250-mm or thicker concrete slabs. Reverse mass designs are particularly suited to cool and temperate regions, but also create cool daytime refuges in tropical climates. If the building is well-insulated and the concrete thermal masses are exposed inside the

building, the concrete absorbs heat during the day and releases it slowly over the evening. Temperatures inside are lower than outside during the day, and higher than outside during the night, with ventilation allowing the heat to escape. Both summer and winter evenings are likely to be within comfortable range, with consequent minimal supplementary daytime heating or cooling required (See Figures 14 and 15).

light and heat reflectance (albedo effect)

The light colour of concrete has a number of benefits. The two primary benefits are reduced lighting energy consumption and a reduction in the heat island effect in urban areas. An additional benefit is a significant contribution to combatting global warming.

Figure 16: Increased visibility with concrete paved areas

F 92 Late afternoon temperature

C 33 32 31 30

85

Rural Commercial

Urban Residential

Suburban Residential Rural Farmland

Suburban Downtown Park Residential

Figure 17: Illustration of heat island effect

20

reduced lighting energy

The light colour of concrete provides a safer environment and also enables lighting requirements to be reduced, both internally and externally. For concrete roads or parking areas, research in the USA has shown that surface reflectance readings on concrete pavements and other surfaces are four to five times higher than other road surfacing materials which means increased visibility of the road, pedestrians and other vehicles for drivers and increased security in urban areas (See Figure 16). Similar research has shown that the increased reflectance of concrete pavements results in a reduction in lighting masts and therefore energy requirements by up to 24%. This principle applies also to urban areas and car parks.

heat island effect

In urbanised parts of the world, the towns and cities are generally hotter than the rural areas surrounding them. As these centres increase in size, ambient temperatures increase accordingly. On hot summer days, ambient conditions in urban areas can be 2 to 6C warmer than in the adjacent countryside. This phenomenon is known as the urban heat island effect; and is quite separate from global warming caused by greenhouse gasses. In addition to the discomfort so caused, and the additional demand for artificial cooling, urban heat islands can influence rainfall patterns, with increased rainfall downwind of cities compared to the upwind areas. The common measure of the urban heat island effect is albedo. This is the ratio of reflected to incident electromagnetic radiation energy, and is indicative of the reflectivity of a surface (See Figure 17). Albedo or solar reflectance is the ratio of reflected solar radiation to the amount that falls on the surface, rated from 0 (no incoming radiation reflected) to 1 (all incoming radiation reflected). The lighter the surface colour, the more solar radiation it will reflect, and the less heat it will absorb. The solar reflectance of concrete varies between 0.2 and 0.4, and that of asphalt from 0.05 to 0.2.

Figure 18: Illustration of the temperature difference between different pavement surfaces in Rio Verde, Arizona Albedo depends on the nature and colour of the surface, the frequency of the incident radiation and the direction and directional distribution of the incident radiation. Exposed building materials with high albedo reflect more heat, and lead to cooler cities. The albedo of normal concrete is approximately 0.35, with values as high as 0.7 to 0.8 for white concrete made with white cement. In contrast, dark materials such as new asphalt can have an albedo as low as 0.05. The incorporation of high-albedo concrete products in exposed surfaces such as pavements can significantly reduce the heat island effect and lead to cooler urban areas (See Figure 18). Due to the increased albedo value of concrete, the temperature difference between adjacent concrete and asphalt roads in summer in Arizona was measured as 11C. Using concrete can lower average summer afternoon temperatures in surrounding buildings by as much a 3C, cutting air-conditioning usage by 18%.

21

70
1 2 3 5 6 7

Maximum Surface Temperature (C)

65

60

55

8 9 11 10 12

50

45

40

0.1

0.2 Albedo

0.3

0.4

0.5

LEGEND 1 Thin Asphalt Rubber 2 Thick Asphalt Rubber 3 Thin Asphalt Rubber with White Paint 4 Thin Hot Mix Asphalt 5 Chip Seal 6 Thick Hot Mix Asphalt

7 8 9 10 11 12

Thin Hot Mix Asphalt with White Paint Thick Hot Mix Asphalt with White Paint Crumb-Rubber Concrete Ultra Thin White Topping Thick Asphalt Rubber with White Paint Concrete

Figure 19: Albedo effect of different road surfacing materials

CaCO3 (Limestone)

CO2

CO2

Ca

tio

na lci

bo

na

tio

Ca r

Ca(OH)3 (Concrete)

Hydration

CaO (Cement)

Water
Figure 20: The lime cycle

22

combating global warming

A study by Menon5 indicated that the 100 largest metropolitan areas cover 0.26% of the earths land area and that approximately 60% of US urban surfaces are pavements and roofs. She indicated that if the albedo for pavements could be increased by 0.15 for the biggest 100 metropolitan areas in the world, this would result in an emitted CO2 offset of a total of approximately 20 Gigatons which would offset the effect of the growth of CO2e for some 5 years. Concrete pavements can offer such an increase in albedo values.

carbonation of the concrete as much as possible during the life of the structure. However, the concrete will still carbonate and the carbonation or absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere increases significantly when the concrete is demolished and crushed. Research from the Nordic Innovation Centre4 has indicated that as much as 57% of the CO2 emitted due to the calcination process in the manufacture of the cement (60% of the total) will be reabsorbed by the concrete over 100 years (See Figure 20).

pollution reduction
Air pollution is an increasing problem in densely populated areas with pollutants due to traffic including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrous oxides. The use of titanium dioxide (TiO2) in the surface of concrete elements can improve the air quality near the structures. The titanium oxide acts as a catalyst and when exposed to ultra-violet light and also visible light, results in the conversion of harmful compounds such as nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide into relatively harmless nitrates (NO3). This process has been demonstrated on concrete block paving in Belgium and a concrete overlay in Paris, France with demonstrated reductions in NOX of around 20%. Hardened concrete contains no substances harmful to human or animal life.

low maintenance
Because of its inherent durability, stiffness and strength, maintenance requirements are reduced which reduces costs, user inconvenience and the use of finite resources.

acoustic performance
Excessive noise has an adverse effect on personal health and wellbeing, ability to perform quiet tasks and productivity in general. Hearing loss due to prolonged exposure to noise is well documented. The issue of sound insulation and acoustic performance of homes and offices has grown in importance, due in part to the growing demand for increased density of urban development. In general, increasing the mass of a wall or floor improves the sound insulation of a room; hence concrete offers a good barrier to airborne sound. Impact sound can be controlled with appropriate floor and ceiling finishes. The inherent mass of concrete can minimise the need for additional finishes required to meet acoustic requirements, with concrete walls providing an effective buffer between outdoor noise and the indoor environment and road noise in residential areas. The same inherent mass gives concrete structures good damping abilities in terms of acoustic performance. This is especially important in congested housing complexes.

water conservation
The use of pervious concrete or permeable block paving in pavements and parking areas allows rain, gardening and other water to percolate through to replenish natural aquifers. Run-off from impervious surfaces washes grease and chemical products into surrounding rivers, streams and dams, but pervious paving naturally filters out pollutants. Pervious concrete or permeable block paving can also be used for stormwater attenuation to replace retention ponds. This can also reduce the number and size of drainage infrastructure elements, saving both materials and energy, as well reducing future maintenance.

co 2 absorption
As has been shown earlier, the production of cement results in CO2 emissions into the environment. However, concrete carbonates during its life and absorbs CO2 from the environment. This process is generally very slow and is deleterious to reinforced concrete as it promotes the corrosion of steel reinforcement. Steps are therefore taken during design and construction to reduce

23

construction flexibility
Concrete is an incredibly versatile material that can be designed and proportioned to meet a very wide range of requirements. These may include various properties of fresh concrete such as consistence, flow, setting times, etc. and hardened properties such as varying strengths at early or late ages, different types of strength, densities, abrasion resistance, shrinkage, etc. Concrete structures offer a huge amount of flexibility in the ways and methods in which they can be constructed. Concrete can be constructed in situ using a number of transport and placing mechanisms. Concrete can be transported from the batch plant to the structure in any number of ways, including wheelbarrows, dumpers, trucks, conveyors, cranes, pumps, etc. Concrete can be placed by cranes, pumps, tremies (for underwater construction), trunks, spraying and in many other ways. Self-compacting concrete offers further flexibility in placing concrete and the achievement of excellent off-shutter finishes. Concrete has an advantage over other materials in that the concrete elements (walls, columns, beams, trusses and slabs) can be constructed in situ on site, or precast on site on the ground and lifted into their final position on site (tilt up and stack casting) or precast in a precast yard and transported to site and erected into position as a hybrid of precast and in-situ concrete. Concrete has an additional benefit in that all of the above options can be combined on one project. This may mean some elements are constructed in situ, while others may be precast on site and still others precast off site (See Figures 22 to 28). Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mould or form, which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into place. (As opposed to standard concrete which is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site.) By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically referred to as a precast yard), it is possible to monitor all stages of production including adequate curing, ensuring that products fully comply with strength requirements. The precast yard may be an established factory or it may be on site. Precast concrete is generally cast at ground level which helps with safety and productivity throughout a project. There is greater control of the quality of materials and workmanship in a precast plant than when concrete is cast in situ. This often results in Figure 21: Precast concrete construction

better durability and the products or structure lasting longer with consequent saving in maintenance costs, inconvenience, materials and energy. The forms used in a precast plant may be reused hundreds to thousands of times before they have to be replaced which ensures the cost of formwork per unit is lower than for in situ construction. Often, if the structure has been appropriately designed, precast products can be removed and reused after the structure has reached the end of its life and is to be replaced. There are many different types of precast concrete products. Precast architectural panels are used to clad all or part of a building facade. Stormwater drainage, water and sewage reticulations make use of precast concrete units such as pipes, culverts, manholes, sumps and tunnels. Precast concrete building components are used architecturally as cladding, trim products, accessories and curtain walls. Structural applications of precast concrete include bricks, blocks, foundations, beams, floors, walls and other structural components. Precast concrete products are used in the construction, safety and site protection of various transportation systems. Products include culverts, bridge beams and segments, railway sleepers, sound walls or barriers, safety barriers and kerbs.

24

Figure 22: Lifting stack cast panels

Figure 25: Lifting cast panels

Figure 23: Positioning stack cast panels

Figure 26: Orlando stadium stacked cast elements

Figure 24: Lifting pre-cast elements

Figure 27: Precast beams and trusses

25

A significant amount of precast concrete was used in the construction of the 2010 stadia and the Gautrain. Although precast manufacturing does not in itself save resources, better control over the production phase ensures less non-compliant product and commensurate saving of raw materials, as well as speeding up construction on site. Well-sited, highly sophisticated precast yards manufacture precast products to very high tolerances, with subsequent time savings on site. Good examples of this were the precast plants that manufactured the precast concrete tunnel and bridge segments for the Gautrain infrastructure.

recycling and reuse

While the sustainability of buildings can be significantly increased by extending their useable life by retrofitting and reuse, there comes a time when they must be demolished and replaced.

recycling
The demolition of in-situ, precast and tilt-up reinforced concrete can be achieved relatively easily by modern cutting, breaking and lifting equipment (See Figure 29). The demolition of post-tensioned concrete however requires more careful consideration. Once demolition has been completed, the concrete and reinforcing steel can be separated for recycling.

Figure 28: Lifting precast elements

26

A demolished concrete structure provides a potentially rich source of recycled aggregate for a range of applications. Recycled concrete can be used as an aggregate for building products such as bricks and blocks, in road construction for layerworks, or for land reclamation, thereby reducing the amount of material sent to landfills. This recycling also reduces the need for new virgin materials thereby saving resources and the energy required to process them. An additional benefit of crushing the concrete is the additional absorption of CO2 which was discussed earlier. In a number of ready-mixed concrete plants, wash water is collected and reused in fresh concrete, and aggregate from returned concrete is screened out and reused. This reduces the amount of waste generated at such plants. This waste reduction is less likely to occur where concrete is batched on site.

Reuse and retrofitting: Saves natural resources, including the raw materials, energy and water otherwise required for new structures Reduces the quantity of solid waste sent to landfill Reduces the energy consumption and pollution that would result from the extraction, manufacturing and transportation of virgin materials. The durability of concrete in structures is a key factor in their suitability for reuse. No matter what construction material is used, the architect or designer needs to apply many different strategies to ensure that the structure is sustainable in terms of its environmental and social impact, to minimise the use of energy, whether embodied or consumed during the use phase, to minimise the use of water and the generation of waste during the entire life cycle of the building. All of this can only be assessed by carrying out a full life-cycle assessment of the structure.

retrofitting and reuse

Often, precast components from structures may be reused in new buildings rather than demolishing and recycling the concrete. Structures using precast elements can be designed for such reuse. In former industrial areas and inner city precincts, there are many old factories, old warehouses and the like that can be converted into very desirable dwellings. Concrete buildings can often be adapted fairly easily for new uses, e.g. unused office space in buildings can be retrofitted for use as residential accommodation. Effective building retrofitting usually requires the building structure to be left largely intact.

In order to save the planet and leave a legacy for our children and their children, we all need to ensure that everything we do is sustainable, be it at work or home.

27

striving for sustainable structures

The potential increase in cost during the design and construction phases in providing a green structure will generally be more than offset by the savings from reduced energy usage during the use phase of concrete structures. The designer or architect needs to assess the interrelationship of all factors while the owner or user needs to understand the sustainability features incorporated in the structure. For example, a deep concrete heat trap slab designed to capture the heat of winter sun will be totally negated if the owner installs heavy curtaining or blinds to keep the sun out in the afternoons! On the other hand, drawing heavy curtains during the early evening will keep the heat from the warm floor percolating into the room. Design considerations which are not material-dependent for structures whether commercial, industrial or residential, to ensure minimal energy usage during the full life of the structure include: Ensuring that the building is oriented to take advantage of natural elements to provide natural lighting, heating during winter, cooling during summer and natural ventilation. Ensuring correct window and door type and placement to take advantage of sunlight during winter, as well as the flow of air from prevailing winds. Eave depths may be designed to shade the inside of the building during summer, but allow winter sun to warm rooms. Using atriums, wind/stack ventilators or ventilation panels to assist natural ventilation, and under-floor vents or permeable ceilings to unlock the thermal mass in the upper part of slabs. Choosing roofing and external wall material, and colours for these that will either reflect heat away from the building (lighter colours) or absorb solar energy (darker colours, dark floor tiling), reducing energy demand for heating and/or cooling. Choosing the correct insulation type and location. A well-insulated roof and floor slab may keep the interior temperature cooler in summer, resulting in less air-conditioning costs, but may prevent the winter solar heat from being absorbed into the house. Air- and weather-proofing to ensure that draughts, etc. do not negatively affect energy usage for heating and cooling. Designing buildings and other structures to use solar energy, and tap into the benefits of thermal mass to save energy. Designing structures to reduce the requirements for maintenance or to make maintenance simple and cost effective. Designing structures to promote saving of finite resources by, e.g., designing systems to promote rainwater harvesting, reuse of grey water and other water-use efficiencies.

concretes role
Most of the ways in which concrete can contribute to sustainability, which have been covered extensively in this document. All of these issues need to be considered during the design and construction of a building or structure even though they may only have a significant effect during the use or end-of-life phase. Table 5 indicates where the various attributes of concrete need to or will play a role during the life of the structure and give guidance as to when they should be considered, be they design, construction, use or end-of-life considerations.

28

conclusion
Concrete continues to play a pivotal role in overall economic growth both locally and globally. In order to improve the sustainability of all concrete structures, there is a need to understand the interactive effect of the many issues from cradle to grave in the design phase, during construction and end-of-life and, most importantly, the energy savings achievable during the use phase. This document has summarised what sustainability is, what it means and why it is important in the provision of sustainable buildings and infrastructure. Most importantly, the document describes the role which concrete can play in contributing to the sustainability of our infrastructure. This document provides the owner, developer, designer and contractor with information which demonstrates that by using concrete wisely, they will be contributing to sustainability and by incorporating some of the benefits of concrete, save both money and resources during the life of the structure. Finally guidance is given to indicate where and how all these benefits can be used during the design, construction, use and end-of-life phases of a building or structure. The only true method of assessing a building or structures impact is via a life-cycle assessment. Four further documents are envisaged to complement this document, focussing specifically on concretes role in the provision of sustainable structures, sustainable architecture, sustainable roads and sustainable human settlements.

Table 5: Guide to area in which various concrete properties affect sustainability Property Local material Labour intensive Design flexibility Variety of finishes Cost effectiveness Structural integrity Fire resistance Durability Energy efficiency Thermal mass Light and heat Low maintenance Acoustic performance Pollution reduction Water conservation Construction flexibility Recycling and reuse Design x x x x x Construction x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Use End of Life

x x x x x x x x x x x x x

CO2 absorption

29

acknowledgements
The Cement and Concrete Institute gratefully acknowledges the use of material from the following organisations: American Concrete Pavement Association National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, USA Skanska Nordic Innovation Centre The Concrete Centre, UK European Concrete Paving Association Arizona State University Cement Concrete and Aggregates Australia Cement Association of Canada

references
1. Morrin, N. Green building information modelling, The cement sustainability initiative forum, Warsaw, September 13 -15, 2010. 2. Rens, L. Concrete Roads: A smart and sustainable choice. European Concrete Paving Association: Brussels, 2009. 3. Cement Association of Canada, Concrete thinking for a sustainable future. Ontario: CAC, 2003. (Publication Number SD-ICI-001-B). 4. Kjellsen, K.O., Guimaraes, M. and Nilsson, A. The CO2 balance of concrete in a life cycle perspective, Oslo: Nordic Innovation Centre, 2005. (Nordic Innovation Centre Report). 5. Menon, S. Short-term offsets to CO2: Role of reflective particles and surfaces, The International Conference on Sustainable Concrete Pavements: Practices, Challenges and Directions, Sacramento, September 15 - 17, 2010.

30

Concrete continues to play a pivotal role in overall economic growth both locally and globally. In order to improve the sustainability of all concrete structures, there is a need to understand the interactive effect of the many issues from cradle to grave in the design phase, during construction and end-of-life and, most importantly, the energy savings achievable during the use phase.

marketing sustainable concrete through advice, education & information