LAB SCALE STEAM TURBINE DESIGN FOR

SUPERHEATED STEAM

Javed Hussain

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the
Degree of MS Mechanical Engineering







Department of Nuclear Engineering
Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences (PIEAS)
Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan
ALLAH is He, than Whom there is no other god
of Peace (and Perfection), the Guardian of Faith, the Preserver of Safety, the Exalted
in Might, the Irresistible, the Supreme: Glory to Allah. (High is He) above the partners
they attribute to Him.


"My Lord! Bestow wisdom on me, and join me with the righteous.
May, 2013

is He, than Whom there is no other god- the Sovereign, the Holy One, the Source
of Peace (and Perfection), the Guardian of Faith, the Preserver of Safety, the Exalted
in Might, the Irresistible, the Supreme: Glory to Allah. (High is He) above the partners
they attribute to Him.
(Al-Quraan: Al Hashr (The Mustering) 59:23)
"My Lord! Bestow wisdom on me, and join me with the righteous.
(Al-Quraan: Al Shuara (The Poets) 26:83)


the Sovereign, the Holy One, the Source
of Peace (and Perfection), the Guardian of Faith, the Preserver of Safety, the Exalted
in Might, the Irresistible, the Supreme: Glory to Allah. (High is He) above the partners
Quraan: Al Hashr (The Mustering) 59:23)
"My Lord! Bestow wisdom on me, and join me with the righteous.
Quraan: Al Shuara (The Poets) 26:83)

Department of Nuclear Engineering,
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS)
NILORE, Islamabad 45650, Pakistan


Declaration of Originality
I hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis and the intellectual content of this
thesis are the product of my own work. This thesis has not been previously published in any form
nor does it contain any verbatim of the published resources which could be treated as
infringement of the international copyright law.
I also declare that I do understand the terms copyright and plagiarism, and that in case of
any copyright violation or plagiarism found in this work, I will be held fully responsible of the
consequences of any such violation.



Signature: _______________________________
Name: __________________________________
Date: ____________________
Place: ____________________



Certificate of Approval
This is to certify that the work contained in this thesis entitled
Lab Scale Steam Turbine Design for Superheated Steam
was carried out by
Javed Hussain
under my supervision and that in my opinion, it is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, for the degree of MS Nuclear Engineering from
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS)

Approved By:
Signature: ________________________
Supervisor: Engr. Dr. Mohammad Javed Hyder
Dean, Faculty of Engineering, PIEAS

Verified By:
Signature: ________________________
Head, Department of Nuclear Engineering, PIEAS
Stamp:






Dedicated to


My beloved parents




Acknowledgement
I am thankful to ALLMIGHTY ALLAH, who gave me the strength and wisdom to achieve
my goals. I am very much thankful to my Parents for their encouragement throughout project. I
am thankful to my supervisor Engr. Dr. Mohammad Javed Hyder for the guidance at each and
every step and my class fellow Hafiz Ahmad Tahir.
Javed Hussain
MS Nuclear Engineering














Abstract
The main objective of this thesis is the designing of laboratory scale Axial Flow Superheated
Steam Turbine for single stage. Initially some basic theory as well as the history of the Axial
Flow Superheated Steam Turbine will be discussed in this report. The report includes also
calculations which are based on the constant root radius, constant blade height and constant rpm.
In this report calculations are repeated again and again to find the suitable parameters for lab
scale steam turbine design. This Axial Flow Superheated steam Turbine is design for blade speed
of 40 m/s, revolutions are 3000 rpm (60 rps), mass flow rate is 0.00416 kg/s, inlet temperature is
473 K and for pressure inlet is 5 bar absolute. The design calculations include the mean, root
and tip radii, the height, width of the stator blades and clearance between the stator and rotor, the
shaft length (length of the casing) and the angle of divergence of the turbine casing.









1

TABLEOFCONTENTS
1.1CLASSIFICATIONOFSTEAMTURBINES...................................................................................................4
1.2STEAMTURBINESTAGEDESIGNS...........................................................................................................6
1.2.1FixedNozzle.....................................................................................................................................6
1.2.2RotatingBlades................................................................................................................................9
1.3STEAMTURBINESTAGINGARRANGEMENTS........................................................................................13
1.3.1Impulse(RateauStage)..................................................................................................................13
1.3.2Impulse(CurtisStage)....................................................................................................................16
1.3.3Reaction.........................................................................................................................................18
1.3.4MultiStaging..................................................................................................................................20
1.3.5StageEfficiencies............................................................................................................................26
1.4STEAMTURBINEARRANGEMENTS.......................................................................................................32
1.4.1Condensing.....................................................................................................................................32
1.4.2Backpressure..................................................................................................................................34
1.4.3Extraction.......................................................................................................................................36
1.4.4Induction........................................................................................................................................38
1.5Applications...........................................................................................................................................38
2.1EFFECTOFOPERATINGCONDITIONSONSTEAMTURBINES............................................................39
2.1.1EFFECTOFSTEAMINLETPRESSURE...........................................................................................39
2.1.2EFFECTOFSTEAMINLETTEMPERATURE...................................................................................39
2.1.3EFFECTOFEXHAUSTPRESSURE/VACUUM...............................................................................39
2.2EXHAUSTSTEAMCONDITIONS,EXTRACTIONANDADMISSION.......................................................40
2.2.1BackPressureandCondensingTurbine.....................................................................................40
2.2.2SteamExtractionandAdmissionofTurbine..............................................................................40
2.3STEAMCONSUMPTION.....................................................................................................................44
2.3.1RotorDiameter..........................................................................................................................44
2.3.2SteamTemperature...................................................................................................................44
2.3.3BladeSize,SpeedandDegreesofAdmission............................................................................44
2.3.4.OtherLosses..............................................................................................................................44
2.4REQUIREDSUPERHEATEDSTEAMVELOCITY....................................................................................45
2

3.1INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................46
3.2CONVERSIONOFKINETICENERGYOFTHEGAS/STEAMINTOBLADEWORK.......................................46
3.4ACTUALNOZZLEANGLE........................................................................................................................47
3.5BLADEWORKANDPOWER...................................................................................................................47
3.6IMPULSEBLADINGVELOCITYTRIANGLESANDBLADEWORK..............................................................48
5.7ENTRANCETRIANGLE............................................................................................................................48
3.8THEEXITTRIANGLE...............................................................................................................................49
3.9THEREHEATFACTORANDTHECONDITIONCURVE.............................................................................50
3.10STEAMTURBINEDESIGN.....................................................................................................................51
3.11MOLLIERDIAGRAM.............................................................................................................................51
3.12AvailableBoilersSpecificationinMEL,PIEAS....................................................................................52
OurRequirements':.................................................................................................................................52
Steamdata..............................................................................................................................................52
Supposeddata:...........................................................................................................................................53
GLOSSARY....................................................................................................................................................55
Refrences....................................................................................................................................................57

LIST 0F FIu0RES

Figure1:ConvergentNozzle.........................................................................................................................7
Figure2:ConvergentDivergentNozzle........................................................................................................8
Figure3:NozzleDiaphragm(ImpulseType).................................................................................................9
Figure4:ElementaryImpulseTurbine........................................................................................................10
Figure5:CurvedImpulseBlade..................................................................................................................10
Figure6:ImpulseTurbineNozzlePosition..................................................................................................11
Figure7:ImpulseTurbineWheelSection...................................................................................................12
Figure8:ReactionTurbineStationaryandRotatingBladeArrangement...................................................12
Figure9:RateauStageImpulseTurbine.....................................................................................................15
Figure10:CurtisStageImpulseTurbine.....................................................................................................17
Figure11:ReactionTurbine........................................................................................................................18
Figure12:PressureCompoundedImpulseTurbine...................................................................................21
Figure13:PressureVelocityCompoundedImpulseTurbine.....................................................................23
Figure14:CombinationTurbineReactionTurbinewithOneImpulseStage.............................................25
Figure15:VectorDiagramforaSingleStage.............................................................................................26
Figure16:VectorDiagramsIllustratingOptimumVelocityRatio...............................................................27
Figure17:VectorDiagramforaCurtisStage..............................................................................................28
Figure18:VectorDiagramforaReactionStage.........................................................................................30
Figure19:EfficiencyversusStageType......................................................................................................31
Figure20:MultiStageCondensingTurbine...............................................................................................33
Figure21:MultiStageBackpressureTurbine.............................................................................................35
Figure22:Single,AutomaticExtraction,CondensingTurbine...................................................................37
Figure23:ExtractionandAdmissionSteamTurbine..................................................................................40
Figure24:SteamProcessinCurtisandSingleRowRateauTurbine..........................................................41
Figure25:SteamProcessinMultiRowofRateauTurbine.........................................................................41
Figure26:SteamProcessinImpulseasControlStageandReactionTurbine............................................42
Figure27:BackPressureandCondensingTurbine.....................................................................................43
Figure28:SteamSystemvsVelocity..........................................................................................................45
Figure29:Reaheatfactorsforvariousenthalpydropsandinitialsuperheats,andforaninfinitenumber
ofstagesof80%efiiciency..........................................................................................................................50


4

CBAPTER 1
INTR0B0CTI0N

A steam turbine is a relatively simple type of prime mover. A steam turbine has only one major
moving part: the rotor. Turbine blades are attached to the rotor. When these rotating turbine
blades are combined with stationary nozzles or blades, they form the steam path through a
turbine. The rotor is supported on journal bearings and is axially positioned by a thrust bearing.
A housing or casing with steam inlet and outlet connections surrounds the rotating parts and
serves as a frame for the turbine.

Steam turbines are utilized by large scale industries to drive electric generators, boiler fans, gas
compressors, and boiler feedwater pumps. Although a steam turbine is a relatively simple type of
prime mover, many factors enter into the design of a modern steam turbine. Modern steam
turbines are the result of many years of research and development. A steam turbine converts the
heat energy of steam into mechanical work. The heat energy is first converted to velocity energy,
or kinetic energy, and then the velocity energy is converted into mechanical work. Because
steam is a gas, all of the principles that are described in this thesis apply equally to the expansion
turbine section of a gas turbine.

The Mechanical Engineer must understand the principles of steam turbines because these
principles apply to Large scale industries . The Mechanical Engineer must understand how
turbine stage designs, turbine staging arrangements, and turbine types and arrangements affect
the operation of steam turbines and their related components.

1.1CLASSIFICATIONOFSTEAMTURBINES

Steam turbines may be classified in the following ways:

A) With respect to form of steam passage between the blades:

a) Impulse
(1) Simple, or single-stage
(2) Velocity-stage, Curtis
(3) Pressure stage, Rateau
(4) Combination pressure- and velocity-stage

b) Reaction, Parsons
c) Combination impulse and reaction


5

B) With respect to general arrangement of flow:

a) Single-flow
b) Double-flow
c) Compound, two-or-three cylinder, cross- or tandem-connected
d) Divided-flow

C) With respect to direction of steam flow relative to plane of rotation:

a) Axial-flow
b) Radial-flow
c) Tangential-flow

D) With respect to repetition of steam flow through blades:

a) Single-pass
b) Reentry or repeated flow

E) With respect to rotational speed:

a) For 60-sysle generators
b) For 50-cycle generators
c) For 25-cycle generators
d) For geared units and for direct-connected or electric drive marine units, no special
speed requirements

F) With respect to relative motion of rotor or rotors:

a) Single-motion
b) Double-motion

G) With respect to steam and exhaust conditions:

a) High-pressure condensing
b) High-pressure non-condensing
c) Back-pressure
d) Superposed or topping
e) Mixed-pressure
f) Regenerative
g) Extraction, single/ double
h) Reheating or resuperheating
i) Low-pressure
6

1.2STEAMTURBINESTAGEDESIGNS

A stage of a steam turbine is defined as the rows of fixed nozzles and rotating blades in a steam
turbine in which a single pressure decrease occurs. Steam turbines use two main types of blading
to convert the heat energy of the steam into mechanical work: impulse blading and reaction
blading. An impulse-type-bladed turbine stage consists of one row of fixed nozzles in which the
steam expands to transform heat energy into velocity energy, or kinetic energy, and one or more
rows of rotating blades that transform the kinetic energy of the steam into the power that is
delivered by the shaft. Impulse stages that contain more than one row of rotating blades have a
row of stationary blades that are placed between each row of rotating blades. In a true impulse
stage, all of the expansion of the steam takes place in the fixed nozzles. Hence, no pressure
decrease occurs while the steam passes through the rotating and/or stationary blades.

A reaction-type-bladed turbine consists of one row of stationary blades in which part of the
expansion of the steam takes place and one row of rotating blades in which the expansion of the
steam is completed. Different steam turbine characteristics are achieved by the combination of
different steam turbine stages.

The combination of different stages is discussed in detail in the multi-stage arrangement section
of this thesis.

1.2.1FixedNozzle

Both impulse and reaction turbines require a device that converts the stored thermal energy of
the steam into kinetic energy, or velocity energy. This device is called a nozzle. In a reaction
turbine, both the fixed blades and the rotating blades serve as nozzles. In an impulse turbine, the
energy conversion takes place when the steam passes through fixed nozzles. Nozzles are
available in many different shapes that are engineered and designed for various applications. A
nozzle serves two main functions: (1) energy conversion (thermal to kinetic) as the steam
expands from a high pressure area to a low pressure area through the nozzle and (2) the directing
of the high-speed jet of steam tangentially onto the rotating blades, where the final conversion of
energy takes place (kinetic to mechanical).

Because a nozzle is basically a smooth-shaped orifice that separates a high-pressure region from
a low-pressure region, the high-pressure steam passes through the nozzle and emerges at the low-
pressure side as a high-speed jet of steam.

Nozzles may have many forms, but all are similar in principle of operation. The two basic types
of nozzles, the convergent nozzle and the convergent-divergent nozzle, consist of an inlet
section, a throat, and a mouth, or outlet section. The type of nozzle that is used in a steam turbine
depends upon the required pressure at the outlet of the nozzle.
7

The velocity of steam flow through any restricted channel, such as a nozzle, depends upon the
pressure difference between the inlet of the nozzle and the region around the outlet of the nozzle.

If the inlet and the outlet of a nozzle are at equal pressure, a static condition, in which steam does
not flow, exists. If the pressure at the inlet is maintained while the pressure at the outlet is
gradually decreased, the steam begins to flow from the high-pressure side (inlet) to the low-
pressure side (outlet). The velocity of the steam increases as the outlet pressure and temperature
decrease. When the thermal energy of the steam expands through a fixed nozzle, both pressure
and temperature decrease. A further decrease in the outlet pressure and temperature eventually
results in a point being reached where the velocity of the steam is equal to the velocity of sound
in steam. This point is called the nozzles critical flow. Once critical flow is reached, further
reduction of the pressure and temperature does not result in an increase in the velocity.
The ratio of the outlet pressure to the inlet pressure at which the critical flow is reached is called
the critical pressure ratio. The critical pressure ratio is approximately 0.55 for superheated steam.
In other words, the velocity of the flow through a nozzle is a function of the pressure-differential
across the nozzle. The steam velocity increases as the outlet pressure decreases in relation to the
inlet pressure until the critical pressure ratio is reached. No further increase in steam velocity will
occur when the outlet pressure is reduced below 55 percent of the inlet pressure.

When the pressure at the outlet of a nozzle is designed to be higher than the critical pressure, a
simple parallel-wall or convergent nozzle may be used. In a convergent nozzle, which is shown
in Figure 1, the cross-sectional area at the outlet of the nozzle is the same as the cross-sectional
area at the throat of the nozzle. Because the steam will not expand beyond the throat of the
nozzle, a convergent nozzle is often referred to as a nonexpanding nozzle. High-pressure steam
enters the inlet section of the nozzle, and it expands as it passes through the throat to the low
pressure area of the nozzle.

The operation of a convergent nozzle works well in principle, but it is not very practical in most
high-pressure turbine applications. The steam will expand in all directions, and it will become
very turbulent as it exits the nozzle into the low-pressure area. The turbulent steam is difficult to
direct efficiently toward the rotating blades. Some of the steam will strike the rotating blades at
inefficient angles, and it will thereby cause the friction losses to increase as the steam flows
through the rotating blades.












Figure1:ConvergentNozzle
8

To allow the steam to expand without the turbulence that occurs in the convergent nozzle, a
section is added after the throat.

The cross-sectional area of this additional section gradually increases from the throat to the
mouth of the nozzle. The increase in the cross-sectional area causes the steam to emerge from the
nozzle in a uniform steady flow. This type of nozzle, as shown in Figure 2, is a convergent-
divergent nozzle.
High-pressure steam enters the inlet section of the nozzle, and it expands as it passes through the
throat to the low pressure area.

Pyrometers are described in the following discussion in terms of principles, design, performance,
installation, and applications.

Convergent-divergent nozzles are used when the pressure at the outlet of the nozzle is required to
be lower than the critical pressure ratio. The size of the throat and the length of the divergent
section of every nozzle must be specifically designed for the pressure ratio for which the nozzle
will be used. Operation at any pressure ratio other than the design pressure ratio causes a
decrease in nozzle efficiency. Because expansion takes place from the throat of the nozzle to the
mouth of the nozzle, this type of nozzle is often called an expanding nozzle.

























Figure2:ConvergentDivergentNozzle
9

Nozzles can also be formed by locating blades adjacently to one another. Figure 3 shows a
nozzle diaphragm for an impulse turbine that uses blades to form the nozzle passages.















Figure3:NozzleDiaphragm(ImpulseType)
1.2.2RotatingBlades

Once the thermal energy of the steam has been converted into kinetic energy by the steam
turbine nozzles, some device must be available to convert the kinetic energy into work. The
conversion of kinetic energy into work occurs in the rotating blades. Steam turbine blades are
attached around the circumference of the rotor assembly. The basic distinction between types of
turbine blades is the manner in which the steam causes the turbine rotor to move. When the rotor
is moved by a direct push, or an impulse, from the steam that is impinging on the blades, the
turbine is called an impulse turbine. When the rotor is moved by the force of reaction, the turbine
is called a reaction turbine.
To understand the manner in which kinetic energy is converted to work on the turbine blades, it
is necessary to consider both the absolute velocity of the steam and the relative velocity of the
steam in relationship to the rotating blades. In a theoretical elementary impulse turbine, such as
the one that is shown in

Figure 4, the blades are merely flat vanes or plates. As the steam jet flows from the nozzle, it
impinges upon the blades and moves the rotor. If it is assumed that there is no friction as the
steam flows across the blade, the relative velocity of the steam at the blade entrance (R
1
) must be
equal to the vector difference between the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance
minus the peripheral velocity of the blade (V
1
V
b
), and the relative velocity of the steam at the
blade exit (R
2
) must also be equal to the vector difference between the absolute velocity of the
steam at the blade discharge minus the peripheral velocity of the blade (V
2
V
1
), because
theoretically, there is no change in the velocity as the steam flows across the blade. V
2
is the
absolute velocity of the steam at the blade exit.



10

Figure4:ElementaryImpulseTurbine

To be able to convert all of the kinetic energy of the steam into work, it would be necessary to
design a blade from which the steam would exit with zero absolute velocity. This blade would be
curved in the manner that is shown in Figure 5, and the jet of steam from the nozzle would enter
the blade tangentially rather than at an angle. The shape of the blade that is shown in Figure 5
closely approximates the shape of the blades that are used in actual impulse turbines. If the
curved blade that is shown in Figure 5 is used, the direction of the steam flow is exactly reversed.
The relative velocity of the steam at the blade entrance (R
1
) is again equal to the absolute
velocity of the steam at the blade entrance minus the peripheral velocity of the blade (V
1
V
b
),
and the relative velocity of the steam at the blade exit (R
2
) is also be equal to the absolute
velocity of the steam at the blade discharge minus the peripheral velocity of the blade (V
2
V
b
).
Because the direction of flow is reversed, however, the absolute velocity of the steam at the
blade exit (V
2
) is now equal to the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance minus
twice the peripheral velocity of the blade (V
1
2V
b2
). If the absolute velocity of the steam at the
blade exit (V
2
) is zero, the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance must be equal to
twice the peripheral velocity of the blade (V
1
=2V
b
).












Figure5:CurvedImpulseBlade
The maximum amount of work is obtained from a reversing blade when the velocity of the blade
is exactly one-half of the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance. This statement
assumes that the nozzle is tangential to the blades.

In an actual turbine, however, the nozzle is positioned at an angle to the rotating blades, which
causes the steam to enter the blade at an angle, as shown in Figure 6, rather than tangentially, as
11

was previously shown in Figures 4 and 5. In actual turbines, it is not feasible for the steam to
enter the blade tangentially and to utilize the complete reversal of steam in the blades; to do so
would require that the nozzle be placed in a position that would place it in the path of the rotating
blades. In actual impulse turbines, the maximum amount of work is done when the blade speed is
one-half times the cosine of the nozzle angle times the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade
entrance. Because the nozzle angle is only the tangential component of the steam velocity that
produces work on the turbine blades, the nozzle angle is made as small as possible.















Figure6:ImpulseTurbineNozzlePosition
Figure 7 shows a section of an impulse turbine wheel and with the blades in place. Modern, high-
speed turbines use these types of turbine wheels (blades, shroud ring, and blade disc). Turbine
blading is designed to match the steam, PT, and volume flow conditions in the section of the
turbine in which the blading is located. The turbine wheel is contoured to approximate the
expansion characteristics of the steam. In the first stages (high-pressure or control stages) in
which the blades are subjected to shocks from steam pressures that vary as the blade passes the
inlet nozzle groups, the blades are short and sturdy. The blade length is increased from the high-
pressure end of the turbine to the exhaust end of the turbine in order to accommodate the
increased specific volume of the steam as the steam approaches the exhaust end of the turbine.
The blades at the low-pressure end of the turbine are tapered from the base of the blade to the tip
of the blade in order to meet radial loading requirements that are caused by the increased
centrifugal force in the longer blades. The blades at the low-pressure end are also normally
twisted from the base of the blade to the tip of the blade in order to accommodate the increase in
peripheral velocities.









12

Figure7:ImpulseTurbineWheelSection
In a modern reaction turbine, the stationary blades that are attached to the casing are formed and
mounted so that the spaces between the blades have the shape of nozzles. The distinction
between actual nozzles and the stationary blading that serves the purpose of nozzles in reaction
turbines is mechanical rather than functional. The previous discussion of steam flow through
nozzles applies equally well to steam flow through the nozzle-shaped spaces between the
stationary blades of reaction turbines. The stationary blades guide the steam into rotating blades.
The blades that project radially from the periphery of the rotor are formed and mounted so that
the spaces between these blades also have the shape of nozzles. The general arrangement of the
reaction-type stationary blades and the rotating blades is shown in Figure 8.

The conversion of the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical work in reaction blading is
similar to the conversion of the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical work in impulse
blading. The angles and velocities are different in the two types of blading. Because the velocity
of the steam increases as the steam expands through the rotating blades, the initial velocity of the
steam that enters the blade must be lower in a reaction turbine than it would be in an impulse
turbine with the same blade speed.












Figure8:ReactionTurbineStationaryandRotatingBladeArrangement
13

1.3STEAMTURBINESTAGINGARRANGEMENTS

As briefly explained previously, a basic distinction between steam turbine types is the manner in
which the steam causes the turbine rotor to move: by an impulse force or by a reaction force.
Three different staging arrangements methods are utilized in turbine construction to achieve the
desired results from a turbine. Two of the three stage arrangements methods use the impulse
principle to convert the thermal energy that is stored in the steam into useful work. The third
stage arrangement method uses the reaction principle to convert the thermal energy that is stored
in the steam into useful work. This section of the Thesis will discuss the following stage
arrangement types:

Impulse (Rateau Stage)
Impulse (Curtis Stage)
Reaction

1.3.1Impulse(RateauStage)

In an impulse turbine, the thermal energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy
through a row of nozzles and one or more rows of moving blades. If the conversion of thermal
energy to mechanical energy occurs through one row of nozzles and one row of moving blades,
the impulse turbine stage is referred to as a Rateau stage. The Rateau stage impulse turbine
consists of a set of nozzles that discharges against a single row of moving blades that are
mounted on the periphery of rotor, as shown in Figure 9. The steam enters the turbine through a
steam chest and expands from some initial pressure and temperature to some final pressure and
temperature as it passes through the nozzles and acquires a very high velocity. The steam exits
the nozzles and flows through the moving blades and out of the turbine exhaust.

The steam that enters the turbine has a great deal of thermal energy due to its high pressure and
temperature. The nozzles convert the thermal energy of the steam (pressure and temperature) into
kinetic energy (velocity). As the steam expands through the nozzles, the steam's pressure and
temperature decreases and its velocity increases. The decrease in pressure and temperature and
the increase in velocity create a steam jet that is directed by the nozzles into the moving blades of
the turbine wheel. The moving blades convert the kinetic energy (velocity) of the steam jet into
mechanical energy in the form of the actual movement of the turbine wheel and shaft, or rotor. In
the moving blades, the steam's velocity decreases, but the pressure remains constant. A Rateau
stage impulse turbine utilizes both the impulse of the steam jet and, to a lesser extent, the
reactive force that results as the curved moving blades cause the steam to change its direction.
The moving blades do not serve as nozzles. Because the pressure remains constant across the
moving blades, impulse turbines do not exert any significant amount of thrust force on the rotor,
and they do not require a balance drum.
The disadvantage of a Rateau stage impulse turbine is its relatively low efficiency due to the
inability to extract all energy from the steam. The most efficient speed of a turbine is directly
related to the velocity of the steam in the turbine. The Rateau stage impulse turbine produces
very high velocity steam. To obtain the maximum work (increase the efficiency) from a single
stage Rateau turbine, an extremely high blade speed would be required. Because the centrifugal
14

forces that are involved in the blade speed would exceed the design strength of the material that
is used to construct the turbine, the extremely high blade speed is not feasible. The blade speed
of the Rateau stage impulse turbine is lower than the blade speed that will provide the maximum
amount of work per pound of steam. Because single-stage steam turbines are small, low-power
units that usually drive pumps and fans, they typically operate at 3600 rpm and, as a result, they
have a low ratio of blade speed to steam velocity; therefore, single-stage steam turbine
efficiencies are typically only 30 to 35%. A decrease in the blade speed will not allow the blades
to absorb the maximum amount of kinetic energy, and the steam will leave the turbine with a
relatively high exit velocity. The relatively high exit velocity represents the kinetic energy that
was not absorbed by the blades and that was lost. The loss of energy is a decrease in efficiency.
Another decrease in efficiency is due to the increased windage losses and friction losses of the
Rateau stage impulse turbine. The windage losses and friction losses that are associated with a
turbine wheel that operates in a steam atmosphere rapidly increase as the velocity of the steam
increases. Because the

Rateau stage impulse turbine has a relatively high exit velocity, the windage losses and friction
losses increase.

An advantage of the Rateau stage impulse turbine is its simplicity of design and construction.
Although this type of turbine is relatively inefficient, the simplicity of design and rugged, robust
construction make the simple Rateau stage impulse turbine well-suited for mechanical drive
applications.























15

Figure9:RateauStageImpulseTurbine




16

1.3.2Impulse(CurtisStage)

To avoid the energy losses that are associated with the operation of the Rateau stage impulse
turbine, the Curtis stage impulse turbine was developed. As shown in Figure 10, two or more
rows of moving blades are mounted on the periphery of the shaft. The conversion of thermal
energy to mechanical energy in the Curtis stage impulse turbine occurs through one row of
nozzles and more than one row of moving blades. Fixed blades are attached to the casing
between the rows of moving blades to redirect the steam flow into the next row of moving
blades. These blades are commonly known as reversing buckets. The steam enters the turbine
through the steam chest, and it expands in a single set of nozzles as in the Rateau stage impulse
turbine. The steam passes through the first row of moving blades into a row of fixed blades that
directs the flow of steam into a second row of moving blades and out of the turbine exhaust.

Figure 10 also shows the velocity and pressure relationships across the nozzles and moving
blades (flow diagram) of a Curtis stage impulse turbine. Because the reduction of velocity occurs
through the two sets of moving blades, the Curtis stage impulse turbine is called a velocity-
compounded turbine. The nozzles convert the thermal energy of the steam (pressure and
temperature) into kinetic energy (velocity). As the steam expands through the nozzles, the
steam's pressure and temperature decreases and its velocity increases. The decrease in pressure
and temperature with the increase in velocity create a steam jet that is directed by the nozzles
into the first set of moving blades. The velocity of the steam decreases through the first set of
moving blades as the blades convert some of the kinetic energy (velocity) of the steam jet into
mechanical energy. The moving blades do not serve as nozzles, and the pressure of the steam
remains constant. The steam exits the moving blades and enters the fixed blades. The fixed
blades redirect the jet of steam into the second row of moving blades, and no pressure or velocity
change occurs in the fixed blades. The velocity of the steam decreases through the second set of
moving blades as the blades convert the remainder of the kinetic energy (velocity) of the steam
jet into mechanical energy. Because the moving blades do not serve as nozzles, the pressure of
the steam remains constant.
















17

Figure10:CurtisStageImpulseTurbine
18

1.3.3Reaction

In a turbine with a reaction-type blade assembly, as shown in

Figure 11 the thermal energy (pressure and temperature) of steam is converted into mechanical
energy through a row of stationary blades and a row of rotating blades. The stationary blades and
rotating blades are almost identical in shape, and both sets of blades act as nozzles. Steam
expansion and redirection take place in both sets of the blades. Figure 11 also illustrates the
pressure-velocity relationship across the reaction blading. The steam pressure decreases across
every row of stationary and rotating blades. The expansion converts the thermal energy
(pressure) of the steam into kinetic energy (velocity). The rotating blades convert the kinetic
energy (velocity) of the jet of steam into mechanical energy, which takes the form of the actual
movement of the turbine rotor.


























Figure11:ReactionTurbine

All reaction turbines that have more than one stage are classified as pressure-compounded
turbines. A pressure-compounded turbine is a turbine that is arranged so that the pressure drop
from the inlet to the exhaust is divided into many steps through use of alternate rows of
stationary and rotating blades. Because the entire pressure drop occurs over several stages, the
19

pressure drop in each set of stationary and rotating blades (each stage) is reduced. The reduced
pressure drop across each stage causes a small increase in velocity across each stage.

The change in direction of the steam flow through the rotating blades causes the steam to
counteract or to kick back onto the rotating blades. This kickback gives more energy to the
rotating blades and the wheel to which the rotating blades are attached.

The following actions of the steam in the reaction turbine cause the turbine to move:

The reactive force that is produced on the rotating blades when the steam increases in
velocity.

The reactive force that is produced on the rotating blades when the steam changes
direction.

The impact of the steam on the rotating blades as the high-velocity steam from the
stationary blades strikes the rotating blades; therefore, the reaction turbine operates on the
impulse principle as well.
A disadvantage of a reaction-bladed turbine is the reduced overall efficiency of the
turbine when used in high-pressure application. As the pressure drops in each blade row,
there is a pronounced tendency toward leakage of the steam around the blade tips. This
leakage necessitates extremely small radial clearances between the rotating blade tips and
the casing, and between the stationary blade tip and the rotor. Because the specific
volume of the steam at the high-pressure end of the turbine is small, the blades at the
high-pressure end of the turbine are short, and the amount of tip clearance is an
appreciable percentage of the total blade length. The short blades and the amount of tip
clearance increase the amount of tip leakage, and they decrease the overall turbine
efficiency. Another disadvantage of a reaction-bladed turbine is the cost of the materials
and construction that would be required to manufacture the reaction-bladed turbine for
use as a high-pressure turbine. The heavy construction and more expensive materials that
would be required to manufacture a reaction-bladed turbine for use in high-pressure
applications makes the reaction-bladed turbine cost prohibitive. Because of these
disadvantages, reaction-bladed turbines are normally used for low-velocity steam
applications, such as low-pressure turbines.

The advantage of reaction-bladed turbines is that because of the lower pressure and
temperature, the turbines can be constructed of lighter and less expensive materials.
Another advantage of reaction-bladed turbines is that for low-pressure applications,
reaction turbine efficiency exceeds impulse turbine efficiency by two to three percent.

Because of the pressure drop that occurs across the rotating blades, the rotor thrust that is
produced in a reaction turbine is significantly higher than the rotor thrust that is produced
in an impulse turbine. Because of this increased amount of rotor thrust, a reaction turbine
usually requires a balance drum to reduce the thrust bearing load.

20

1.3.4MultiStaging

Steam turbines are classified by the arrangement of the stages of the turbine. The combination of
several stages of the various types of blading is called multi-staging. The multi-stage
arrangements use the advantages of each type of blading to increase the overall efficiency of the
steam turbine.

Compounding (or the arrangement of the various stages) refers to the reduction of the pressure
and/or velocity over a series of steps. Steam turbines can be velocity-compounded, pressure-
compounded, or both pressure- and velocity-compounded. A single Curtis Stage was referred to
as a velocity-compounded turbine because the velocity reduction across the stage occurred in
two steps. A multiple-stage reaction turbine was referred to as a pressure-compounded turbine
because the velocity reduction occurred in several steps.

A reduction in the blade speed of a turbine will result in an increase in the efficiency of the
turbine. The reduced blade speed allows the turbine to produce more work by the increased
absorption of energy from the steam. One method that is used to reduce the blade speed is to
allow the steam pressure reduction to occur in steps rather than to have the entire pressure drop
occur over one set of nozzles. The combination of a number of Rateau stages results in the
reduction of the steam pressure in steps. Because the entire arrangement consists of a compound
series of pressure stages, this type of turbine arrangement is called a pressure-compounded
turbine. Figure 12 shows the four stages of a pressure-compounded impulse turbine and the
pressure velocity relationship of the pressure-compounded turbine.

The pressure-compounded impulse turbine consists of a series of Rateau stages with the nozzles
located between rows of moving blades. The steam enters the turbine through the steam chest
into the first set of nozzles. As the steam passes through the first set of nozzles, the steam
expands. The expansion of the steam causes pressure and temperature to decrease while velocity
increases. As the steam passes through the row of moving blades, the pressure remains the same,
but the velocity of the steam decreases as the blades absorb the energy of the steam to produce
work. The discharge from the moving blades is directed either into the next row of nozzles (inlet
of the next stage) or out the turbine exhaust.

As the steam passes through each nozzle, the pressure and temperature decreases and the
velocity increases. As the steam passes through each row of moving blades, the pressure remains
constant and the velocity decreases. The total pressure drop across the turbine from the steam
chest to the exhaust is divided into as many steps as there are stages. The division of the total
pressure drop into many steps results in a relatively low pressure drop across each nozzle and a
relatively low steam entrance velocity for each moving blade. An increase in the number of
stages decreases the velocity of each stage to allow the blade speed to be reduced. The advantage
of a pressure-compounded turbine arrangement is that relatively low-steam velocities can be
used to achieve the desired steam turbine blade speed.

21

Figure12:PressureCompoundedImpulseTurbine

The efficiency of the turbine increases as the actual blade speed approaches the desired blade
speed. The combination of enough pressure-compounded stages to result in an efficient blade
22

speed would require a large turbine. The combination of a pressure- compounded turbine with a
velocity-compounded turbine results in an efficient blade speed that is attained in a relatively
short turbine. Modern, high-pressure steam turbines usually use velocity-compounded stages and
pressure-compounded stages combined in one casing, as shown in Figure 13. This type of multi-
stage arrangement is called a pressure-velocity compounded turbine. The pressure-velocity
compounded turbine consists of a velocity-compounded stage (a Curtis stage) that is followed by
several pressure-compounded stages (Rateau stages). The velocity-compounded Curtis stage is
always placed at the high-pressure end of the turbine to absorb the largest portion of the total
pressure and temperature drop of the steam in a single stage. The energy that remains in the
steam is then absorbed in the pressure-compounded stages. In addition to the reduction of the
overall length of the turbine, the addition of the velocity-compounded stage as the first stage
allows the use of lighter construction materials throughout the remainder of the turbine.

Figure 13 illustrates one velocity-compounded Curtis stage followed by four, pressure-
compounded Rateau stages, and the pressure-velocity relationship of the pressure-velocity
compounded turbine. The steam enters the turbine through the steam chest into the first set of
nozzles. As the steam passes through the first set of nozzles, the steam expands with a decrease
in pressure and temperature and an increase in velocity. The pressure remains the same through
the two rows of moving blades, but the velocity decreases as the blades absorb the energy of the
steam to produce work. The fixed blades redirect the exhaust from the first row of moving blades
into the second row of moving blades. The discharge from the second row of moving blades is
directed into the nozzles of the first pressure-compounded Rateau stage.






















23

Figure13:PressureVelocityCompoundedImpulseTurbine
24

It is advantageous to combine an impulse-type stage with reaction stages, as shown in Figure 14.
This multi-stage arrangement is called a combination turbine. The addition of an impulse stage at
the high-pressure end with its large temperature and pressure decrease results in a comparatively
low-pressure and low-temperature steam that enters the reaction stages. The lower-pressure and
lower-temperature steam allows for the use of light and inexpensive reaction blading.

This type of multi-stage arrangement combines one impulse stage followed by a series of
reaction stages. As the steam enters the turbine through the steam inlet, the steam pressure and
temperature decrease while the velocity increases in the set of nozzles of the impulse stage. As
the steam passes through the row of moving blades, the velocity decreases as the kinetic energy
is converted to work. The steam is directed from the row of moving blades into the fixed blades
or nozzles of the first reaction stage. As the steam expands across every row of fixed and moving
blades of the reaction stages, the thermal energy (pressure) of the steam is converted into kinetic
energy (velocity). The moving blades convert the kinetic energy

(velocity) of the jet of steam into work. As the steam passes through each row of moving blades,
it is directed either into the next row of fixed blades or out the turbine exhaust.




























25

Figure14:CombinationTurbineReactionTurbinewithOneImpulseStage







26

1.3.5StageEfficiencies

A comparison of stage efficiencies based on velocity ratios and applications will improve explain
why and when Rateau, Curtis, and reaction stages are used.

1.3.5.1ImpulseStages

In an actual turbine, the impulse stage nozzle is positioned at an angle () to the rotating blades
which causes the steam to enter the blade at an angle, as shown in Figure 15. Therefore, in actual
impulse turbines, the maximum amount of work is done when the blade speed is one-half the
cosine of the nozzle angle times the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance. Because
it is only the tangential component of the steam velocity that produces work on the turbine
blades, the nozzle angle is made as small as possible.






















Figure15:VectorDiagramforaSingleStage

Figure 15 also shows the vector diagram for a single stage impulse stage (Rateau). The blade
efficiency (
b
) is defined as the ratio of the actual work per pound mass of steam flowing to the
kinetic energy of the steam entering the blade passage.

p =
w
I
2
2
,

27

A blade efficiency of 100% would indicate that the work is exactly equal to the kinetic energy of
the steam entering the blade, and the kinetic energy of the steam leaving the blade is zero.
However, the steam must have some axial velocity to flow out of the blade passage. Stage
efficiency is frequently shown graphically compared to the velocity ratio. The velocity ratio is
the ratio of the blade speed (V
b
) to the velocity of the steam leaving the nozzle (V
1
). Typical
designations for the velocity ratio are V
b
/V
1
or V/C
o
.

Figure 16 shows three vector diagrams for different velocity ratios. Figure 16a shows a
reversible impulse stage vector diagram that has a very small entrance and blade exit angle that
result in a velocity ratio of 0.5. As the angles and (inlet and blade exit angles) approach zero,
the exit velocity V
2
will also approach zero, resulting in a stage that approaches 100% efficiency.
Figures 16b and 16c show the vector diagrams for a reversible impulse stage with essentially
zero angles, but with the velocity ratios less than and greater than 0.5. In both cases, the exit
velocity (V
2
)is large, and the blade efficiency is considerably less than 100%. It is generally
considered that an impulse blade reaches the optimum efficiency when the velocity ratio is 0.5.









Figure16:VectorDiagramsIllustratingOptimumVelocityRatio


In practical application, a single impulse stage turbine that would receive steam at 100 psi,
482F, and an exhaust pressure of 2 psi, would have the steam velocity leaving the nozzle at
approximately 3609 feet per second. To have a velocity ratio of0.5 (100% efficient), would
require a blade speed of approximately 1804 feet per second. Blade speeds of this magnitude
result in high stresses due to the centrifugal force, and irreversibilitys associated with steam
flow increase as the steam velocity increases.

Using a velocity compounded (Curtis) stage will reduce the blade speed for the same steam
velocity and entrance angle. For a reversible, zero angle turbine using a Curtis stage, the velocity
ratio for optimum efficiency is 0.25. Figure 17 shows the vector diagram for a two-row Curtis
stage.

Because the most efficient blade speed for a Curtis stage is one-half that of a Rateau stage for the
same steam velocity, the Curtis stage is placed ahead of the Rateau stage in pressure-velocity
compounded turbines. By placing the Curtis stage before the Rateau stage, the steam velocity at
the Rateau stage would be less than the steam velocity entering the Curtis Stage. All turbine
stages could operate in series and closely approach the most efficient blade speed for each stage.


28

Figure17:VectorDiagramforaCurtisStage

29

1.3.5.2ReactionStages

In the pure reaction stage, the entire pressure drop occurs as the steam flows through the moving
blades. The moving blades act as a nozzle, and the blade passage must have the proper contour
for a nozzle, converging if the exit pressure is greater than the critical pressure and converging-
diverging if the exit pressure is less than the critical pressure. The only purpose of the stationary
blade is to direct the steam into the moving blade at the proper angle and velocity.

In application, most turbines that are classified as reaction turbines have a pressure and enthalpy
drop in both the fixed and moving blades. The degree of reaction is defined as the fraction of the
enthalpy drop that occurs in the moving blades.

The most commonly used fraction is 50 percent reaction, where half of the enthalpy drop across
the stage occurs in the fixed blade and the other half of the enthalpy drop occurs in the moving
blade.

Reaction stage performance may be shown by a velocity diagram. Figure 18 shows the velocity
diagram for a reaction stage. The component of absolute steam velocity V
1
in the direction of
blade motion is shown by the vector FA=V
1
cos =

V
R1
cos + V
b
. For a pure reaction blade, R
1
cos , which is the component of relative steam
entrance velocity in the direction of blade motion, must be equal to zero (angle must be 90 so
no impulse force is acting on the moving blade). Due to the expansion of the steam as it passes
through the blades, the relative exit velocity, V
R2
, is greater than the relative entrance velocity,
R
1
. If the blades are considered frictionless, and if the drops in heat energy across the fixed and
moving blades are

equal, and angle = angle , then V
1
= V
R2
and V
R1
= V
2
. To obtain the maximum work from the
blades, vector V
2
, the

absolute steam exit velocity, must be minimized because it performs no work. Vector V
2
is
minimized when V
2
is perpendicular to V
b
. Since V
R2
= V
1
, the condition of maximum work is
obtained when V
b
= V
1
cos . For high steam velocities, a reaction turbine would have too high of
a blade speed to operate at the most efficient point, therefore, reaction turbines are not normally
used in high pressure steam applications. Reaction turbines are typically used in low velocity
steam applications, such as low pressure turbines, because the turbine can operate closer to the
most efficient blade speed. Because of the low pressure and temperature steam used for reaction
turbines, the turbine can be constructed of lighter and less expensive materials.







30

Figure18:VectorDiagramforaReactionStage
Reaction stages has a maximum efficiency when the velocity ratio is approximately equal to
0.707.

Ib
I1
=
1
2
= u.7u7

For a given enthalpy drop per stage, the maximum efficiency for a reaction stage requires a
higher blade speed than for an impulse blade. Because the most efficient blade speed for a Curtis
stage is lower than the efficient speed of a reaction stage for the same steam velocity, a Curtis
stage can be placed ahead of the reaction stages in a combination, velocity-compounded impulse
31

and pressure-compounded reaction turbine. By placing the Curtis stage before the reaction
stages, a large temperature and pressure drop can be effected in the first stage nozzles so that the
pressure and temperature of the steam striking the reaction stages are lower. The Curtis stage
converts a large part of the available kinetic energy in the velocity-compounded wheel, requiring
fewer remaining reaction rows to complete the extraction of energy, and resulting in a shorter
turbine. All turbine stages could operate in series and closely approach the most efficient blade
speed for each stage.

Figure 19 shows a comparison of stage efficiencies to velocity ratios for the different stage
arrangements. The effects of the stage arrangements to the relative work per stage and the
number of stage required can also be seen on Figure 19. By adding a two-row Curtis stage,
efficiency curve 2, to reaction stages, efficiency curve 5, results in the efficiency curve 3.
Efficiency curve 3 reaches approximately 80% when the velocity ratio is 0.3. The efficiency for
the combination Curtis stage/reaction stage turbine is greater than the efficiency of just a two-
row Curtis stage turbine. However, the efficiency of the combination Curtis stage/reaction stage
turbine is less than the efficiency of a reaction turbine. The decrease in reaction stage efficiency
is offset by the number of stages required to obtain maximum efficiency.





























Figure19:EfficiencyversusStageType







32

1.4STEAMTURBINEARRANGEMENTS

The steam turbine arrangement that is used in a process depends on the needs of the process. In
this section of the Thesis, the Mechanical Engineer will examine the following turbine
arrangements:

Condensing

Backpressure

Extraction

Induction


1.4.1Condensing

A condensing steam turbine is a turbine that exhausts to a condenser. Condensing turbines can be
either single-stage or multi-stage design. A multi-stage condensing turbine is a turbine that
contains more than one stage (reaction and/or impulse type) and exhausts to a condenser. The
exhaust from a multi-stage condensing turbine is at a pressure that is less than atmospheric
pressure. The exhaust steam is condensed by cooling water condensers or air-fin condensers.

Figure 20 is an illustration of a multi-stage condensing turbine. The figure includes a blowup of
the first four stages and a diagram of the steam supply, exhaust, and condensing system. Steam,
which is at a pressure of 125 psig or higher, is supplied to the turbine. The turbine extracts the
energy from the steam and produces work. The turbine exhaust is directed into a condenser. The
exhaust pressure of a condensing turbine is very low, usually between 4 and 6 in. Hg absolute (2
to 3 psia). The low exhaust pressure allows the maximum pressure energy to be extracted from
each pound of steam. The condensed water (condensate) is recovered, and for reuse, it is pumped
back to the steam generating system.














33

Figure20:MultiStageCondensingTurbine





34

Because only a portion of the steam energy is converted to work, the condensing turbine has a
relatively low cycle efficiency even though the turbine efficiency is the highest of all of the
turbine arrangements (70 to 83%). A large part of the steam energy is lost in the condenser. In
fact, more heat is transferred to the cooling water or the air in the condenser than is converted to
work in the turbine. However, condensing turbines are necessary if mechanical power generation
from steam is required and if there is no use for the exhaust steam.


1.4.2Backpressure

A backpressure turbine is a steam turbine that exhausts at a pressure that is greater than
atmospheric pressure, which is normally 15 psig or higher. A backpressure turbine is a non-
condensing steam turbine. A multi-stage backpressure turbine is a steam turbine that contains
more than one stage (reaction and/or impulse type), and it exhausts at a pressure that is greater
than atmospheric pressure. The exhaust steam from a backpressure turbine can be used for some
other process, such as heating steam, or the exhaust steam can be exhausted into the atmosphere.

Figure 21 is an illustration of a reaction-type, multi-stage backpressure turbine. The figure
includes a blowup of the first four stages and a diagram of the steam supply and exhaust system
arrangements. The steam system shows the high-pressure steam inlet line and the exhaust line.
High-pressure steam (400 to 650 psig) is supplied to the turbine. The turbine extracts energy
from the steam in order to produce work. The turbine exhaust steam leaves at medium to low
pressure (225 to 15 psig), and it is distributed to other parts of the plant that use the useful heat of
the steam for other processes.
















35

Figure21:MultiStageBackpressureTurbine

36

The backpressure turbine arrangement has a cycle efficiency that is high, with little lost energy.
The energy of the steam that is not used to produce work in the turbine is used in other plant
processes. The high-efficiency cycle assumes that there is a use for the exhaust steam and that
the exhaust steam will not be vented to the atmosphere. The typical efficiencies of backpressure
turbines range from 65 to 75%.
1.4.3Extraction

Many industrial plants require various quantities of process steam at various pressure
applications. The extraction turbine is used to balance the process steam requirements of the
various plant process pressure requirements. An extraction turbine is a multi-stage turbine in
which some of the steam is exhausted, or bled, from between the turbine stages. The extraction
steam is used for various processes, such as to drive general-purpose turbines, to heat feedwater,
or to heat buildings.

Extraction turbines can be adapted to a variety of plant conditions. Many different types of
extraction turbines are built. Extraction turbines can be non-condensing or condensing turbines
that have one or more extraction points. Extraction turbines can have automatic or non-automatic
extraction. The pressure of the steam at any stage of a multi-stage turbine is determined by the
steam flow or the turbine load. In a non-automatic extraction turbine, no effort is made to control
the extraction steam pressure or the extracted steam flow. The steam pressure or steam flow
varies with the load of the turbine. In an automatic extraction turbine, valves are used at the inlet
to the next section of turbine. Both the main turbine valves and the extraction turbine valves
receive the output of the control signal in order to regulate the extraction steam pressure and/or
the extraction steam flow.

The most frequently used extraction turbine is the single, automatic-extraction, condensing
turbine that is shown in Figure 23. Figure 23 also shows a diagram of the steam supply, the
exhaust, and the condensing systems that are associated with the extraction condensing turbine.
High-pressure (HP) steam (400 to 1500 psig) is supplied to the inlet of the turbine. After one or
more stages, medium-pressure or low-pressure (MP/LP) steam (15 to 400 psig) is extracted from
the turbine and is supplied to other plant processes. The steam that is not extracted proceeds
through the low-pressure stages of the turbine, and it exhausts to a condenser at a normal
condensing pressure of 2 to 3 psia. The exhaust portion of the steam is condensed by cooling
water. The condensate is returned to the steam generator for reuse.

For design purposes, the extraction turbine that is shown in Figure 22 may be considered as a
backpressure turbine and a condensing turbine that operate in series on a common rotor and that
are built into a single casing. Because of the emphasis that is placed on compactness and simple
construction, the number of stages of an extraction turbine is usually limited. Because of the
compactness and simple construction, the performance may not be equal to the combined
performance of a backpressure turbine and a straight condensing turbine that is built in two
separate units. The extraction-type of turbine is more complex and, therefore, more expensive
than either a backpressure turbine or a straight-condensing turbine. On the other hand, the cost of
an extraction turbine is less than the total cost of two independent units, a backpressure turbine
and a straight-condensing turbine.
37

Figure22:Single,AutomaticExtraction,CondensingTurbine

38

1.4.4Induction

Another type of turbine that is very similar to the extraction turbine is the induction turbine or
automatic admission turbine. The induction turbine is also used to balance the process steam
requirements of the plant with the electrical power requirements. An induction turbine is a multi-
stage turbine that has the provision to use low-pressure steam and high-pressure steam in
proportion to the available steam supply. Unlike the extraction steam (where steam is extracted
from the turbine to be used for various processes, such as feedwater heating or heat building), an
induction turbine generally uses low-pressure steam that is exhausted from other plant processes
to generate electrical power.

Low-pressure steam is admitted to the turbine to carry normal load conditions. If the available
low-pressure steam is insufficient to supply the turbine, or if the electrical load requirements
exceed the capacity of the low-pressure steam supply, high-pressure steam is admitted to the
latter stages of the turbine in order to provide sufficient energy to operate the turbine. If a
complete loss of low-pressure steam occurs, induction turbines are normally designed to operate
satisfactorily on high-pressure steam.

Induction turbines can be adapted to a great variety of plant conditions. Induction turbines are
normally condensing-type turbines that have one or more induction points. The steam pressure,
or steam flow, varies with the load of the turbine. Both the main turbine valves and the high-
pressure steam supply valves receive the output of the control signal to regulate the high-pressure
steam flow to the turbine.

1.5Applications

Multi-stage condensing turbines are typically used in large horsepower applications and in
applications in which there is no suitable use for the exhaust steam. Mostly large scale industries
uses multi-stage condensing turbines for generator drives, but they may also be used to drive the
following:
Large centrifugal pumps
Compressors
Blowers

Multi-stage backpressure turbines are typically used in applications in which there is a suitable
use for the exhaust steam, such as process steam or plant heating. Multi-stage backpressure
turbines may also be used to drive the following:
Compressor drives
Generator drives
Pump drives



39

CBAPTER 2
STEAN PR0CESS IN STEAN T0RBINE
Steam entrance to turbine through governor valve to control steam capacity and therefore to
control turbine speed. There is enthalpy loss at this valve. Following figures show steam process
in steam turbine.

Figure 23 shows steam process in enthalpy against entropy diagram of Curtis and single row
Rateau turbine. Figure 24 shows steam process of multi row of Rateau turbine. And figure 25
shows steam process of impulse as control stage and reaction turbine.

2.1EFFECTOFOPERATINGCONDITIONSONSTEAMTURBINES

Turbines are designed for a particular operating conditions like steam inlet pressure, steam inlet
temperature and turbine exhaust pressure/ exhaust vacuum, which affects the performance of the
turbines in a significant way. Variations in these parameters affect the steam consumption in the
turbines and also the turbine efficiency. Theoretical turbine efficiency is calculated as workdone
by the turbine to the heat supplied to generate the steam.

2.1.1EFFECTOFSTEAMINLETPRESSURE

Steam inlet pressure of the turbine also effects the turbine performance. All the turbines are
designed for a specified steam inlet pressure. For obtaining the design efficiency, steam inlet
pressure shall be maintained at design level. Lowering the steam inlet pressure will hampers the
turbine efficiency and steam consumption in the turbine will increase. Similarly at higher steam
inlet pressure energy available to run the turbine will be high, which in turn will reduce the steam
consumption in the turbine.

2.1.2EFFECTOFSTEAMINLETTEMPERATURE

Enthalpy of steam is a function of temperature and pressure. At lower temperature, enthalpy will
be low, work done by the turbine will be low, turbine efficiency will be low, and hence steam
consumption for the required output will be higher. In other words, at higher steam inlet
temperature, heat extraction by the turbine will be higher and hence for the required output,
steam consumption will reduce.

2.1.3EFFECTOFEXHAUSTPRESSURE/VACUUM

Higher exhaust pressure/ lower vacuum, increases the steam consumption in the turbine, keeping
all other operating parameters constant. Exhaust pressure lower than the specified will reduce the
40

steam consumption and improves the turbine efficiency. Similarly exhaust vacuum lower than
the specified, will lower the turbine efficiency and reduces the steam consumption.

2.2EXHAUSTSTEAMCONDITIONS,EXTRACTIONANDADMISSION

2.2.1BackPressureandCondensingTurbine

The name "Condensing turbine" and "Back pressure turbine" expressed about steam condition
exit the turbines. If steam condition exit the turbine in wet steam or where steam condition at
bellow saturated line of Mollier diagram, named condensing turbine. If steam condition exits the
turbine in dry or still in superheated condition or at upper of saturated line of Mollier diagram,
named back pressure turbine, see figure 26.

2.2.2SteamExtractionandAdmissionofTurbine

In applications, when required, steam can be extracted from turbine before steam flowing
through the last stage, named extraction turbine. In the other case, if required, steam also can be
admitted to turbine before last stage, named admission turbine, see figure 23.




Figure23:ExtractionandAdmissionSteamTurbine












41

Figure24:SteamProcessinCurtisandSingleRowRateauTurbine
























Figure25:SteamProcessinMultiRowofRateauTurbine



42

Figure26:SteamProcessinImpulseasControlStageandReactionTurbine





















43

Figure27:BackPressureandCondensingTurbine

44

2.3STEAMCONSUMPTION


Steam consumption of steam turbine is depending to required output power and efficiency of the
turbine. Efficiency will depend on turbine size or rotor diameter, blade geometries, speed,
extreme condition of steam and other losses.

2.3.1RotorDiameter


Turbine Manufacturers have nominal rotor diameter for their products. Each size has specific
operating range even sometimes operating point required by Customer does not at highest
efficiency. Nominal size is required by Manufacturer because of competitive cost reasons.

2.3.2SteamTemperature

Very high steam temperature will decrease strength of material of turbine blades and cause
limitation of design speed. Lower speed and high enthalpy differential will reduce efficiency of
turbine.

2.3.3BladeSize,SpeedandDegreesofAdmission

Blade type, size, degrees of admission and speed are influence to turbine efficiency.

2.3.4.OtherLosses


Other losses which reduce total turbine efficiency are:

Peripheral losses at impulse blades
Wetness loss at reaction blades
Mechanical losses
Enthalpy drop at governor valve








45

2.4REQUIREDSUPERHEATEDSTEAMVELOCITY

The steam velocities or speeds below are commonly recommended as acceptable for steam
distribution systems:

Steam System Velocity
(m/s) (ft/s)
Saturated Steam - high pressure 25 - 40 82 - 131
Saturated Steam - medium and low pressure 30-40 99 - 131
Saturated Steam at peak load < 50 < 164
Steam and Water mix < 25 < 82
Superheated Steam 35 - 100 100 - 300

Figure28:SteamSystemvsVelocity

Saturated steam - low pressure - is common for heating services and secondary process
pipes.

Saturated steam - high pressure - is common in powerhouse, boiler and main process
lines.

Superheated steam is common in power generation and turbine plants.























46

CBAPTER S
STEAN T0RBINE BESIuN PR0CESS
3.1INTRODUCTION

A steam turbine is a heat engine in which the energy of the steam is transformed into work.
First, the energy in the steam expands through a nozzle and is converted into kinetic energy.
Then, that kinetic energy is converted into work on rotating blades.

The usual turbine has four main parts. The rotor is the rotating part which carries the blades or
buckets. The stator consists of a cylinder and casing within which the rotor turns. The turbine
has a base or frame, and finally there are nozzles or flow passages which expand the flow. The
cylinder, casing, and frame are often combined. Other parts necessary for proper operation
would include a control system, piping, a lubrication system, and a separate condenser.
3.2CONVERSIONOFKINETICENERGYOFTHEGAS/STEAMINTOBLADE
WORK

Consider a frictionless blade that turns the steam through 180 and exits with zero absolute
velocity. This condition represents the greatest possible conversion of kinetic energy of the
entering jet into blade work. We proceed to develop a relation between the absolute velocity of
the jet entering the blade, C
1
, and the blade speed, U, For a given blade speed, this relation will
permit us to design a nozzle such that the exiting velocity will provide for maximum energy
conversion, or, in different words, maximum efficiency.



Let V
r1
be the velocity of the jet relative to
the blade. The positive direction is to the
right.

C
1
= I
1
+ u

C
2
= I
2
+ u




Because the blade is frictionless,V
r1
= -V
r2
. Furthermore, because energy conversion in the blade
is complete, C
2
= 0. Substituting and combining equations we get:
C
1

V
r1

U
C
2

V
r2

47

C
1
+ C
2
= F
r1
+F
r2
+2U

C
1
= 2U (1)

As we shall see later, the centrifugal force of rotation and the strength of the blade material limit
the blade speed. Given the blade speed, however, we can determine the ideal absolute velocity
entering the blade.
3.4ACTUALNOZZLEANGLE

We must now modify this result to account for the geometry restrictions of a real turbine. In our
derivation, the acute angle between C
1
and the tangential direction, called the nozzle angle, is
zero. In an actual turbine, because of physical constraints, the nozzle angle must be greater than
zero but not so great as to cause an appreciable loss in efficiency. Nor should the angle be so
small as to cause an excessively long nozzle that would increase friction and decrease efficiency.
"The values used in practice range from 10 to 30 deg., 12 to 20 deg. being common. The larger
angles are used only when necessary and usually at the low-pressure end of large turbines."
Equation (1), corrected for a finite nozzle angle, , becomes:

C
1
us u = 2U (2)

Because of disk friction and fanning losses, V
1
, is usually increased somewhat, say 10%, over the
theoretical value.
3.5BLADEWORKANDPOWER

First write the Reynolds transport theorem for angular momentum:

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
Sys
CV
Shaft
CS
D rxmv
rxmv
rxV V dA rxF T
Dt t

= + = =

v v
v v
v v v v
v v


Assuming steady state and steady flow with one entrance (1) and one exit (2) , the equation
reduces to:

I
Shu]t
= m |( r x C
02
) -(r x C
01
)]


For the turbine blade, the mean radius is constant between entrance and exit. Furthermore, the
tangential component of velocity is the only contributor to torque. The radial and axial
components affect bearing loads but have no effect on torque, thus:

I
Shu]t
= m ( rC
02
-rC
01
)
48

The shaft work then is:

w
Shu]t

= I = m r ( C
02
-C
01
)

But u = r, therefore, w
Shu]t

= m u( C
02
-C
01
) (3)

On a unit mass basis: w
Shu]t
= m u( C
02
-C
01
) (4)
This result is most easily visualized by constructing entering and leaving velocity triangles.
3.6IMPULSEBLADINGVELOCITYTRIANGLESANDBLADEWORK

Having determined blade speed from strength considerations; nozzle angle from
fabrication and efficiency considerations; and C
1
from equation (2); we proceed to construct the
velocity triangles. From these triangles we can find the change in absolute tangential velocity
and calculate the shaft work.
5.7ENTRANCETRIANGLE

We first draw a horizontal line representing the tangential direction. Then we construct a
vector representing C
1
at angle , after which we complete the entering triangle using the vector
relation:

C
1
= I
1
+ u

The angle between the relative velocity and the
tangential direction is designated .















U

C
a1

C
1
V
r1

C
1

49

3.8THEEXITTRIANGLE










Draw V
r2
at angle
2
to the tangent. Reducing
2
somewhat from the calculated value for
1
will
result in increased blade efficiency. "Values of
2
in use vary from 15 to 30 deg. at high and
intermediate pressures and from 30 to 40 deg. at the low-pressure end of the turbine, sometimes
reaching 40 to 50 deg. in large turbines where maximum flow area is needed." W
2
is found by
multiplying W
1
by the velocity coefficient, k
b
, which accounts for friction and turbulence. The
velocity coefficient is a function of the total change of direction of the steam in the blade
|18u -([
1
+[
2
)];

the blade width to radius ratio; and the relative velocity and density at blade entrance. Because
sufficient data are not available at the beginning of the design, the following empirical formula,
adapted from Church for a one inch blade width, is suggested.

k
b
= (u.892 -6.uux1u
-5
w
1
)
1
2
,


The triangles are easily solved for needed values as follows:

C
01
= C
1
cos o I
2
= k
b
I
1


C
u1
= I
u1
= C
1
sino (axial component) C
u2
= I
2
sin[
2


I
01
= C
01
-u I
02
= I
2
cos [
2


I
1
= I
u1
2
+I
u2
2
C
02
= u +I
02

[ = tan
-1
I
u1
I
01
C
2
= _C
u2
2
+C
02
2







V
r2
C
2

C
a2
V
ra2

C
2

V
r2

U
50

3.9THEREHEATFACTORANDTHECONDITIONCURVE

Only a portion of the available energy to a stage is turned into work. The remainder, termed
reheat (q
r
), shows up as an increase in the enthalpy of the steam. Because the constant pressure
lines on an h-s chart (Mollier chart) diverge, the summation of the individual isentropic drops for
the total stages is greater than the isentropic drop between the initial and final steam conditions.
We account for this variation using a reheat factor, R, which has been pre-calculated by various
investigators.

( )
( )
s
i
i
s
total
h
R
h

For preliminary design, R can be estimated from the following chart taken from Church.

Figure29:Reaheatfactorsforvariousenthalpydropsandinitialsuperheats,andforaninfinitenumberofstagesof80%
efiiciency
The value from the chart must be corrected for the actual number of stages and stage efficiency.

( )
1 1
1 1 1
0.2
s
n
R R
n

= +


(4)

A line connecting the initial and final states, plus the intervening states found by adding the
reheat at constant pressure, is called the condition line.
51

3.10STEAMTURBINEDESIGN

"The design of a steam turbine, like that of any other important machine, involves a
judicious combination of theory with the results of experience, governed to a great extent by the
commercial element, cost. The progress of a particular design involves a continuous series of
compromises between what is most efficient, what will operate most reliably, and what will cost
the least."
3.11MOLLIERDIAGRAM

A Mollier chart, or an h-s diagram, offers a unique description of the thermodynamic interactions
occurring within the turbine. The condition line details the thermodynamic state progression and
is usually drawn superimposed on the Mollier chart. In order to construct this chart, it is useful
to detail the state at each of the various stages. This is most easily achieved by constructing a
table of the stage properties.

To construct the table, and from there the Mollier chart, one must understand how the
thermodynamic state changes between stages. All the pertinent information has already been
determined. It is simply a question of organization. The state table for the example in progress
is given on the following page. Using a tabular format, we proceed in turn for each stage to
subtract h
s
from the entrance enthalpy and then add back the reheat to determine the stage end
point. The needed thermodynamic state properties, including specific volume, are found as the
process proceeds. Initially, the state is fixed and set by the inlet steam pressure and temperature.
It is possible to determine the entropy of the steam directly. Then as the steam flows through the
first stage nozzle, it goes through an isentropic expansion. It is here that the enthalpy of the fluid
drops. The amount of enthalpy change at each stage is considered constant, and has already been
determined. Knowing the new value of the enthalpy and assuming isentropic expansion, it is
possible to determine the pressure at the end of the nozzle.

Steam then flows across the vanes on the wheel where it is reheated due to friction. This process
occurs under constant pressure, or isobaric conditions. Thus, the increase in energy due to the
heating is added to the previous value of the enthalpy. The constant pressure assumption fixes
the state, and the resulting value of entropy can be determined at the entrance to the nozzle for
the next stage. This procedure is continued and the values are tabulated until the total number of
stages has been completed.

Once the values of the enthalpy and the entropy are determined at each stage, it is possible to
plot these values on the Mollier chart. These plotted values create the condition line and indicate
the state progression of the steam through the various turbine stages. The appropriate Mollier
chart for this example is given on page 14. EES will produce a property plot automatically. The
tabulated enthalpy and entropy values can then be superimposed on the plot using the Overlay
Plot option in the Plot menu.

52

3.12AvailableBoilersSpecificationinMEL,PIEAS

Maximum Pressure = 8 bar, a (Tsat=170 C)

Saturated Steam (x=0.6)
Drum Capacity = 38 Liters
Max. Steam Production = 20 kg/hr
OurRequirements':
Super Heating up to 200 C
Inlet Pressure = 5 bar, a
Mass flow rate = 15 kg/hr

Note: We need a superheater and steam dryer.
Steamdata
Saturation Temperature = 143 C
Super Heating up to 200 C
Inlet Pressure = 5 bar, a
Outlet Temperature = 99.6 C
Outlet Pressure = 1 bar, a
Mass flow rate = 15 kg/hr
h
i
= 2726 kJ/kg

h
o
= 2597 kJ/kg

h = 129 kJ/kg




\

53

Supposeddata:

Height of blade (h) = 5 Cm
Root/ Disc/ hub diameter (Di) = 10 Cm
Tip/outer diameter (Do) = 20 Cm
Revolutions per minute (N) = 3000

u =
n o N
6u


u =
n (u.2u)(Suuu)
6u


U = 31.4 m/sec


A =
b1 -b2
bu -b2


A = 0.5

h
1
= 2733 KJ/Kg

= p A :

A =
n
4
(o
2
-i
2
)

A
f
= 0.02355 m
2


Co = : =
m
pA


Co = : =
u.uu416
1.8718 - .u2SSS


C
o
= v = 0.094 m/sec

bo +
1
2
Co
2
= b1 +
1
2
C1
2


C1 = 505 m/sec

:1 = u
2
+C1
2
-2uC1 cos o1

v1 = 476 m/sec
54

K =
:2
:1


K (blade reaction coefficient) = 0.7

v2 = 326 m/sec

Cw1 = C1 cos o1

Cw1 = 467 m/sec

Co1 = C1 sino1

Ca1 = 172 m/sec

1
=
2
= 20

2
=
1


Cw2 = :2 cos [2 -u

Cw2 = 282 m/sec


Co2 = (u +Cw2) tan[2

Ca2 = 113 m/sec

Ft = m(Cw1 +Cw2)

Ft = 3.15 N

Fo = m(Co1 +Co2)

Fa = 0.24 N

W = F
t
x u
W = 98 Nm/sec

App. Power = 1 kW

p =
w
1
2
mC1
2


q = 18.5 %

55

GLOSSARY

automatic extraction A steam turbine with the capacity to extract steam.
turbine The pressure, or flow rate, of the extracted steam is
controlled by a valve gear at the inlet to the low-
pressure section of the turbine and the main valve
gear. (Steam turbines can be furnished with automatic
extraction and admission capability.)
backpressure turbine A steam turbine that exhausts at a pressure that is
equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. Also
known as a non-condensing steam turbine.
blades Blades are attached around the circumference of the
rotor assembly. The blades receive the steam from the
nozzles and convert the steam velocity into useful
work.
casing A casing is the housing of the turbine that contains the
steam, supports the stationary internals (nozzles and
interstage diaphragms) of the turbine, and houses the
gland labyrinths, the steam admission valves (except
on large electric utility steam units), and the journal and
thrust bearings.
governor A turbine control and protection device that is used to
sense or measure a single quantity, such as turbine
speed, inlet pressure, extraction pressure, induction
pressure, exhaust pressure, or any combination of
these quantities, and to control the turbine to regulate
the quantities that are sensed. A governor limits
turbine load, varies turbine load to maintain constant
power, and/or shuts down the turbine in an emergency.
induction turbine A steam turbine with the capacity to admit steam at two
or more pressures. Valve gear at the low-pressure
opening can automatically control the pressure in the
low-pressure opening. Commonly called an automatic

admission turbine.


56

nozzle A device that converts the stored thermal energy of the
steam into kinetic energy, or velocity, and guides the
steam to the blades at the correct incident angle.
rotor A turbine rotor consists of the rotating elements of a
steam turbine: the shaft, the blade disks, and the
blades. The rotor transmits the rotating mechanical
energy from the turbine blades to the load.
seal A device or material that prevents excessive leakage of
fluids (gases or liquids) by creating and/or maintaining
a fluid-pressure differential across the gap that exists
between two relatively movable and/or separable
components of a fluid system
steam chest The section of a turbine that serves as the steam inlet
to the turbine. The steam chest houses the control
valves, receives the supplied steam, and directs the
steam to the first stage nozzle assembly.


























57

Refrences

[1] Standards, Saudi Aramco DeskTop, Engineering Encyclopedia, Chapter Mechanical, File
Reference: MEX-213.01

[2] Steam turbine theory and practice by W.J. Kearton

[3] Turbomachinery Design and Theory by Aijaz A. Khan

[4] Turbomachinery performance Analysis by R I Lewis

[5] Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery by S. L. Dixon

[6] Machine Design by R. S. Khurmi, J. K. Gupta

[7] Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists by Thomas D. Eastop






Keeping constant blade height and varying both root and tip diameter & N= 3000-4000 rpm







N
(rpm)
Root
Dia
(m)
Tip
Dia
(m)
Height of
Blade
(Cm)
Tip Velocity
U (m/s)
Flow
Area A
f

(m
2
)
Inlet
Velocity
to
moving
blades
C1
Inlet
Relative
Velocity
from
moving
blades
V1
V2
Work
Done
on
blades
(KJ/sec)
Kinetic
Energy
supplied
(KJ/sec)
Turbine
Efficiency
3000 0.1 0.2 5 31.4 0.02355 508 478 335 99 536 19
3100 0.11 0.21 5 34.069 0.02512 508 476 333 107 536 20
3200 0.12 0.22 5 36.84266667 0.02669 508 473 331 115 536 21
3300 0.13 0.23 5 39.721 0.02826 508 471 329 123 536 23
3400 0.14 0.24 5 42.704 0.02983 508 468 327 132 536 25
3500 0.15 0.25 5 45.79166667 0.0314 508 465 325 140 536 26
3600 0.16 0.26 5 48.984 0.03297 508 462 323 149 536 28
3700 0.17 0.27 5 52.281 0.03454 508 459 321 158 536 29
3800 0.18 0.28 5 55.68266667 0.03611 508 456 319 167 536 31
3900 0.19 0.29 5 59.189 0.03768 508 453 317 176 536 33
4000 0.2 0.3 5 62.8 0.03925 508 449 314 186 536 35
Keeping constant root diameter and varying blade height & N=3000 to 4000 rpm


N
(rpm)
Root
Dia
(m)
Tip
Dia
(m)
Height
of
Blade
(Cm)
Tip Velocity
U (m/s)
Flow Area
A
f
(m
2
)
Inlet
Velocity
to
moving
blades
C1
Inlet
Reletive
Velocity
from
moving
blades
V1
V2
Work
Done
on
blades
(KJ/sec)
Work
Done
on
blades
(KJ/sec)
Kinetic
Energy
supplied
(KJ/sec)
Turbine
Effiviency
3000 0.1 0.15 2.5 23.55 0.0098125 508 486 340 76 76 536 14
3100 0.1 0.155 2.75 25.14616667 0.011009625 508 484 339 81 81 536 15
3200 0.1 0.165 3.25 27.632 0.013521625 508 482 337 88 88 536 16
3300 0.1 0.175 3.75 30.2225 0.016190625 508 479 336 96 96 536 18
3400 0.1 0.185 4.25 32.91766667 0.019016625 508 477 334 104 104 536 19
3500 0.1 0.195 4.75 35.7175 0.021999625 508 474 332 112 112 536 21
3600 0.1 0.205 5.25 38.622 0.025139625 508 472 330 120 120 536 22
3700 0.1 0.215 5.75 41.63116667 0.028436625 508 469 328 129 129 536 24
3800 0.1 0.225 6.25 44.745 0.031890625 508 466 326 138 138 536 26
3900 0.1 0.235 6.75 47.9635 0.035501625 508 463 324 146 146 536 27
4000 0.1 0.245 7.25 51.28666667 0.039269625 508 460 322 155 155 536 29





Keeping constant blade height and varying both root and tip diameter @ N=3000 rpm


Root
Dia
(m)
Tip
Dia
(m)
Height of
Blade (Cm)
Tip
Velocity U
(m/s)
Flow
Area A
f

(m
2
)
Inlet
Velocity
to moving
blades C1
Inlet
Reletive
Velocity
from
moving
blades V1
V2
Work Done
on blades
(KJ/sec)
Kinetic
Energy
supplied
(KJ/sec)
Turbine
Effiviency
0.1 0.2 5 31.4 0.02355 508 478 335 99 536 19
0.11 0.21 5 32.97 0.02512 508 477 334 104 536 19
0.12 0.22 5 34.54 0.02669 508 475 333 109 536 20
0.13 0.23 5 36.11 0.02826 508 474 332 113 536 21
0.14 0.24 5 37.68 0.02983 508 473 331 118 536 22
0.15 0.25 5 39.25 0.0314 508 471 330 122 536 23
0.16 0.26 5 40.82 0.03297 508 470 329 127 536 24
0.17 0.27 5 42.39 0.03454 508 468 328 131 536 24
0.18 0.28 5 43.96 0.03611 508 467 327 135 536 25
0.19 0.29 5 45.53 0.03768 508 465 326 140 536 26
0.2 0.3 5 47.1 0.03925 508 464 325 144 536 27





Keeping constant root diameter and varying blade height @ N=3000 rpm


Root Dia
(m)
Tip Dia
(m)
Height of
Blade (Cm)
Tip Velocity
U (m/s)
Flow
Area A
f

(m
2
)
Inlet
Velocity
to
moving
blades
C1
Inlet
Reletive
Velocity
from
moving
blades
V1
V2
Work
Done
on
blades
(KJ/sec)
Kinetic
Energy
supplied
(KJ/sec)
Turbine
Effiviency
0.1 0.15 2.5 23.55 0.01 508 486 340 76 536 14
0.1 0.155 2.75 24.335 0.011 508 485 339 78 536 15
0.1 0.165 3.25 25.905 0.014 508 483 338 83 536 15
0.1 0.175 3.75 27.475 0.016 508 482 337 88 536 16
0.1 0.185 4.25 29.045 0.019 508 481 336 92 536 17
0.1 0.195 4.75 30.615 0.022 508 479 335 97 536 18
0.1 0.205 5.25 32.185 0.025 508 478 334 102 536 19
0.1 0.215 5.75 33.755 0.028 508 476 333 106 536 20
0.1 0.225 6.25 35.325 0.032 508 475 332 111 536 21
0.1 0.235 6.75 36.895 0.036 508 473 331 115 536 22
0.1 0.245 7.25 38.465 0.039 508 472 330 120 536 22