architecture timeline

Shriya verma 32/09 Pavneet pal singh 21/09

ancient egypt
building materials sun-baked mud brick stone, mainly limestone,sandstone,granite

The Giza pyramid complex

Massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls,few openings Monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and closely spaced columns. hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings Egyptian symbolic ornamentation -the scarab, sacred beetle, solar disk,etc Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events or spells.

Temple of Horus at Edfu

GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Common materials of Greek architecture were wood plaster unbaked brick, limestone and marble, terracotta metals, especially bronze

construction systems

1)use of massive stone blocks for walls ,occasional use of corbelled masonry to make primitive forms of vaults and domes, as in the Lion Gate in Mycenae. 2)Columns sometimes were also used to frame doors and gateways and to provide internal colonnades for palaces, as in the courtyard at Tiryns Greek architecture consisted of three orders--the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Columns were understood by the Greeks to be anthropomorphic or representative of the body of a human. The base suggests the feet, the shaft the torso and the capital the head. Each order had its own conventions about the design of the entablature. The entablature is divided into three sections; the cornices, the frieze and the architrave. According the rules of classical architecture, the entablature should always be divisible into these three zones.

The basic components include: COLUMN CAPITAL(column head) ENTABLATURE (thebeamconnecting the columns) PEDIMENT(the triangular gable of the roof). The basic temple form was very simple: a rectangular chamber with a shallow-pitched gabled roof, surrounded by a row of columns (or fronted by a columned porch), standing on a podium of steps.

roman architecture
Materials used were Stone,brick,concrete(roman) and timber. Romans made significant improvements to the arch to address its shortcoming. They also developed new construction systems based on the arch and dome. Roman construction also developed the system of wooden truss construction.

Early Byzantine (Christian) architecture was simply a continuation of Roman architecture . The golden age of early Byzantine
art and architecture falls within the reign (52765) of the emperor Justinian, a prolific builder and a patron of the arts.

Centralized and Basilical planning. Cross in square/circle and normal Greek cross. Domes on pendentives. Vaults and arches.

Buildings increased in geometric complexity, brick and plaster were used in addition to stone orders were used more freely, mosaics replaced carved decoration, complex domes rested upon massive piers windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors.

romanesque
The Romanesque period approximately 800 A.D. to 1100 A.D. Romanesque is ultimately inspired by Roman architecture. Similarities between Roman and Romanesque include round arches, stone materials, and the basilica-style plan Most Romanesque churches have the following characteristics: harmonious proportions stone barrel vault or groin vault thick and heavy walls thick and heavy pillars small windows round arches supporting the roof nave with side aisles

To support the heavy stone vaults, architects used massive walls and piers. A distinguishing feature of Romanesque style, bays are square or rectangular spaces enclosed by groin vaults and used by architects as the basic building unit. The weight of the ceilings would tend to buckle the walls outward. This pressure outward is known as outward thrust. To support the walls, large piles of stone would be stacked along the wall in intervals to buttress the walls from pushing outward. Due to the weight of the stone ceiling, the wall of the church had to be very thick. Windows had to be small to keep the strength of the wall strong. Because of this, the churches interior was dim. This was not solved till the gothic church design was used.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

Gothic architecture is a style of architecture which flourished in Europe during the late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. The Gothic style emphasizes verticality and light. This was achieved by the development of certain architectural features wherein the structural parts of the building ceased to be its solid walls. They became a stone skeleton comprising of clustered columns, pointed ribbed vaults and flying buttresses

Most Gothic churches are of the Latin cross plan. They have a long nave making the body of the church. There is a transverse arm called the transept Beyond it is an extension which may be called the choir. The nave is generally flanked on either side by aisles. It has clerestorey windows which light the central space.

The Gothic vault can be used to roof rectangular and irregularly shaped plans such as trapezoids The other structural advantage is that the pointed arch channels the weight onto the columns at a steep angle. On the exterior, the verticality is emphasised in a major way by the towers and spires and in a lesser way by vertical buttresses,columns, by long narrow windows, vertical mouldings around doors and figurative sculpture .

In Gothic Architecture the pointed arch is used in every location for both structural and decorative purpose. In the interiors the same Gothic openings such as doorways, windows, is achieved by the arcades and galleries have pointed arches. pointed arch and the ribs

Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of
The Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings.

Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture.

Plan The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module. Within a church the module is often the width of an aisle.

Faade Faades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. Church faades are generally surmounted by a pediment and organized by a system of pilasters, arches and entablatures. The columns and windows show a progression towards the center. Domestic buildings are often surmounted by a cornice. There is a regular repetition of openings on each floor, and the centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or rusticated surround.

Columns and Pilasters Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system.

Windows Windows may be paired and set within a semi-circular arch. They may have square lintels and triangular or segmental pediments, which are often used alternately.

Sant'Agostino, Rome

Walls External walls are generally of highly finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. For more formal spaces, internal surfaces are decorated with frescoes. Courses, mouldings and all decorative details are carved with great precision.

Ceilings Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are frequently painted or decorated. Doors Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set within an arch or surmounted by a triangular or segmental pediment. The Romanesque Baptistery of Florence

The dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally.

Arches Arches are semi-circular segmental. Arches are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals Vaults Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular. The Dome of St Peter's Basilica, Rome.

Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio, Rome,

baroque
Baroque architecture begun in late sixteenth century Italy, that took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture .It was characterized by new explorations of form, light and shadow and dramatic intensity. The three principal architects of this period were the sculptor Gianlorenzo Bernini, Francesco Borromini and the painter Pietro da Cortona and each evolved their own distinctively individual architectural expression. Dissemination of Baroque architecture to the south of Italy resulted in regional variations such as Sicilian Baroque architecture or that of Naples and Lecce.

Elector's Palace in Trier, Germany

Santa Susanna in Rome, Italy

Michelangelos late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peters Basilica, may be considered precursors to Baroque architecture.

Distinctive features of Baroque architecture can include:

In churches, broader naves and sometimes given oval forms Fragmentary or deliberately incomplete architectural elements dramatic use of light; either strong light-and-shade contrasts (chiaroscuro effects) or uniform lighting by means of several windows (e.g. church of Weingarten Abbey) opulent use of colour and ornaments (putti or figures made of wood (often gilded), plaster or stucco, marble or faux finishing) large-scale ceiling frescoes an external faade often characterized by a dramatic central projection the interior is a shell for painting, sculpture and stucco (especially in the late Baroque) illusory effects like trompe loeil(is an art technique involving extremely realistic imagery in order to create the optical illusion that the depicted objects appear in three dimensions.) and the blending of painting and architecture pear-shaped domes in the Bavarian, Czech, Polish, and Ukrainian Baroque Marian and Holy Trinity columns erected in Catholic countries, often in thanksgiving for ending a plague

Faade of the Church of the Ges

Church of Saint Peter and Paul in Krakow, Poland

rococo
Rococo also referred to as "Late Baroque", is an 18th-century style which developed as Baroque artists gave up their symmetry and became increasingly ornate, florid, and playful. Rococo rooms were designed as total works of art with elegant and ornate furniture, small sculptures, ornamental mirrors, and tapestry complementing architecture, reliefs, and wall paintings. It was largely supplanted by the Neoclassic style.

The Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo

The Rococo Basilica at Ottobeuren (Bavaria)

the Queluz National Palace in Portugal

Rococo architecture, as mentioned above, was a lighter, more graceful, yet also more elaborate version of Baroque architecture, which was ornate and austere. Notable differences between both Rococo and Baroque architecture, one of them being symmetry, since Rococo emphasised the asymmetry of forms, whilst Baroque was the opposite. usage of pale colours. There are numerous examples of Rococo buildings as well as architects. Amongst the most famous include the Catherine Palace, in Russia, the Queluz National Palace in Portugal,etc. Architects who were renowned for their constructions using the style include Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, Philip de Lange, Rococo architecture also brought significant changes to the building of edifices, placing an emphasis on privacy rather than the grand public majesty of Baroque architecture, as well as improving the structure of buildings in order to create a more healthy environment.

American colonial architecture

American colonial architecture includes several building design styles associated with the colonial period of the United States, including First Period English (late-medieval), French Colonial, Spanish Colonial, Dutch Colonial, German Colonial and Georgian Colonial.These styles are associated with the houses, churches and government buildings of the period between about 1600 through the 19th century.

Several relatively distinct regional styles of colonial architecture are recognized in the United States. Building styles in the 13 colonies were influenced by techniques and styles from England, as well as traditions brought by settlers from other parts of Europe. In New England, 17th-century colonial houses were built primarily from wood, following styles found in the southeastern counties of England. Dutch Colonial structures, built primarily in the Hudson River Valley, Long Island, and northern New Jersey, reflected construction styles from Holland and Flanders and used stone and brick more extensively than buildings in New England. In Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas, a style called "Southern Colonial" is recognized, characterized by the hall and parlor and centralpassage house types, which often had large chimneys projecting from the gable-ends of the house. Along the lower Delaware River, Swedish colonial settlers introduced the log cabin to America. A style sometimes called Pennsylvania colonial appeared later (after 1681) and incorporates Georgian architectural influences. A Pennsylvania Dutch style is recognized in parts of southeastern Pennsylvania that were settled by German immigrants in the 18th century. Early buildings in some other areas of the United States reflect the architectural traditions of the colonial powers that controlled these regions. Architectural styles of Louisiana and French Canada are identified as French colonial, and reflect medieval French influences. The Spanish colonial style evokes Renaissance and Baroque architectural styles of Spain and Mexico; in the United States it is found in Florida, New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and California.

Neoclassical architecture was an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century,

manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of Late Baroque. In its purest form it is a style principally derived from the architecture of Classical Greece and the architecture of Italian Andrea Palladio. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. Though neoclassical architecture employs the same classical vocabulary as Late Baroque architecture, it tends to emphasize its planar qualities, rather than sculptural volumes. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade are flatter; sculptural bas-reliefs are flatter and tend to be enframed in friezes, tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual features are isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomous and complete in themselves.

The White hall of the Gatchina palace.

Pulteney Bridge, Bath, England

The Cathedral of Vilnius

early 19th centuries, predominantly in Northern Europe and the United States.

The Greek Revival was an architectural movement of the late 18th and

Klenze's Propylen (Gateway) in Munich, 1854-1862.

The term is indicative of how highly self-conscious practitioners of the style were, and that they realised they had created a new mode of architecture. With a new found access to Greece, archaeologist-architects of the period studied the Doric and Ionic movement, examples of which can be found in Russia, Poland, Lithuania and Finland (where the assembly of Greek buildings in Helsinki city centre is particularly notable). Yet in each country it touched, the style was looked on as the expression of local nationalism and civic virtue, especially in Germany and the United States where the idiom was regarded as being free from ecclesiastical and aristocratic associations.

The taste for all things Greek in furniture and interior design was at its peak by the beginning of the 19th century, when the designs of Thomas Hope had influenced a number of decorative styles known variously as Neoclassical, Empire, Russian Empire, and Regency. Greek Revival architecture took a different course in a number of countries, lasting until the Civil War in America (1860s) and even later in Scotland. The style was also exported to Greece under the first two (German and Danish) kings of the newly independent nation. Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany.

Leo von Klenze's Walhalla, Regensburg, Bavaria, 1842.

Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the cole des Beaux-Arts in Paris.
The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced US architecture in the period from 1880 to 1920. Non-French European architects of the period 1860 1914 tended to gravitate toward their own national academic centers rather than fixating on Paris.

Palais Garnier

Alternating male and female mascarons decorate keystones on the San Francisco City Hall

Beaux-Arts architecture depended on sculptural decoration along conservative modern lines, employing French and Italian Baroque and Rococo formulas combined with an impressionistic finish and realism. Slightly overscaled details, bold scuptural supporting consoles, rich deep cornices, swags and sculptural enrichments in the most bravura finish the client could afford gave employment to several generations of architectural modellers and carvers of Italian and Central European backgrounds. characteristics of Beaux-Arts architecture included:

Alternating male and female mascarons decorate keystones on the San Francisco City Hall Flat roof Rusticated and raised first story Hierarchy of spaces, from "noble spaces"grand entrances and staircases to utilitarian ones Arched windows Arched and pedimented doors Classical details: references to a synthesis of historicist styles and a tendency to eclecticism; fluently in a number of "manners" Symmetry Statuary, sculpture (bas-relief panels, figural sculptures, sculptural groups), murals, mosaics, and other artwork, all coordinated in theme to assert the identity of the building Classical architectural details: balustrades, pilasters, garlands, cartouches, with a prominent display of richly detailed clasps (agrafes), brackets and supporting consoles Subtle polychromy

the San Francisco War Memorial Opera House

Beaux-Arts building decoration presenting images of the Roman goddesses Pomona and Diana.

arts and crafts architecture

Arts and Crafts was an international design philosophy that originated in England and flourished between 1860 and 1910 , continuing its influence until the 1930s. It was largely a reaction against the impoverished state of the decorative arts and the conditions by which they were produced. The philosophy was an advocacy of traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often medieval, romantic or folk styles of decoration. It also included advocacy of economic and social reform and has been considered as essentially anti-industrial.

Red House, Bexleyheath, London (1859), designed for Morris by architect Philip Webb, exemplifies the early Arts and Crafts style, with its well-proportioned solid forms, wide porches, steep roof, pointed window arches, brick fireplaces and wooden fittings.

The "Prairie School" of Frank Lloyd Wright, George Washington Maher and other architects in Chicago, the Country Day School movement, the bungalow and ultimate bungalow style of houses popularized by Greene and Greene, Julia Morgan, and Bernard Maybeck are some examples of the American Arts and Crafts and American Craftsman style of architecture.

The Oregon Public Library in Oregon, Illinois, U.S Myers Free Kindergarten building in Auckland

Modern architecture is generally characterized by simplification

of form and creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building. Modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society.

Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement include Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Alvar Aalto, Walter Gropius and Louis I Kahn. A reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and Edwardian architecture.

Contrasts in modern architecture, as shown by adjacent high-rises in Chicago, Illinois. IBM Plaza (right), by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, is a later example of the clean rectilinear lines and glass of the International Style, whereas Marina City, (left), by his student Bertrand Goldberg, reflects a more sculptural MidCentury Modern aesthetic.

With the Industrial Revolution, the availability of newly-available building materials such as iron, steel, and sheet glass drove the invention of new building techniques.

The Robie House

The Salk Institute complex in La Jolla, California, by architect Louis Kahn.

It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction.

Around 1900 a number of architects and designers around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classicism or Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of some of these were a part of what is broadly categorized as Art Nouveau ("New Art").

The Crystal Palace

Art Nouveau

is an international philosophy and style of art, architecture and applied artespecially the decorative artsthat were most popular during 1890 1910. A reaction to academic art of the 19th century, it was inspired by natural forms and structures, not only in flowers and plants, but also in curved lines. Architects tried to harmonize with the natural environment. It is also considered a philosophy of design of furniture, which was designed according to the whole building and made part of ordinary life.

In architecture, hyperbolas and parabolas in windows, arches and doors are common, and decorative mouldings 'grow' into plant-derived forms. Art Nouveau in architecture and interior design eschewed the eclectic revival styles of the 19th century. Though Art Nouveau designers selected and 'modernised' some of the more abstract elements of Rococo style, such as flame and shell textures, they also advocated the use of very stylised organic forms as a source of inspiration, expanding the 'natural' repertoire to use seaweed, grasses, and insects. Elisseeff Emporium (1903) in St. Petersburg, Russia

Although Art Nouveau was replaced by 20th-century modernist styles, it is considered now as an important transition between the historicism of Neoclassicism and modernism.

Modernisme building

The Casa Batll

Development of characteristics
Common themes of modern architecture include: the notion that "Form follows function", a dictum originally expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright's early mentor Louis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail" visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements) the related concept of "Truth to materials", meaning that the true nature or natural appearance of a material ought to be seen rather than concealed or altered to represent something else use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of the machine aesthetic particularly in International Style modernism, a visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines Following out of the experiments in Art Nouveau and its related movements around the world, modernism in architecture and design grew out of stylistic threads originating throughout world:

The Bauhaus building at Dessau, designed by Walter Gropius

Wright's Larkin Building (1904) in Buffalo, New York, Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois, and the Robie House (1910) in Chicago, Illinois were some of the first examples of modern architecture in the United States.

The Robie House

Constructivist architecture was a form of modern architecture that flourished in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and early 1930s. It
combined advanced technology and engineering with an avowedly Communist social purpose.

Constructivist art had attempted to apply a threedimensional cubist vision to wholly abstract nonobjective constructions with a kinetic element.

The print shop of "Ogonyok" magazine

The first and most famous Constructivist architectural project was the 1919 proposal for the headquarters of the Comintern in St Petersburg by the Futurist Vladimir Tatlin, often called Tatlins Tower. Though it remained unbuilt, the materials glass and steeland its futuristic ethos and political slant (the movements of its internal volumes were meant to symbolise revolution and the dialectic) set the tone for the projects of the 1920s.

Another famous early Constructivist project was the Lenin Tribune by El Lissitzky (1920), a moving speakers podium. In this and Tatlins work the components of Constructivism could be seen to be an adaptation of various high-tech Western forms, such as the engineering feats of Gustave Eiffel and New York or Chicagos skyscrapers, for a new collective society.

Zuev Workers' Club Narkomtiazhprom

effect; it is a subjective art form. It was an architectural movement which had a brief vogue in Germany and the Netherlands shortly after the first world war began. It was confined to these two countries and was short lived, it ended by 1925. They have outlines suggesting movement, Swooping and curving roofs, Spiky towers, With decorative brickwork These shapes were made possible by plastic properties of concrete and freedom of expression is more suggestive of sculpture than architecture.

Expressionism is the tendency of an artist to distort reality for an emotional

Biomorphic fantasies Organ like buildings wherein the shape of things should not be determined from without but that it must be sought within the essence of the object.

In architecture, two specific buildings are identified as expressionist: Bruno Taut's Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition (1914), and Erich Mendelsohn's Einstein Tower in Potsdam, Germany completed in 1921. Hans Poelzig's Berlin theatre (Grosse Schauspielhaus) interior for Max Reinhardt is also sometimes cited.

Glass pavilion at the Werkbund Exhibition

Making notable use of sculptural forms and the novel use of concrete as artistic elements, examples include Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland and the Einsteinturm in Potsdam, Germany.

The Second Goetheanum, 19241928, in Basel, Switzerland

 In 1920 the young architect Erich Mendelsohn (1887-1953) was given the opportunity to design an observatory for the purpose of making measurements that might validate Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.

Between 1920 and 1921 he created a building that was as eccentric and untraditional as the scientific concepts with which it was associated.

From the beginning he strongly believed in the potential of reinforced concrete to become the building material of a new artistic expression. Having the capacity to overcome the traditional limits of support and load, this building material offered a new, previously unknown freedom in architectural design.

Its fluid curvilinear, concave and convex forms let it appear sculptured rather than built, resembling in its shape a wind swept submarine with the sprawled arms of a sphinx. Unusual features include the angled windows placed in stream-lined niches which are moulded into the round corners.

art deco architecture

Art deco is an eclectic artistic and design style that began in Paris in the 1920s and flourished internationally throughout the 1930s, into the World War II era. The style influenced all areas of design, including architecture and interior design, industrial design, fashion and jewelry, as well as the visual arts such as painting, graphic arts and film. Art deco represented elegance, glamour, functionality and modernity. Art decos linear symmetry was a distinct departure from the flowing asymmetrical organic curves of its predecessor style art nouveau; it embraced influences from many different styles of the early twentieth century, including neoclassical, constructivism, cubism, modernism and futurism and drew inspiration from ancient Egyptian and Aztec forms. Architectural examples survive in many different locations worldwide, in countries as diverse as China (Shanghai), the UK, Latvia, Spain, Cuba, Mexico, Indonesia, the Philippines, Argentina, Poland, Austria, Germany, Russia, Romania, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, India, Brazil, Colombia and the United States. In New York, the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building and Rockefeller Center are among the largest and best-known examples of the style.

Empire State Building golden gate bridge

Art Deco is characterized by use of materials such as aluminium, stainless steel, lacquer, Bakelite, Chrome and inlaid wood. Exotic materials such as sharkskin (shagreen), and zebra skin were also evident.The use of stepped forms and geometric curves (unlike the sinuous, natural curves of Art Nouveau),chevron patterns, ziggurat-shapes, fountains, and the sunburst motif are typical of Art Deco.

Art deco is characterized by :

Long, thin forms Simple, clean shapes Curving surfaces, with a streamlined look Stepped forms, rounded corners, Trapezoidal, zigzagged, geometric and jumbled shapes Ornament that is geometric or stylized from representational forms Triple- striped decorative elements and black decoration Typical motifs included stylized animals, foliage, female figures, and sun rays Expensive materials, which frequently include man-made substances (plastics, especially bakelite; vita-glass; and ferroconcrete) in addition to natural ones (jade, silver, ivory, obsidian, chrome, and rock crystal).

Flat roofs Setbacks (step like recessions in a wall) emphasizing the geometric form String courses Octagonal lamps, clocks Hard-edged low relief ornamentation around door and window openings, e.g. stepped frontispiece and stepped window head. Volutes in door surrounds Strips of windows with decorated iron grille work in surrounds to add vertical feeling Metal windows: sash, casement Although straight-headed windows are more popular, an occasional circular window or rounded window and door jamb is found.

Decorative themes of art deco are: Sunbursts and fountains - representing the dawn of a new modern age. The Skyscraper shape - symbolic of the 20th century. Symbols of speed, power and flight - the exiting new developments in communications. transport and

Geometric shapes - representing the machine and technology which it was thought would solve all our problems. The new woman - reveling in her recently won social freedoms. Ancient cultures - for oddly enough, there was a fascination with the civilizations of Egypt and central America
Chrysler Building

A related style named Streamline Moderne, or simply Streamline, developed soon afterward. Streamline was influenced by the modern aerodynamic designs, including those developing from the advancing technologies of aviation, ballistics, and other applications requiring high velocity. The shapes resulting from scientifically applied aerodynamic principles were adopted for Art Deco, applying streamlining techniques to other useful objects of everyday life, such as cars. Greyhound Bus Station in Cleveland, Ohio, showing the Streamline Moderne aesthetic.

Empire State Building Architect - Shreve, Lamb and Harmon The firm was formed in 1929 by the Canadian Richmond Harold ,Shreve, William Lamb from Brooklyn, and Arthur Loomis Harmon from Chicago. Style Low key Art Deco ConstructionSystem - Steel frame, stone cladding The design rests on its chrome-nickel steel rails, or mullions, whose reflections add dazzle to the skyline and which also reinforce the towers verticality Features The Empire State Building rises to 1,250 feet (381m) at the 102nd floor, and its full structural height (including broadcast antenna) reaches 1,453 feet and 8 9/16th inches (443m). The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space (2,158,000 square feet / 200,465 square meter) and an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the spire, which is capped by a 102nd floor observatory, and atop the spire is an antenna topped off with a lightning rod. The Empire State Building is the first building to have more than 100 floors. The Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th floor observation deck offers 360-degree views of the city. the Empire State Buildings enormous stainless steel eagle-win pylons bracing its observatory tower are spectacularly bold and impressive. the Empire State Buildings facade uses limestone throughout.

international style
While high-style modernist architectural design never became dominant in single-dwelling residential buildings in the United States, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the architectural profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984. Some critics claim that these spaces remain too cold and static for the average person to function While this may make them somewhat less desirable for the general public, most modernist architects see this as a necessary and pivotal tenet of Modernism: uncluttered and purely Minimal design.

Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade (usually a curtain wall), steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers

The Seagram Building, New York City, 1958, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe The Bailey House

residences tend to focus on humanizing the otherwise harsh ideal, making them more livable and ultimately more appealing to real people. Many of these designs use a similar tactic: blurring the line between indoor and outdoor spaces.

embracing "the box" while at the same time dissolving it into the background with minimal structure and large glass walls, as was particularly the case with the Farnsworth House by Mies van der Rohe and the Glass House by Philip Johnson

Minimalism
Minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and music, where the work is stripped down to its most fundamental features. As a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in postWorld War II Western Art, most strongly with American visual arts in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The term minimalist is often applied colloquially to designate anything which is spare or stripped to its essentials.

The term minimalism is also used to describe a trend in design and architecture where in the subject is reduced to its necessary elements. Minimalist design has been highly influenced by Japanese traditional design and architecture. In addition, the work of De Stijl artists is a major source of reference for this kind of work. De Stijl expanded the ideas that could be expressed by using basic elements such as lines and planes organized in very particular manners.

Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe adopted the motto Less is more to describe his aesthetic tactic of arranging the numerous necessary components of a building to create an impression of extreme simplicity, by enlisting every element and detail to serve multiple visual and functional purposes (such as designing a floor to also serve as the radiator, or a massive fireplace to also house the bathroom). the barcelona pavillion

The architectural designers pay special attention to the connection between perfect planes, elegant lighting, and careful consideration of the void spaces left by the removal of three-dimensional shapes from an architectural design.

Farnsworth House is considered a paradigm of international style architecture in America. The house's structure consists of precast concrete floor and roof slabs supported by a carefully crafted steel skeleton frame of beams, girders and columns. international style.

Its unsurpassed views through transparent walls show made object best relates to nature.

how a man-

As the International Style took hold, others architects reacted to or strayed from its the purely functionalist forms, while at the same time retaining highly modernist characteristics. Eero Saarinen, Alvar Aalto and Oscar Niemeyer were three of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism. some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Democratic and playful nature. Expressionist exploration of form was revived, such as in the Sydney Opera House in Australia by Jrn Utzon. Contributing to these expressions were structural advances that enabled new forms to be possible or desirable Flix Candela, a Spanish expatriate living in Mexico, and Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi, would make particular strides in the use of reinforced concrete and concrete shell construction. In 1954, Buckminster Fuller patented the geodesic dome. Another stylistic reaction was "New Formalism" (or "Neo-Formalism", sometimes shortened to "Formalism").Like the pre-war "Stripped Classicism", "New Formalism" would blend elements of classicism (at their most abstracted levels) with modernist designs. Characteristics drawing on classicism include rigid symmetry, use of columns and colonnades or arcades, and use of high-end materials (such as marble or granite), yet works in this vein also characteristically use the flat roofs common with the International Style.

National Congress of Brazil, by Oscar Niemeyer

the Sydney Opera House by Jrn Utzon

TWA Terminal, John F. Kennedy Airport, New York, 1962, by Eero Saarinen

Brutalism and monumentality

Architects such as Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, I.M. Pei and others would respond to the "light" glass curtain walls advocated by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, by creating architecture with an emphasis on more substantial materials, such as concrete and brick, and creating works with a "monumental" quality. "Brutalism" is a term derived from the use of "Bton brut" ("raw concrete"), unadorned, often with the mold marks remaining, though as a stylistic tendency, Brutalism would ultimately be applied more broadly to include the use of other materials in a similar fashion, such as brickwork. The term was first used in architecture by Le Corbusier.

Tube architecture
In 1963, a new structural system of framed tubes appeared in skyscraper design and construction. The Bangladeshi architect and structure engineer Fazlur Khan defined the framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation. Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building which Khan designed and was completed in Chicago by 1963. This laid the foundations for the tube structures of many other later skyscrapers, including his own John Hancock Center and Sears Tower, and can been seen in the construction of the World Trade Center and most other supertall skyscrapers since the 1960s, such as the Petronas Towers and the Jin Mao Building.The architecture of Chicago employing the ideas developed by Khan is often known as the "Second Chicago School".

The Salk Institute complex in La Jolla, California, by architect Louis Kahn.

The National Assembly Building of Bangladesh by Louis Kahn

cubism
The Czanne's postimpressionist work, with its structural analysis of the underlying forms of visible objects and the use of colors as a means of modeling. The primitive art, especially the African sculpture, with its expressive distortion of forms free from inhibition. Different and superimposed perspectives of the same object depicted. Absence of spatial depth. Lines and planes often represented in negative - positive. Forms superimposed creating effects of transparencies. Chromatic austerity. Arbitrary shading. In architecture, cubists ideas only were adapted by some Czech architects (Josef Chochol, 1880-1956; Pavel Jank, 1882-1956; Josef Gocr, 1880-1945) who decomposed the fronts of their buildings with abstract, prismatic forms in a style reminiscent of the fragmentation of the analytical Cubism .

The Kirche Zur Heiligsten Dreifaltigkeit (Church of the Holy Trinity) in Vienna, better known as the Wotruba Church is located in Vienna. It was built between August of 1974 and October of 1976 on the basis of a model by Fritz Wotruba.

international style the first examples of which are generally cited as being from the 1950s, but did not become a style until the late 1970s and continues to influence present-day architecture. The functional and formalized shapes and spaces of the modernist style are replaced by diverse aesthetics: styles collide, form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound. architects rediscovered the expressive and symbolic value of architectural elements and forms that had evolved through centuries of building which had been abandoned by the modern style.

Postmodern architecture began as an

Postmodernity in architecture is said to be heralded by the return of "wit, ornament and reference" to architecture in response to the formalism of the International Style of modernism.

Influential early large-scale examples of postmodern architecture are Michael Graves' Portland Building in Portland, Oregon and Philip Johnson's Sony Building (originally AT&T Building) in New York City, which borrows elements and references from the past and reintroduces color and symbolism to architecture Postmodern architects may regard many modern buildings as soulless and bland, overly simplistic and abstract. modernism is rooted in minimal and true use of material as well as absence of ornament, while postmodernism is a rejection of strict rules set by the early modernists and seeks meaning and expression in the use of building techniques, forms, and stylistic references.

Postmodern architecture has also been described as "neo-eclectic", where reference and ornament have returned to the facade, replacing the aggressively unornamented modern styles. This eclecticism is often combined with the use of non-orthogonal angles and unusual surfaces, most famously in the State Gallery of Stuttgart (New wing of the Staatsgalerie Stuttgart) by James Stirling and the Piazza d'Italia by Charles Moore. The Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh have also been cited as being of postmodern vogue.

The Sony Building (formerly AT&T building) in New York City, 1984, by Philip Johnson

One building form that typifies the explorations of Postmodernism is the traditional gable roof, in place of the iconic flat roof of modernism. Shedding water away from the center of the building, such a roof form always served a functional purpose in climates with rain and snow, and was a logical way to achieve larger spans with shorter structural members, but it was nevertheless relatively rare in modern houses. (These were, after all, "machines for living," according to LeCorbusier, and machines did not usually have gabled roofs.) However, Postmodernism's own modernist roots appear in some of the noteworthy examples of "reclaimed" roofs. For instance, Robert Venturi's Vanna Venturi House breaks the gable in the middle, denying the functionality of the form architects sought to reintroduce ornament, color, decoration and human scale to buildings. Form was no longer to be defined solely by its functional requirements or minimal appearance.

The move away from modernisms functionalism is well illustrated by Venturis adaptation of Mies van der Rohes famous maxim Less is more to "Less is a bore."

Vanna Venturi House with its split gable. Contextualism, a trend in thinking in the later parts of 20th Century, influences the ideologies of the postmodern movement in general. Contextualism is centered on the belief that all knowledge is contextsensitive. This idea was even taken further to say that knowledge cannot be understood without considering its context. While noteworthy examples of modern architecture responded both subtly and directly to their physical context (analyzed by Thomas Schumacher in "Contextualism: Urban Ideals and Deformations," and by Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter in Collage City), postmodern architecture often addressed the context in terms of the materials, forms and details of the buildings around itthe cultural context.

Postmodernism with its diversity possesses sensitivity to the buildings context and history, and the clients requirements. The postmodernist architects often considered the general requirements of the urban buildings and their surroundings during the buildings design. For example, in Frank Gehry's Venice Beach House, the neighboring houses have a similar bright flat color. This vernacular sensitivity is often evident, but other times the designs respond to more high-style neighbors. James Stirling's Arthur M. Sackler Museum at Harvard University features a rounded corner and striped brick patterning that relate to the form and decoration of the polychromatic Victorian Memorial Hall across the street, although in neither case is the element imitative or historicist.

These characteristics include the use of sculptural forms, ornaments, anthropomorphism and materials which perform trompe l'oeil. These physical characteristics are combined with conceptual characteristics of meaning. These characteristics of meaning include pluralism, double coding, flying buttresses and high ceilings, irony and paradox, and contextualism. Ancient ruyi symbol adorning Taipei 101 (Taiwan)

Auditorio de Tenerife in Santa Cruz de Tenerife by Santiago Calatrava. The City Hall in Mississauga, Canada conveys a Postmodern architectural style depicting the concept of a "futuristic farm"

After many years of neglect, ornament returned. Frank Gehrys Venice Beach house, built in 1986, is littered with small ornamental details that would have been considered excessive and needless in Modernism. The Venice Beach House has an assembly of circular logs which exist mostly for decoration. The logs on top do have a minor purpose of holding up the window covers. However, the mere fact that they could have been replaced with a practically invisible nail, makes their exaggerated existence largely ornamental. Double coding meant the buildings convey many meanings simultaneously. The Sony Building in New York does this very well. The building is a tall skyscraper which brings with it connotations of very modern technology. Yet, the top contradicts this. The top section conveys elements of classical antiquity. This double coding is a prevalent trait of Postmodernism.

Hood Museum of Art at the campus of Dartmouth College in Hanover

High-tech architecture, also known as Late Modernism or Structural

Expressionism, is an architectural style that emerged in the 1970s, incorporating elements of high-tech industry and technology into building design. High-tech architecture appeared as a revamped modernism, an extension of those previous ideas aided by even more advances in technological achievements. This category serves as a bridge between modernism and post-modernism. Like Brutalism, Structural Expressionist buildings reveal their structure on the outside as well as the inside, but with visual emphasis placed on the internal steel and/or concrete skeletal structure as opposed to exterior concrete walls. In buildings such as the Pompidou Centre, this idea of revealed structure is taken to the extreme, with apparently structural components serving little or no structural role. Architects who contributed to high tech architecture:> Richard Rogers > Norman Foster > Renzo Piano

The Lloyd's building Richard Rogers. the building was innovative in having its services such as staircases, lifts, electrical power conduits and water pipes on the outside, leaving a clean uncluttered space inside. The 12 glass lifts were the first of their kind in the UK. The building consists of 3 main towers and 3 service towers around a central, rectangular space. Its focal point is the gigantic Underwriting Room on the ground floor, which houses the famous Lutine Bell. The Underwriting Room (often simply known as 'the Room') is overlooked by galleries, forming a 60-metre (200-foot)-high atrium lit naturally through a huge barrel-vaulted glass roof. The first four galleries open onto the atrium space, and are connected by escalators through the middle of the structure.The higher floors are glassed-in, and can only be reached via the outside lifts.

Deconstructivism is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of

fragmentation, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structures surface or skin, non-rectilinear shapes which serve to distort and dislocate some of the elements of architecture, such as structure and envelope. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist styles is characterized by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

The attempt in deconstructivism throughout is to move architecture away from what its practitioners see as the constricting rules of modernism such as form follows function, purity of form, and truth to materials.

Seattle Central Library by Rem Koolhaas and OMA

While postmodernism returned to embrace often slyly or ironicallythe historical references that modernism had shunned, deconstructivism rejects the postmodern acceptance of such references. It also rejects the idea of ornament as an after-thought or decoration.

Vitra Design Museum by Frank Gehry, Weil am Rhein

Geometry was to deconstructivists what ornament was to postmodernists, the subject of complication, and this complication of geometry was in turn, applied to the functional, structural, and spatial aspects of deconstructivist buildings. One example of deconstructivist complexity is Frank Gehry's Vitra Design Museum in Weil-amRhein, which takes the typical unadorned white cube of modernist art galleries and deconstructs it, using geometries reminiscent of cubism and abstract expressionism.

Deconstructivist philosophy
"metaphysics of presence," and this is the main subject of deconstructivist philosophy in architecture theory. The presupposition is that architecture is a language capable of communicating meaning and of receiving treatments by methods of linguistic philosophy.[5] The dialectic of presence and absence, or solid and void occurs in much of Eisenman's projects, both built and unbuilt. Both Derrida and Eisenman believe that the locus, or place of presence, is architecture, and the same dialectic of presence and absence is found in construction and deconstructivism.

UFA-Palast in Dresden by Coop Himmelb(l)au

Libeskind's Imperial War Museum North in Manchester

The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao by Frank Gehry, in Bilbao, Spain.