Innova Junior College / H2 Mathematics / Sampling Methods

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Sampling Methods (Independent Module)

Print References 1. Introductory Statistics, Neil A. Weiss 2. Introducing Statistics, Graham Upton, Ian Cook 3. AP Statistics 2008- 2009, Duane C. Hinders 4. A Concise Course in Advanced Level Statistics with Worked Examples, J. Crawshaw and J. Chambers 5. Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach, Allan G. Bluman Non-print References 1. Sampling Methods http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch13/probability/probability.htm 2. The following link contains some interactive Excel files that allow you to experiment and compare the various sampling methods covered in this chapter. http://www.coventry.ac.uk/ec//~nhunt/meths/ss.html Objective: At the end of the chapter, students should be able to 1. Understand the concepts of population, sample and random sample; 2. Understand the purpose and appropriate use of the 4 sampling methods ( random, stratified, systematic and quota samples) in practical situations; 3. Explain in simple terms why a given sampling method may be unsatisfactory, and suggest possible improvements.

1 1.1

Introduction The Purpose of Sampling In many practical statistical investigations, we are interested in gathering information about a population based on data derived from a sample of the population. This enables us to draw conclusions about a large set of data (population) by studying a relatively small amount of data (sample). For the sample to be useful, it has to be a representative sample, that is, it has the essential characteristics of the population being studied, and is free of any type of systematic bias. A sample should be large enough to give a good representation of the population but small enough to be manageable.
sample (see 1.2.2) population (see 1.2.1)

What is a good sample size? large enough for a good representation of population small enough to be manageable (time & costs constraints)

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1.2

Definitions 1.2.1 Population is a complete collection of individuals or items about which statistical information is desired. 1.2.2 Sample is a finite subset of a population. 1.2.3 Sampling Frame is a list of all members of the population from which we can draw a sample. 1.2.4 Random Sample is a sample drawn from a population such that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Subset means part of/contains some members of.

population

Sampling Methods In this chapter, we shall study the following 4 sampling methods: (simple) random sampling systematic sampling stratified sampling quota sampling The first 3 methods will produce a random sample, whereas quota sampling will produce a non-random sample.
What methods can used to collect a sample?

(simple) random sampling systematic sampling stratified sampling

Produce random samples

quota sampling

Produce non-random samples

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2.1

(Simple) Random Sampling

In (simple) random sampling, every possible sample of the same size has an equal chance of being selected. Also, each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
72 11 10 1 2

population of size, N =100 1 2 3 4

98

99 100

4 32 16 63 13 8 17 10 1 samples64 Some of the many of size n = 5. Each of these samples has the same probability of being selected.

32 33 8 11 100

2.1.1 Method for (Simple) Random Sampling Suppose we want to obtain a sample of size n from a population of size N. 1. Number the list of all the members of the population from 1 to N. 2. Make a random selection of n of these numbers. (This can be done by generating random numbers with a computer or GC using the command randInt(1, N, n).) 3. The members corresponding to these n numbers will constitute the sample. Example of a contextual situation where the simple random sampling method can be carried out: A total of 100 students from IJC attended an enrichment class at Science Centre, from which a simple random sample of 5 students are selected to answer a questionnaire on the effectiveness of the programme. 1. All the 100 students could each be assigned a number based on alphabetical order of their first names. 2. Generate 5 random integers between 1 and 100 using the GC command randInt(1, 100, 5). 3. The students corresponding to the randomly selected numbers will form the sample.
Example: population of size, N =100

1. 2. 3. 4.

Ang Chee Yong Chan Chee Tat Cheong Chong Yan .. .. 99. Yang Yan Yan 100. Zaina Bte Aman

Use computer or GC to generate n = 5 numbers at random

A simple random sample of size, n =5 4. 25. 78. 89. 99. Cheong Chong Yan Feng Tian Lee Mary Tan Mei Mei Yang Yan Yan

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2.1.2 Use of the GC to generate random integers The syntax for generating n random integers between m and N inclusive is as follows:

randInt(m, N, n)

Lowest value of the integers to be randomly generated.

Highest value of the integers to be randomly generated.

Number of integers to be randomly generated.

Example: Generate 5 random integers between 1 and 100 inclusive Keystrokes/Steps Step 1: Start with the home screen. Press . Screen Display

Step 2: Scroll right to PRB by pressing Press 5:randInt(. to select the function .

Step 3: Key in 1 for the lowest value of the integers to be randomly generated, 100 for the highest value, and 5 for the number of integers to be randomly generated. Press integers. Hence the 5 random integers generated are 95, 91, 15, 52 and 41. to generate the 5 random

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2.1.3

Advantages and Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

Advantages Method can be carried out quickly and easily with the help of a computer or GC to generate random numbers.

Disadvantages Sample obtained may happen to be one that is not representative of the population (see example 1(iii) for illustration). Suitable only if the sampling frame is complete and up-todate.

Example 1: In a large country ASU, an opinion poll which concerned the support for the two presidential candidates Macane and Obaba was carried out before the presidential election. A simple random sample of 1000 people was interviewed and based on the results of the poll, an easy win was predicted for Macane. (i) Describe how a simple random sample of 1000 can be selected. (ii) Give one disadvantage of simple random sampling in the context of the question. (iii) When the actual election result was out, it turned out that Obaba won the election. Give one possible reason for this difference from the predicted result. Solution (i) Obtain the sampling frame of all eligible voters from the Electoral Board. Assign a number to each person in the sampling frame. Generate 1000 random numbers with a computer.
Need to mention what the sampling frame (all eligible voters in country ASU) is. Need to assign a number to each member in the sampling frame before generating n (sample size) random (must mention this word) numbers from the list of assigned numbers. Need to mention that the people that have been assigned the chosen numbers make up the selected sample. You may write any one of the possible disadvantage BUT must ensure that you write in context, and not the theoretical answer found in 2.1.3.

The people corresponding to these 1000 numbers will constitute a simple random sample of 1000. (ii) Possible disadvantages: As the country is large, it may be expensive to travel to the different parts of the country to interview those sampled. Some of those selected may not be available for interview.

(iii)

Since the population is very large, a This is an important disadvantage of simple sample size of 1000 may not result in random sampling. a representative sample. In fact, the sample chosen could happen to have been made up of a greater proportion of Macanes supporters.
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2.2

Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is carried out by systematically drawing the sample from the population. 2.2.1 Method for Systematic Sampling Suppose we want to obtain a sample of size n from a population of size N. 1. List all members of the population in some order (usually with reference to context and/or purpose of study). For example, we can have the pupils in a school arranged according to the school register if we want to choose a sample to interview them for their opinion on the school canteen food, the order in which customers enter a particular store if we want to survey how long they spend in the shop. N Determine the sampling interval k (Round down to the nearest integer if n necessary) Choose the first member of the sample at random from the first k members, i.e., choose an integer randomly from the numbers 1 to k. Choose every other kth member after the first member is chosen.

2.

3. 4.

Illustration with an example:

Use systematic sampling to choose a sample of size 30 from the 400 pupils in a school to interview them for their opinion on the school canteen food.

1 List all the students according to the school register. 400 13.3 13 2 Sampling interval, k = 30
1 2 3

13 14 15 16 26 27 28 29 39
2 3

378 379380

390 391..400

1 Choose a number from 1 to 13 at random.

.. .

30

4 Suppose the random number selected in 3 is 2.

13 13
1 2 3

13
378 379380

13 14 15 16 26 2728 29 39
2 3

390 391..400

..
15 2

30

A systematic sample of size 30

28

379 ..

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2.2.2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling

Advantages Sample is more evenly spread over the population.

Disadvantages Sample may be biased when the order in which members of the population are lined up have a cyclic pattern.

Example 2: A student councilor in a junior college is to conduct a survey of the graduating class concerning plans for Graduation Night. There are 800 students in the graduating class and he needs a sample of 80. (i) (ii) (i) Describe how a systematic sample may be taken. Explain why the sample selected in (i) is a random sample. Get a list of all students from the graduating class arranged according to the school register (by classes). Sampling interval k Choose the first student at random from the first 10 names. Choose every 10th name after the first student has been chosen until a sample of 80 is obtained.
It is meaningful to list the students by classes in the school register order as the information needed concerns the plans for Grad Night, and generally students from a more Science based subject combination may have different preference from that of a more Humanities based subject combination. With systematic sampling performed on this list, the sample will be one that is more representative of the whole graduating batch of students. Recall that simple random sampling systematic sampling stratified sampling (section 2.3) produce random samples.

Solution

(ii)

Since the first member is selected at random from the first 10 names, the first 10 students in the register have a probability of
1 of being selected. 10

The subsequent members of the sample are fixed once the first member has been selected. So every member in the population has an equal chance, which is
1 , of being selected to be in 10

the sample. Thus a systematic sample is a random sample

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Example 3: A company has 20 departments, each of which has 20 employees. A list of employees is ordered by department, with the manager listed first, and then the other employees in descending order of seniority. A survey is conducted to find out about the employees opinions on their work environment. A systematic sampling approach was used to obtain a sample of size 20. Give one disadvantage of such an approach in this case. Solution As the sample size is 20, sampling interval is k . Thus every department will have an employee being selected. However, due to the cyclic pattern in which the employees are listed, it will result in a sample consisting of employees of the same seniority (e.g. only managers or only junior employees are chosen). The sample will then not be representative of all the employees opinions on their work environment.
Suppose 19 is the number obtained from the random selection of numbers from 1 to 20 (first twenty numbers) 20
Department 1 Department 2

M AM supv grp L
Department 3

JJ JJ

M AM supv grp L

JJ

M AM supv grp L
Department 19

20
Department 20

M AM supv grp L

JJ

M AM supv grp L

JJ

Note that you must give the disadvantage in context (see words in bold in solution) and not merely the technical answer cyclic pattern as stated in the 2.2.2.

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2.3

Stratified Sampling

Many populations contain identifiable strata, which are distinctive nonoverlapping subsets of the population. Strata might be based on gender, age groups, ethnic groups etc.

Gender, age groups, ethnic groups can be strata as a person can only be in 1 strata. For example, a person is either a male or female and not both! population male female

Stratified sampling ensures that the proportions of the population falling into these strata are reproduced by the sample. Thus a stratified sample is likely to be a representative sample of its population. However, a simple random sample is unlikely to reproduce these proportions and thus may provide a biased and non-representative view of the population. 2.3.1 Method for Stratified Sampling 1. Divide the population into meaningful strata. Note: This method requires the sampling frame, together with additional information on the chosen strata, which will give the proportion for each stratum.

m f ulat a e You may view a stratified sample as a l ion m miniature version of the population as the e a proportions are the same. l e A sample obtained from simple random sampling may happen to be one with a greater proportion of females which is not a good representation of the population.

sample male female pop

The strata must be meaningful to the purpose of the study. For example, the strata for survey of preference for type of movies could be gender as boys and girls generally prefer different genre.

2.

Draw random samples separately from each stratum, with sample size proportional to the relative size of the stratum. These separate random samples are put together to form the sample of the population.

population (size = 120 ) strata strata 3 strata 1 2 (S2) (S3) (S1)

50
S1

30
Sample (size = 12) S2 S3 4

40

3.

popf m 5 3 aulat e l ion m

e a l e

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2.3.2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Stratified Sampling

Advantages Likely to give a good representative sample (for the purpose of study) of the population.

Disadvantages Strata may be difficult to define clearly.

Example 4: In a company, the proportions of staff in different age-groups are as follows: Age Percentage under 40 38 between 40 and 60 40 over 60 22

Describe how a stratified sample of 20 staff can be obtained. Solution Get a list of all staff members. Divide them into age-groups under 40, between 40 and 60, over 60. between 40 and 60
40 20 8 100
For stratified sampling, additional info on the chosen strata (age in this case) is required. You must show how the sample size in each strata is obtained. Note that the numbers must be rounded to the nearest integer because number of people must be whole numbers. Also, the total number must be the required sample size. It is important that simple random sampling is conducted within each stratum. Need to say that the random samples from the strata together form the required sample which is a miniature version of the population with the same proportions.

Age Number of staff

under 40
38 20 100 7.6 8

over 60
22 20 100 4.4 4

From each age group, draw a random sample of the required size as shown in the table. The three random samples drawn will together form a stratified sample of 20 staff.

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2.4

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is similar to stratified sampling in the sense that the population is also divided into distinctive, non-overlapping strata. However, the selection of respondents within the strata is left to the interviewer, and thus is non-random.

Stratified sampling

Quota sampling

Divide population into non-overlapping strata (which is meaningful to the purpose of study) Requires sampling frame and information on the strata chosen. The sample size for each stratum is proportional to the relative size of the stratum. Random sample selected within each stratum. Does not require a sampling

frame.

A quota for each stratum is specified (without reference to population) to define the sample. Selection of sample within each stratum is non-random, dependent on interviewer/convenience.

2.4.1 Method for Quota Sampling 1. Divide the population into meaningful strata. Note: For Quota Sampling, unlike stratified sampling, a sampling frame is not required. A quota for each stratum is specified to define the sample. The interviewer will select a sample that meets the requirements of the quota.
Like in stratified sampling, the strata must be meaningful to the purpose of the study.

2.

The quota is pre-determined.

3.

The interviewer can choose any person, at his discretion/convenience, that meets the criteria stipulated by the quota.

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Example of a contextual situation where the simple random sampling method can be carried out: In a market survey, an interviewer is given an assignment to interview 20 people in the street based on the following quota.
Sex Male Female Age 9 11 20 29 30 44 45 64 65+ 4 6 7 3 Social Class 2 High 4 Middle 14 Low

This is the quota requirements set out for the sample.

The choice of the sample is subjective. A possible choice that meets the quota set out is as follows:
High Sex /Age 20 29 30 44 45 64 65+ M 1 1 1 F Social Class Middle M F 1 1 1 M 1 3 2 1 Low F 1 1 3 2

This is a possible choice because No. of males = 1+1+1+3+2+1=9 No. of females = 1+1+1+1+1+1+3+2=11 No. with age 20-29 =1+1+1+1=4 No. with age 30-44 =1+1+3+1=6 No. with age 45-64 =1+1+2+3=7 No. with age 65+ =1+2=3 No. of high social class =1+1=2 No. of middle social class =1+1+1+1=4 No. of low social class =1+3+2+1+1+1+3+2=14 Note that the interviewer can have other choices but must ensure that the quota requirements are met.

2.4.2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Quota Sampling

Advantages Does not require a sampling frame. Information can be collected quickly and easily. Lower cost of implementation as it is up to interviewers convenience.

Disadvantages Sample obtained not random. Sample is not a good representative of the population as compared with other types of sampling. Bias as the interviewer may simply select those who are easiest to interview. However, quota sampling is widely used in market research, street interviews and opinion polls. It is very useful and convenient though it is non-random in nature. Note: Information gathered from quota sampling should be treated with caution.

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Example 5: A market researcher has been commissioned to find out how many times per month members of the public visit their heartland shopping malls. She intends to take a quota sample of 80 adults in the 18 to 65 age range. Suggest suitable strata and describe how a quota sample may be taken. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of quota sampling. Solution As shopping habits depend on the age and gender, the strata to be considered are age group and gender. Divide the population into age groups of 18 25, 26 35, 36 55, 56 65. Within each age group, take equal number of males and females. A possible quota for each stratum is as follows:
Age group 18 25 Male Female Total 10 10 20 26 35 10 10 20 36 55 10 10 20 56 65 10 10 20 Total 40 40 80
State that the market researcher selects a sample that meets the requirements of the quota set out. The strata are chosen meaningfully so that it addresses the purpose of the survey. When describing the method of conducting quota sampling, need to state the strata & categories quota: the number to be chosen for each stratum

The market researcher selects a sample such that the quota is met. Possible advantages Quota sampling does not require a sampling frame. Therefore quota sampling is appropriate in this case because it would be difficult/impossible to obtain a sampling frame of all the shoppers visiting the mall. Quota sampling is easy to administer and the information can be collected quickly. Quota sampling involves lower cost as compared to other types of sampling methods because it only requires minimal logistical preparation. Possible disadvantages The sample is biased as the interviewer may select those who are easiest to interview. The sample is likely not a good representative of the population.

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Example 6: There are 29 students in class A, 32 students in class B, 34 students in class C and 25 students in class D. The teacher wants to choose a sample of 20 students from these 4 classes. He decides to select 5 students at random from each class. (i) (ii) Explain why the sample formed is not a random sample. Suggest and describe a method to obtain a random sample of 20 students from all the 4 classes.

Solution (i) The sample obtained is not a random sample because The probability of choosing each student from the 4 classes does not stand an equal 5 students at random from chance of being selected to be in the sample.
a class of 29 students is

The probability of choosing a student from class A, B, 5 5 5 5 C and D are , , and respectively. 29 32 34 25 (ii) The teacher may want to use stratified sampling to obtain the required random sample. Get a list of all the 120 students from the 4 classes. Categorize them according to their classes.
Class No. of students A 29 20 120 4.83 5 B 32 20 120 5.33 5 C 34 20 120 5.67 6 D
25 20 120 4.17 4

5 . 29

Recall that a stratified sample is a random sample. The strata used here is the class.

From each class, draw a random sample of the required size as shown in the table. The four samples drawn will together form a stratified sample of 20 students from the 4 classes.

Summary
Sample frame Yes No Yes No Random Yes Yes Yes No Advantage Quick and easy to carry out More evenly spread Good representative Easy and economical Disadvantage Difficult to sample frame get

Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Stratified Sampling Quota Sampling

Maybe Cyclic, not representative Difficult to define and obtain strata Non-random, maybe biased

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Sampling Methods (Tutorial)

1 (2010/Prelim/MI/10) A group of 10 students is to be selected for an overseas exchange programme from an institute of 3 pre-university (PU) levels, with a total enrolment of 1000 students. (i) Describe how the selection may be done using simple random sampling and suggest an advantage of this sampling method in the context of the question. [3] Write down one disadvantage of this method of selection, citing an example in the context of the question. [2] State and describe a sampling method that gives a better representation of each pre-university level in the selection process, given that there are 500 PU1 students, 300 PU2 students and 200 PU3 students. [3]

(ii) (iii)

(H2 Maths/9740/N08/II/5) A school has 950 pupils. A sample of 50 pupils is to be chosen to take part in a survey. Describe how the sample could be chosen using systematic sampling. [2] The purpose of the survey is to investigate pupils opinions about the sports facilities available at the school. Give a reason why a stratified sample might be preferable in this context. [2]

(H2 Maths/9740/N09/II/5) A cinema manager wishes to take a survey of opinions of cinema-goers. Describe how a quota sample of size 100 might be obtained, and state one disadvantage of quota sampling. [3]

(H1 Maths/8863/N09/I/11(a)) An insurance company receives a large number of claims for flood damage. On a particular day the company receives 72 such claims. Because of staff shortages, it is only possible to process 8 of these claims. (i) (ii) Describe how you would choose a systematic random sample of size 8 from the received claims. [2] Comment on whether this method of sampling gives a better indication of the value of the 72 claims as compared to simply choosing as the sample the first 8 claims received. [1]

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An employment agency wants to estimate the number of unemployed people in an HDB new town, and so decide to obtain information from a sample of its adults who are of working age. (i) Give one reason why it would not be appropriate to obtain the sample by stopping adults at the town centres supermarket during one working day. The new town has 10 000 households and they can be classified as follows. Housing type 3-room 4-room 5-room Executive Others No. of household 1250 4500 2000 1750 500

(ii)

Explain, using suitable calculations, how the agency could use this information to obtain a representative sample of 1000 households. (iii) In an attempt to obtain a representative sample of people, the agency considers two options: (A) (B) to interview all the working age adults in the chosen household; to interview one such person from each household.

The agency decided on option A. Give one reason in favour of this decision.

(H2 Maths/9740/N07/II/5) (i) Give a real-life example of a situation in which quota sampling could be used. Explain why quota sampling would be appropriate in this situation, and describe briefly any disadvantage that quota sampling has. [4] (ii) Explain briefly whether it would be possible to use stratified sampling the situation you have described in part (i). [1]

A certain private estate contains many small houses (with small gardens) and a few large houses (with large gardens). A sample survey of all houses is to be carried out in this estate. A student suggests that the sample could be selected by sticking a pin into a map of the estate the requisite number of times, while blindfolded. (i) (ii) Give two reasons why this method does not produce a random sample. Describe a better method.
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