1

UNIT I
ELECTROSTATICS (8)
CHAPTER 1 COULOBS LAW
Frictional electricity: The electricity developed on objects, when they are rubbed with each other is called
frictional electricity.
This happens due to actual transfer of electrons from one objects to the other. The object which gains
electrons becomes negatively charged while which loses electrons becomes positively charged.
Electric charge: The additional property of electrons and protons which gives rise to electric forces
between them is called electric charge.
The electric charge is a scalar quantity. Its S.I. unit is coulomb(C). A proton posseses a positive
charge +e and an electron a negative charge e, where e = 1.6 x 10
-19
Coulomb.
Properties of charge:
1) Like charges repel each other and unlike charge attract each other.
2) The total charge on an object is the algebraic sum of all the charges located at different points on the
object.
3) Quantization of charge :- All charges are always an integral multiple of the charge on electron (e = 1.6 x
10
19
C)
If q is the total charge on the object q =
+
ne where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
Coulombs law: The first precise measurement of the force between two electric charges was performed by
the French scientist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in 1788. Coulomb concluded that:
It states that the electrostatic force between any two charges is directly proportional to the product of
the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.
i.e.
1 2
2
0
1
F
4
q q
r

where F is the magnitude of the force, q

1
and q
2
are the magnitudes of the two charges (with the appropriate
signs), and r is the distance between the two charges. Where
0

is permittivity of free space.

The universal constant
0

= 8.854x10
-12
N
-1
m
-2
C
2
is called the permittivity of free space or the
permittivity of the vacuum. We can also write Coulomb's law in the form
1 2
2
F
q q
k
r

where the constant of proportionality

0
1
4
k

takes the value k = 8.988x 10

9
Nm
2
C
-2
Relative permittivity (Dielectric constant): It is the ratio of the force between two charges placed at a
certain distance in air to the force between the same charges placed at the same distance apart in that
medium.
0
F
K
F
vac
r
med
or

Coulombs law in vector form

1 2
12
21 2
0
1
F
4
q q
r
r

r
2
1 2
21
12 2
0
1
F
4
q q
r
r

r
Two charges
1 2
and q q
are placed at a distance r apart.
The force on
1 2
due to q q
is given by,
1 2
21 2
0
1
F
4
q q
r
r

r
--------- (i)
The force on
2 1
due to q q
is given by,
1 2
21
21 2
0
1
F
4
q q
r
r

r
--------- (ii)
Equation (i) and (ii) are called coulombs law in vector form.
Principle of Superposition: It states that when a number of charges are interacting the total force on a given
charge is the vector sum of all the forces exerted on the given charge by all other charges.
If 12 13 1 F , F ,.... , F x +
r r r
are the forces on q
1
due to q
2
, q
3
.., q
x
then the total force on q
1
is given by
1 12 13 1 F F F F x + + +
r r r r
L L
1 2 1 2 1 2
1
21 31 1 2 2 2
0
1
F ...
4
x
q q q q q q
r r r
r r r
1
+ + +
1

]
r
Linear charge density: It is defined as

L
q

Where q is the total charge over the length L. Its S.I. unit is cm
1
or c/m.
Surface charge density: It is defined as
A
q
where q is the total charge over the surface area A. Its S.I.
unit is cm
2
or c/m
2
.
Volume charge density: It is defined as
V
q
where q is the total charge over the volume. Its S.I. unit is
cm
3
3
CHAPTER 2
ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field Intensity:
Electric field intensity at a point is defined as the force experience by a unit positive charge without
disturbing the source. It is denoted by
E
ur
0
o
F
E lim
q o
q

r
ur
Its S.I. unit is Newton per coulomb /
1
Ne

Physical significance of Electric field:

1) It helps to give the methods for finding force on a charge due to another charge in terms of electric
field.
2) It helps to determine the nature of interaction between charges kept at a distance apart.
Electric field due to point charge:
F
E
o
q

2
0
1
F
4
o
q q
r

2
0
2
0
1
4
E
4
o
o
qq
r q
q r

A point charge + q is kept at p at a distance r from point p where the electric field is to be measured.
According to coulombs law the force between the two charges is given by
2
0
1
F
4
o
q q
r

--------- (i)
The electric field at point P is defined as
F
E
o
q

4
2
0
2 2
0 0
1
4
F
4 4
o
o
q q
r q q
q r r

In vector rotation, where
2
0
E
4
q
r
r

ur
Where r is unit vector along AP direction.
Electric lines of force: It is the path along which unit positive charge would move it is free to do so.
Properties of electric lines of force:
1) Electric lines of force starts from positive and ends with negative.
2) Two lines of force never intersect each other.
Q. Explain why two electric lines of force never intersect each other?
Ans. If two lines of force intersect each other, it would mean that the electric field has two directions at
that point. Due to this, electric lines of force never intersect each other.
Electric Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges placed at a small distance between them is called an
electric dipole.(or) A system of two equal and opposite charges separate by a certain distance is called an
electric dipole.

Electric dipole moment: It is defined as the product of either charge or a distance between them. It is
denoted by p, i.e. P 2a q
ur
Its S.I. unit is Coulomb meter (Cm).
Electric field on axial line of electric dipole:

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charge + q and q, separated by a distance 2a. Let O be the
centre of the dipole and 2a be the length of the dipole. The electric field due to q at point + p is given by,
2
0
E
4
A
q
AP

OR
( )
2
0
E
4
A
q
r a

+
--------- (i)
The electric field due to +q at point P is given by
( )
2 2
0
0
E
4 BP
4

B
q q
r a

The resultant electric field can be written as
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
B A 2 2
0 0
2 2 2
2 2
0 0
E E E
4 4
1 1 4
.
4 4
q q
r a r a
q q q
r a r a
r a

+
1
1

+
1
]

5
( )
( )
2
2 2
0
2 2
E
4
aq r
r a

But 2aq = p, electric dipole moment
( )
2
2 2
0
2
E
4
pa
r a

If dipole is of short length, a can be neglected
3
0
2
E
4
p
r

Electric field on equatorial line of electric dipole:

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges q and + q whose length is 2a. Let P be the point
on equatorial line of the dipole at a distance r from O.
The electric field at point p due to charge q is given by
( )
( )
2 2 2
0 0
E or E
4 4
A A
q q
AP r a

+
The electric field at point p due to charge + q is given by
( )
2 2 2
0 0
E (or) E
4 BP 4
B B
q q
r a

+
i.e. E
A
= E
B
By triangle law of vector addition we have,
E EA EB
= =
AB AP BP
Or
AB
E = EA
AP
6

( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2
0
2
1/
4
q a
c
r a
r a

+
+
( )
2 2
0
2
3
4
2
aq
r a

+
But 2aq = p, electric dipole moment
( )
2 2
3
2 0
E
4
P
r a

+
If dipole is of short length, a can be neglected.
3
0
E
4
P
r

Torque on electric dipole placed in electric field:

Consider an electric dipole
consisting of charge q and + q whose
length is 2a. Let O be the angle between
the dipole and direction of electric field.
Force on charge q at point A
= - qE
Force of charge + q at point
B = + q E
These two force are equal and different
line of action. So, they, form a couple
giving rise to a torque.
Torque,

= force x distance.
=
E = BN q
=
E 2 sin q a
= ( ) 2 Esin aq

Esin p
Where 2aq = P is electric dipole moment.
= P E
r ur ur
Electric field lines due to an isolated charge:
Electric field lines due to a system of two charge:
1) for electric dipole (q
1
q
2
< O) 2) same charges (q
1
q
2
> O)
7
Q Draw the lines of force to represent the uniform electric field.
Ans: Here
E
ur
represents the electric field.
Q What is the net force on electric dipole placed in uniform electric field?
Ans: It does not experience any net force.
Q When is the torque acting on a dipole maximum?
Ans: The torque is maximum when the electric dipole is placed perpendicular to the direction of electric
field.
Q When is the torque acting on a dipole minimum?
Ans: The torque is minimum when the electric dipole is placed parallel to the direction of electric field.
CHAPTER 3
GAUSS THEOREM
ELECTRIC FLUX: The electric flux through a small surface is define as the electric lines of force passing
through that area, when held perpendicular to the lines of force. It is denoted by

.
E.ds
ur uur
Where
E
ur
the electric is field and
ds
uur
is the area vector.
Its S.I. unit is Nm
2
/ C.
GAUSS THEOREM: Any close surface around a charge distribution so that the gauss theorem can
be conveniently applied to find electric field due to it is called Gaussian surface.
Q Write the importance of Gaussian surface.
Ans: To find electric field due to a charge distribution using gauss theorem, we have to evaluate the
surface integral. This surface integral can be evaluated easily by choosing a suitable surface.
Electric field due to linear charge :
Consider an infinitely long linear charge having linear charge density. To find electric field at point p
at a distance r from O, we draw a Gaussian surface of radius r.
According to gauss Theorem.
0
E.
q
ds

ur uur

0
. cos
q
ds O

We have , L
L
q
q
And
2 L ds r

8

0
L
E 2 L r

E
2 r

Electric field due to an infinite plane sheet of charge :

Consider an infinite in plane sheet of charges having surface charge density on both sides. To find
electric field, we draw Gaussian surface (cylinder) having cross sectional area A.
According to gauss theorem
0
0
0
E. S
E S cos
E
q
d
q
d
q
ds

r r

But
2 ds A

And
q
A

A q

0
0
A
E2A
A
E
2

If the plane sheet has finite thickness

Then,
0
0
q

2A
2A
E2A

Electric field due to uniformly charge spherical shell:
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R centre O. Let +q be the charge of the spherical shell
(1) When point P lies outside the spherical shell
Consider small area ds at point p at a distance r from centre of the spherical shell.
According to Gausss Theorem
0
0
E . S
E cos 0
q
d
q
ds

ur r

0
E
q
ds

But,
2
4 ds r

9
And, surface charge density,

2

4R
q

2
4R q

2
2
4R
E 4
o
r

2
2

E
R
o
r

(2) When P lies inside the spherical shell
Let P be point inside the spherical shell at a distance r from O.
According to gauss theorem
0
E.
q
ds

ur uur

But, the Gaussian surface does not enclose any charge.

i.e. q = 0
E. 0 ds

ur uur

E = O
i.e. electric field inside a spherical shell is 0.
CHAPTER 4
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Q Show that the work done in moving a unit charge along a close path is). (3m)
OR
Show that the integral of electric field.
A point charge +q is located at origin and let AP
1
, BP
2
, A be a closed path.
Then represents the work done in moving a unit positive charge from point A to B.
Then,
B
A B A
1 1 1
E.
4
dl q
o r r
_

uur r

(along P
1
)
and
B
B A A
1 1 1
E.
4
dl q
o r r
_

uur r

(along P
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
E. E.
4 4
B A
A B B A A B
dl ds q q
o r r o r r
_ _
+ +


, ,

ur r ur ur
10

E. E. 0
B A
A B
dl dl +

ur r ur r
The LHS of the above equation represents the line integral of electric field over the closed path.
Therefore,
E . dl O

ur r
i.e. the line integral of electric field is O.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The electrostatic potential difference between two points B and A in electric field is defined as the
amount of work done per unit positive test charge in moving it from point A to B against the electrostatic
force due to the electric field. If WAB is work done in moving test charge from point A to B. Then the
electrostatic potential difference is given by
AB
B A
W 1 1 1
V - V
4
o o B A
q
q r r
_

,
It is a scalar quantity. Its S.I. unit is volt (V)
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: The electric potential at a point in an electric field is define as the amount of
work done per unit positive test charge from infinity to that point against the electrostatic force due to the
field.
If
A
W

is work done in moving test charge q
o
from infinity to point A,
W 1
V
4
A
o o
q
r

Its S.I. unit is volt (V).
Q Define one volt.
OR
Define the S.I. unit of electrostatic potential.
Ans: The electrostatic potential at a point is said to be one volt. If one Joule of work is done in moving a
charge of 1 from infinity to that point against the electrostatic force.
Electric potential due to a point charge:
Point charge +q is placed at point O. Let V
A
is electric potential at point A, at a distance r
A
from O. If
A
W

is work done in moving a test charge from infinity to point A.
Then,
A
W
o
q

For a test charge

0
q
we apply an external force E
o
q
ur
. If
0
q
move through a small displacement dl
then, ( )
W F. E E cos180
o o
d dl q dl q dl


r r r
11
( )
W F. E E cos180
E ( 1) E
W E

o o
o o
o
d dl q dl q dl
q dl q dl
d q dr
dl dr

r r r
We have,
2
E
4
o
q
r

0
0 2
0
W E
4
q q
d q dr dr
r

Hence, work done in moving test charge from infinity to point A is given by

A A
A
2 0 0
A 2
0 0
0 0
0 A 0 A
W W
4 4
1 1 1

4 4
r r A
r
q q q q
d dr r dr
r
q q q q
r r

1 _

1

] ,

or
0
A
0 A
W
4
q q
r

0 A
A
0 A
0
0
W
V
4
q q
r
q
q

= A
0 A
V
4
q
r

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT ANY POINT DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE:

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charge q and + q whose length is 2a. Let P be the point at
a distance R from O such that POB =
The potential at point P due to q is given by,
A
0
V --------- (i)
4 AP
q

The potential at point P due to + q is given by,

B
0
V --------- (ii)
4 BP
q

To find AP & BP draw BN || OB and AN || OP such that

AP = OP + ON
= r + a COS
And BP = OP ON
= r a COS
Now, the net potential at point P is given by
12
V = V
A
+ V
B

0
0
2 2 2
2 2 2
0
1 1
4 BP AP
1 1
4 cos cos
cos cos
cos
2 cos
4 cos
q
q
r a r a
r a r a
r a
q a
r a

1

1

]
1

1
+
]
+ +

1

]
But, 2 aq = P, electric dipole moment.

( )
2 2 2
0
Pcos
V
4 cos r a

Cases
1. When p lies on axial line of dipole ( = O)
( )
2 2
P
V
4
o
r a

2. When P lies on equitorial line of electric dipole ( )
90

V = O
Q Show that electric field at a point is equal to negative gradient of electrostatic potential at that point.
V
CE
d
dr
1

1
]
Ans: Consider a point charge +q at O. Let V and V + dV be the potential at point P and Q at a distance r
and r dr.
If dW is small work done in moving test charge q
o
through distance dl
( )
( )
W
V V V
W
V i
o
o
d
d
q
d
d
q
+

Now,
W F .
E cos 180
W E
o
o
d dl
q dl
d q dl

r r
But,

W E
o
dl rd
d q dr


Putting this value in equation (i)
E
V
V
E
o
o
q dr
d
q
d
dr

Q Define equipotential surface.

Ans: Any surface which has the same electrostatic potential at every point is called equipotential surface.
Q Show that no work is done in moving a test charge over equipotentia surface.
13

Ans: Let point A and B be two points lying on equipotential surface. The potential difference is given by
W
VB VA
AB
o
q

But V
A
= V
B
(In equipotential surface)

AB
W
O
o
q

= W
AB
= O
i.e. no work is done in moving a test charge over equipotential surface.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE FOR UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE FOR ISOLATED POINT CHARGE

14
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE FOR SYSTEM OF TWO CHARGES

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLOE PLACED IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC
FIELD

The torque experienced by an electric dipole (having dipole moment p) placed inside uniform
electric field E is given by
Esin p
If the dipole is rotated through small angle d against the torque.
Then, small work done is,

W
W Esin
d d
d p d

Thus, work done in rotating the dipole from its orientations making an angle
1

to
2

is given by

[ ]
[ ]
2 2 2
2
1
1 1 1
2 1
W W E sin E sin E cos
W E . cos
d p d p d p
p cos

This work done is stored as potential energy (U) of the dipole.
15

( )
( )
2 1
1 2
PE cos cos
if 90 and
PE cos cos90
PEcos
In vector notation
P.E

o
o
ur ur
CHAPTER 5
POLAR AND NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS
Dielectric in the atoms or molecules of which the centres of gravity of positive and negative charges
coincide is called non-polar dielectric.
A dielectric in the atoms or molecules of which the centres of gravity of +ve and ve charges do not
coincide is called polar dielectrics.
Q. Define polarization.
Ans: The stretching of dielectric atoms due to displacement of charges in the atoms under the action of
applied electric field is called polarization.
Polarization density:
Then, P NP
Let A = Area of capacitor, D = distance between plates of capacitor. Volume of dielectric slab = Ad

-q
1
and +q
2
are developed on two face, the total dipole moment is
They induce dipole moment develop per unit
volume in a dielectric slab on placing it inside the electric
field is called polarization density. It is denoted by P.If P is
induced dipole moment acquired by atoms of dielectric and
N is the number of atoms per unit volume.
16
P
P
d
P
Ad A
, polarization surface charge density.
A
P
i i
i
q q
q




The reduce value of electric field is given by
P P P
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
P
E E E

We know that
0
P E
When called electric susceptibility of the dielectric
0
0 0
0
0
E
E E E E
E E E

0
E E E +
( )
0
E
E 1
E
+
0
E
But k, dielectric constant
E
k 1

+
i.e the relation between dielectric constant and electric susceptibility of the dielectric.
Dielectric strand: The dielectric strand of a dielectric is defined as the maximum value of electric field that
can be applied to the dielectric without its electric breakdown.
Its SI unit is volt per metre.
CAPACITANCE: Capacitance of a conductor may be defined as the ratio of the electric charge on it to its
electric potential due to that charge. It is denoted by C.
C
V
q

Where V is the electric potential due to the charge. Its SI unit is Farad (F)
PRINCIPLE OF CAPACTOR
A capacitor is a device for storing a large quantity of charge.

An insulated metallic plate A is given +ve charge till its potential becomes maximum. If another
metallic plate B is placed near plate A
1
ve charge will be induced on nearer face of plate B and +ve charge
on farther face as shown in Fig (ii). The potential of plate A gets lower due to induced charge and to make
the potential of plate A the same, additional charge has to be given, i.e. its capacitance increases.
17
If A plate B is connected to earth as shown in Fig (iii), +ve charge on plate B flows to the earth and
-ve charge remains on the plate due to attraction from plate A.
Thus, its potential is lower and a large amount of charge has to be given to make the potential the
same, i.e. its capacitance is greatly increased. This is the principle of capacitor.
CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

If +ve charge (+q) is given on plate A, - ve charge ( q) is induced on plate B. The electric field is set
up between the two plates which is given by
V
E (in magnitude)
d
dr

Since the electric field is uniform, we can write

V
E
d

Where V is the potential between the two plates.

( ) V Ed --------- i
If is surface charge density, then,
0 0

A

also, E
A
q
q

Putting this value in equation (i)
0
d
V
A
q

We know that capacitance, C

V
q

0
C
d
A
q
q

0
A
C
d

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C, which does not contain any charge initially. If it is connected
to a battery its potential rises to V and if q is the amount of charge on the capacitor then,
( )
C
V
CV ---------- i
q
q

18
If the battery supplies infinite simal charge dq to constant potential V. Then through the small
amount of work done is given byC
V
q

W V
C
q
d dq dq
Then, the total work done in delivering charge q is given by
2
2
0 0 0 0
2
1 1 1 1
W W 0
C C C 2 2 C
1
W
2 C
q
q q q
q q
d dq qdq q
q
1
1
1
]
]


This work done is stored as electric potential energy (u)
[ ]
2
2
1
U (ii)
2 C
1
V C
2 V
or,
1
CV CV
2
q
q
q
u q

1

1
]

Q
Q
We know that,
0
A
C
d

Where A is area of the plate and d is distance between the two plates.
An electric field
0

Where is surface charge density

Now,
0

A
A
EA
q
q

Putting this value in eqn. (ii)

2 2 2
0
0
2
0
E A 1
A
2
1
U E A
2
m
d
d

Where Ad = Volume of capacitor
Energy store per unit volume
2
0
1
E
2

CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WHEN DIELECTRIC IS INSERTED
BETWEEN THE TWO PLATES:
A parallel plate capacitor having plates of area A separated by a distance d is placed in vacuum and
its capacitance is given by,
19

0
V E E (d ) t t +
Since,
0
E
E
k
0
0
0
0
E
E
E
V E (d )
V E (d )
k
t t
k
t
t
k

+
+
0
0 0

E
A
q


But,
0
V (d )
A
q t
t
k
+

Capacitance,
0
0
A
C
V
(d ) d (1 )
A
q q
q t t
t t
k k

When dielectrics field the whole space between the two plates
i.e t = d

0 0 0
A A A
C
d
d
d d(1 ) d d
k
t
k k




0
C C k
CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WHEN CONDUCTING SLAB IS
INSERTED BETWEEN TWO PLATES:
A parallel plate capacitor having plates of area A and separated by a distance d is placed in vacuum
and its capacitance is given by
0
0
A
d
C


When a dielectrics of dielectric constant k (kappa) is
insulted between the two plates, the electric field reduces due
to polarization of dielectrics. If V is the potential difference
between the two plates then,
20


When conducting slab fills the whole space between the two plates,
t = d
0 0
A A
C
(d d) 0
C

VAN-DE GRAFF GENERATOR
PRINCIPLE:
1) Electric discharge takes place in air or gases readily at pointed conductor.
2) A hollow conductor continues excepting charge through its inner surface irrespective of how large its
potential may grow.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
It consists of a large hollow metallic sphere placed on two insulating column. The metal comb (C
1
) is
kept at high potential and the collecting comb (C
2
) is kept in contact with the inner sphere which is
connected by two pulleys.
Positive ions are sprayed on the belt due to repulsive action of C
1
, the comb C
2
collects these ions
and transfer them to the metallic sphere. As the belt goes moving the positive ions gets accumulated.
0
0
A
d
C


When conducting slab is insulted between the two
plates, the potential difference between the two plates reduces
and since the electric field inside the conducting slab is 0.

0
0
0
0
V E (d )

But, E

A
V (d )
A
t
q
q
t

Capacitance C
V
q

0
(d )
A
q
q
t

0
A
(d ) t

21

Electric discharge also takes place from the sphere. When the maximum potential is reach the charge leaks
to the surrounding air inside the conductor and rate of laws of charge is equal to the rate of transfer of charge
to the sphere to prevent this leakage, the generator is completely enclosed in each connected steal tank if
projectile such as proton, deuteron etc. are generated in the discharge tube D. With lower and earth upper
and inside the sphere. They accelerated in downward direction to hit a target with large kinetic energy to
bring about nuclear disintegration.
CAPACITOR IN SERIES:

1 2 3
1 1 1 1
C C C C
+ +
CAPACITOR IN SERIES:
1 2 3
C C C C + +
UNIT II CHAPTER 1
ELECTRIC CURRENT RESISTANCE AND E.M.F.
ELECTRIC CURRENT: It is defined as the rate of flow of charge through a conductor. It is denoted by
I. I
q
t

Where q is the amount of charge flowing through a conductor in time t. It is a scalar quantity. It SI unit is
ampere.
Q Define one ampere.
OR
Define the SI unit of electric current.
Ans: The current through a conductor is called one ampere. If 1 coulomb of charge flows through the
conductor in 1 sec.
22
DRIFT VELOCITY
When a potential difference V is applied to a conductor of length l. The electric field set up is given
by
V
E
r
V
E
d
d
l

The force experienced by the electrons is given by
F E e
r ur
The acceleration experienced by the electrons due to this force can be written as,
E
m
e
a

ur
r
This acceleration of electron takes placed only for a short time due to deflection in their collision
with +ve ions in the conductor and the time for which they accelerate is called relaxation time.
It an electron having thermal velocity u, accelerates for time t, and it will attain velocity.
1
1 1
v u a +
r ur r
Velocity acquired by other electrons is
2
2 2
v u a +
r uur r
And 3
3 3
v u a +
r uur r
The drift velocity can be written as
1 1
........
n
d
v v v
v
n
+ + +

ur ur uur
r
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ........ ( )

n n
u a u a u a
n
+ + + + + +

ur r uur r uur r
1 2 1 2
........ ........
n n
d
u u u
v a
n n
+ + + + + +
+
ur uur uur uur
r r
Where
1 2
........
n
u u u + + +
ur uur uur
is called average thermal velocity which is equal to zero. And
1 2
........
n
n
+ + +
uur

is called average relaxation time ().
Therefore, 0
d
v a +
uur

E
d
e
v
m

ur
uur
Q Define drift velocity.
Ans: Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons in the conductor gets
drifted under the influence of the applied electric field.
RELATION BETWEEN DRIFT VELOCITY AND ELECTRIC CURRENT:
Consider a conductor length l and cross sectional area a. If n is the number of electrons per unit
volume, then the total charge on the conductor is,
A q n le
If
d
v
is the drift velocity of the free electrons. Then,
23


d
d
l
v
t
l
t
v

The current flowing through the conductor can be written as,
A
I
I A
d
d
q n le
t l v
n ev

2
We know that,
E

A
I E
d
e
v
m
n e
m

ELECTROMOBILITY:
The mobility of electrons in a conductor is defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit applied
electric field. It is denoted by

E
d
v

Its SI unit is m
2
V
1
S
1
.
OHMS LAW:
It states that physical conditions remaining unchanged, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its two ends.
Mathematically

V I
V RI ,

Where, R is the proportionality constant known as resistance of the conductor.
RESISTANCE:
Resistance of a conductor is defining as the ratio of potential difference across the conductor to the
current flowing through it. It is the opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of current.

V
R
I

It SI unit is ohm
( )
RESISTIVITY (SPECIFIC RESISTANCE):
The resistively of the material of a conductor is define as the resistance offered by this material of
unit length and unit area. It is denoted by .
A
R
l

It SI unit is ohm metre.( m)

FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRICLA RESISTIVITY:
Consider a conductor having length (l) and cross sectional area A. If electric field E is applied across
the conductor. Then the drift velocity is
24
E
(i)
d
e
v
m

And the current flowing through the conductor is

I A
d
n v e

2
A E
I
n e
m


We know that,

V
E
l

2
2
A V
I
V
(ii)
I A
n e
ml
ml
ne

According to ohms law,

V
R
I


2
R . (iii)
A
m l
ne

If is the resistively of the conductor,
R (iv)
A
l

Comparing equation (iii) and (iv)

2
m
ne

CONDUCTANCE:
The reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor is called each conductance. It is denoted by G.
1
G
R

Its SI unit is ohm

1

1
( )

CONDUCTIVITY:
The reciprocal of the resistively of a conductor is called each conductivity. It is denoted by
Its SI unit is ohm
1
m
1
1 1
( m )

ELECTRICAL ENERGY:
The total work done by the source of e.m.f. in maintaining the electric current in the circuit for a
given time is called electrical energy consume in the circuit.
W = V I t
Its SI unit is Joule (J).
Electric Power: The rate at which work is done by the source of e.m.f. in maintaining the electric current in
the circuit is called electric power.
2
2
V
P VI I R
R

Its SI unit is Watt (W).
25
Q Define 1 kilowatt hour on board of trade unit (
0
B
)
Ans: The energy consume is called 1 kilowatt hour. It a device of electric power of 1 kilowatt is used for 1
hour. (1 kwh = 3.6 x 10
6
J)
COLOOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTOR :
B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife
Latter as an aid
to memory
Colour Figure Multiplier Colour Tolerance
B Black 0
0
10
Gold 5%
B Brown 1
1
10
Silver 10%
R Red 2
2
10
No colour 20%
O Orange 3
3
10
Y Yellow 4
4
10
G Green 5
5
10
B Blue 6
6
10
V Violet 7
7
10
G Grey 8
8
10
W White 9
9
10
Q A carbon resistor has three colors Blue, Yellow and Red respectively. What will be the resistance?
Ans:
2
64 10 20% t
Q A carbon resistor is marked in colour bands of red, black, orange and silver. What is the reistance
and tolerance value of the resistor ?
Ans:
3
20 10 10% t
Q Draw the colour code scheme of
3
42 10 10% + carbon resistance.
Ans:
3
4.5 10 10% +

Q Draw
3
4.5 10 k 5% t
Ans:
3
2
4.5 10 k 5%
45 10 k 5%
t
t
RESISTORS IN SERIES:
Three resistor R
1
, R
2
and R
3
are connected in series to a battery of e.m.f. E. Let V
1
, V
2
and V
3
be the
potential drop across the three resistors.
Such that E = V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
---------- (i)
According to ohms law
V
1
= IR
1
, V
2
= IR
2
, V
3
= IR
3
Therefore, E = IR
1
+ IR
2
+ IR
3
E = I (R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
)

1 2 3
E
= R + R + R ---------- (ii)
I

If R is the equivalent resistance of the combination. Then,
26
E = IR

E
= R
I

Putting this value in equation (ii)

R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
.
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:
Three resistors R
1
, R
2
and R
3
are connected in parallel to a battery of e.m.f.. Let I
1
, I
2
and I
3
be the
current flowing through its resistors.
Such that I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
----------- (i)
According to ohms law,
1 2 3
1 2 3
E E E
I , I , I
R R R

Putting this value in equation (i)
1 2 3
E E E
I
R R R
+ +
1 2 3
I 1 1 1
---------- (ii)
E R R R
+ +
If R is the equivalent resistance of the combination,

E I R
I 1

E R

Putting this value in equation (ii)
1 2 3
I 1 1 1

R R R R
+ +
Q Define internal resistance of a cell.
Ans: The resistance offered by the electrolytes of the cell when electric current flows through it is known
as its internal resistance. Its SI unit is ohm. It is denoted by r.
Q Define electromotive force (e.m.f.).
Ans: The potential difference between the two poles of the cell when no current is drawn from the cell
(open circuit) is called electromotive force of the cell.
Q Define terminal potential difference.
Ans: The potential difference between the two poles of the cell when current is drawn from the cell
(closed circuit) is called terminal potential difference.
EXPRESSION FOR INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL:
A source of E having internal resistance r is connected to an external resistance R. If I is the current
flowing through the circuit, then
E
I
R r

+
---------- (i)
The terminal potential difference is equal to the potential drop across resistor R.
V = IR ---------- (ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
27

E
V R
R r

+

E
R R
V
r +

E
1 R
V
r
_


,
CELLS IN SERIES:
1) When the cells are of the same e.m.f. and internal resistance. A combination of n cells having
e.m.f. E and internal resistance r. Each is connected in series to an external resistance R.
Total e.m.f. of the cell = n E
Total internal resistance of the cell = nr
If I is the current flowing through the circuit, then
total e.m.f
I
total resistance

N
I
R
e
nr

+
a) If R << nr, i.e R + nr nr

E
I currenr due to a single cell.
r

b) If R >> nr, i.e R + nr R
E
I times the currenr due to a single cell.
R
n
n
2) When the cells are of different e.m.f. and external resistance.
Two cells having internal resistance r
1
and r
2
and e.m.f. E
1
and E
2
are connected in series to an
external resistance R.
The terminal potential difference due to the first cell is,
V
1
= E
1
, - I r
1
28
For the second cell,
V
2
= E
2
I r
2
The potential difference between two points A and B is given by
V = V
1
+ V
2
V
1
= E
1
I r
1
+ E
2
I r
2
V = (E
1
+ E
2
) I (r
1
+ r
2
) ---------- (i)
If E and r are the equivalent e.m.f and internal resistance. Then,
V = E I r ---------- (ii)
Comparing equation (i) and (ii)
E = E
1
+ E
2
and
R = r
1
+ r
2

total e.m.f
I
total resistance

E

R r

+
1 2
1 2
E E

R r r
+

+ +
CELLS IN PARALLEL:
1) When the cells are of same e.m.f and total internal resistance.
A combination of n cells having e.m.f E and internal resistance r, each, is connected to an external
resistance R. If r
1
is the combined internal resistance of the cell
then,
1 1 1 1
......... times

n
r r r r
n
r
r
r
n
+ + +

Total e.m.f of the cell = E
Total resistance = R + r

If I is the current flowing through the circuit.

total e.m.f
I
total resistance
E

R
E

R
r
r n

+
a) If R , i.e R R r n r n + ?

E
I currenr due to a single cell.
R

b) If R , i.e R r n r n r n + =
E E
I times the currenr due to a single cell.
n
n
r n r

2) When the cell are of different e.m.f and total external resistance.
29
Two cells having e.m.f E
1
and E
2
and internal resistance R
1
and R
2
are connected in parallel to an
external resistance R. Let I
1
and I
2
be the current from the two cells such that,
I = I
1
+ I
2
----------- (i)
The potential difference between the two points A and B is given by
V = E
1
I
1
r
1
I
1
r
1
= E
1
V
1
1
1
E V
I
r

Similarly,
2
2
2
E V
I
r

Putting this value in equation (i)

1 2
1 2
1
1
E V E V
I
E V
I
r r
r

+

1 2 2 2 1 1
1 2
1 2
E V E V
I
r r r r
r r
r r
+

( )
( )
( )
1 2 2 1
1 2 1 2
1 2
E E
V
r r
r r I r r
r r
+
+
+

( ) ( )
1 2 2 1 1 2
1 2 1 2
E E
V
r r I r r
r r r r
+

+ +
----------(ii)
If E is the total e.m.f and r is the total internal resistance. Then
V = E Ir ---------- (iii)
From equation (ii) and (iii)
( )
1 2 2 1
1 2
2 1
1 2
E E
E

r r
r r
r r
r
r r
+

+

;

+

---------- (iv)

total e.m.f
I
total resistance

E

R r

+
Where the values of E and r are given by equation (iv)
CHAPTER 2
30
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
KIRCHOFFS LAW:
First Law: It states that the algebraic sum of a current meeting at a point in an electrical circuit is always
zero. It is also known as function rule.
Second Law: It states that in any close part of an electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of e.m.f is equal to the
algebraic sum of the product of resistance and current flowing through them.
PRINCIPLE OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:
Four rsistance PQR and X are connected across the arms of a Wheatstone Bridge. Let I be the
current flowing through the circuit.
Applying Kirchhoffs second law on the close loop ABDA,
- I
1
P + I
2
R I
3
G = 0 ---------- (i)
In the close loop BCDB,
- (I
1
I
3
) Q + (I
2
+ I
3
) X + I
3
G = 0 ---------- (ii)
If points B and D are at the same potential.
I
3
= 0
And the Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced.
-I
1
P + I
2
R = 0
I
1
P = I
2
R ---------- (iii)
and I
1
Q + I
2
X = 0
I
1
Q = I
2
X ---------- (iv)
Dividing equation (iii) and (iv)
1 2
1 2
I P I R
I Q I X

P R

Q X

This is the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge.

31
SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE (METRE BRIDGE)
Metre Bridge is a device for measuring unknown
resistance.
Principle: It is based on the principle of Wheatstone
bridge i.e. when the bridge is balanced.
P R

Q X

Where P and Q are called ratio arms. R is variable resistance and X is unknown resistance.
Construction: It consists of a wooden board over which constantan wire AC (100cm length) and a
metre scale are fitted. A copper strip is fitted on the board to provide two gaps for connecting resistance box
R and unknown, resistance X. A galvanometer is connected to terminal D and a jockey.
Applications:
1) To measure an unknown resistance:
When the bridge is balanced . Let AB = l and BC = 100 l. The resistance of the wire between AB is
taken as P and between B and C is taken as Q. Then,

P
Q 100
P
(i)
Q 100
l
l
l
l

From the principle of Wheatstone bridge.

P R

Q X

From equation (i) and (ii)

R

X 100
l
l

Knowing the values of R and l, the unknown resistance X can be determine.

2) To compare two unknown resistance:
First the resistance R
1
is connected in place of X and the balance point is obtained by moving the
jockey over the wire.
Let AB = l
1
and BC = 100 l
1
. The resistance of the wire between AB is taken as P and between BC
is taken as Q. Such that
And
1
1
1
1
P
Q 100
P

Q 100
l
l
l
l

From the principle of Wheatstone bridge

1
1
1 1
1
1
1
P R

Q R
R

R 100
R R (i)
100
l
l
l
l

,
32
The experiment is repeated with R
2
replacing R
1
and let AB = l
2
and BC = 100 l
2

1
2
2
R R (ii)
100
l
l
_

,

Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii) we get

1 1 2
2 2 1
R 100
R 100
l l
l l

Knowing the values of l

1
and l
2
the ratio
1 2
R R
can be determine.
POTENTIOMETRE:
Potentiometer is a device for measuring internal resistance of the cell or comparing emfs of two
cells.
Principle: When a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform area of cross section, the
potential drop across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.
Construction: It consists of a number of segments of wire (manganin or constantan) of uniform
cross section (each 100cm long) stretched on a wooden board. A metre rod is fixed parallel to its length as
shown in figure..
A constant current is maintained through the potentiometer wire with the help of the rheostat
Theory: Let V be the potential difference across certain portion of wire of resistance R Then,
V = IR
Since R
A
l

V I
A
l

Where

is the resistivity of the wire.

If a constant current is passed through the wire. Then,
V (constant )
i.e., V
l
l

i.e. potential drop along the wire is directly

proportional to the length of that portion.
Applications:
1) To measure e.m.f of the cell:
The circuit connection is shown in the figure.
The potentiometer wire is first calibrated by using
a standard cadmium cell of e.m.f 1.018 V. The jockey
33
is put at 203.6cm mark and current is adjusted by using rheostat so that galvanometer shows no deflection.
The potential gradient along the potentiometer wire is given by
3 1
1.018V
5 10 V
203.6
dv
cm
dl cm


The cadmium cell is now replaced by the unknown cell of e.m.f ,say E. Keeping the current through
the potentiometer wire constant, the balancing length l is found. Then the e.m.f of the unknown cell is then
given by
3
V
5 10 V
d
E l
dl
l



2) To measure internal resistance of a cell:
The circuit connection is shown in the figure. A constant current I is maintain through the
potentiometer wire by using Rheostat. The key K
2
is kept out and the balancing length l
1
is obtained. Then,
Let x be the resistance per unit length of the wire.
1
E ( )I ---------- (i) xl
After introducing the resistance , say S, the key K
2
is
inserted and the balancing length l
2
is obtained to find
terminal potential difference,
2
V ( )I ---------- (ii) xl
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
1
2
E
V
l
l

The internal resistance of a cell is given by

1
2
1 2
2
E
1 S
V
, 1 S
S
r
l
or r
l
l l
r
l
_


,
_


,
_


,
Knowing the values of l
1
and l
2
, the internal resistance of a cell can be measure.
3) To compare e.m.f of two cells:
The circuit connection is shown in the figure. A constant current I is maintained through the
potentiometer wire between points A and B by using Rheostat.
When terminals 1 and 2 of two way key are connected, let l be the balancing length between point A
and jockey J. If x is the resistance per unit length of the wire, then,
1 1
E ( )I ---------- (i) xl
If terminals 2 and 3 are connected (after removing
it from 1 and 3), let the balancing length be l
2
. Then
2 2
E ( )I ---------- (ii) xl
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get
1 1
2 2
E
E
l
l

34
Knowing the values of l
1
and l
2
, the ratio of the emfs of two cells can be found.
UNIT V
CHAPTER I
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE:
It consists of sinusoidally time varying electric and magnetic field acting at right angle to each other
and at right angle to the direction of the propagation of the waves.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM:
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves (according to wavelength or frequency) in the
form of distinct groups having widely differing properties is known as electromagnetic spectrum.
It is divided into the following main parts:
1) Radio waves 2) Microwaves 3) Infra-red
4) Visible light 5) Ultra-violet rays 6) X-rays 7) - rays
The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is given by
0
0
1
c

Where
6 -1
0
( 1.257 10 T A ) m and
12 2 1 2
0
( 8.854 10 C N ) m

are respectively the absolute
permeability and absolute permittivity of the free space.
The speed of electromagnetic waves in a medium is given by
35
1

Where

is the absolute permeability and is the absolute permittivity of that medium.

RADIO WAVES
3 11
(3 10 - 3 10 Hz)
Properties: 1) Radio waves obey laws of reflection and refraction.
2) Radio waves are electromagnetic waves and travels with a speed of
8 -1
3 10 ms .
Uses: 1) Radio waves are used in radio astronomy.
2) They are used to transmit radio and T.V. signals.
Microwaves:
8 11
(3 10 - 3 10 Hz)
Properties: 1) Microwaves are electromagnetic waves and travels with a speed of
8 -1
3 10 ms
2) Microwaves produced heat, when absorbed by matter.
Uses: 1) Microwaves are used in radar system.
2) Microwaves are used in long distance telephone communication systems.
Infra-red ray:
11 14
(3 10 - 4 10 Hz)
Properties: 1) Infra-red rays obey laws of reflection and refraction.
2) Infra-red rays effect a photographic plate.
Uses: 1) Infra-red rays are used in solar water heaters and cookers.
2) Infra-red rays are used for producing dehydrated fruits.
Visible Light: The frequency of visible light ranges from
14 14
4 10 - 8 10 Hz
Ultra-violet rays:
14 16
(8 10 - 8 10 Hz)
Properties: 1) They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
2) They can effect a photographic plate.
Uses: 1) Ultra violet rays are used for checking the mineral samples by making use of its property
of causing fluorescence.
2) As ultra violet rays can cause photoelectric effect, they are used in burglars alarm.
X-rays:
16 19
(10 - 3 10 Hz)
Properties: 1) X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength ranging from 0.01A 10A
o o
2) They affect the photographic plate very intensely.
Uses: 1) X-rays are used in detecting charge in old oil paintings.
2) X-rays are used in surgery for the detection of fractures, diseased organs and foreign
bullets.
Gamma rays:
19 20
(3 10 - 5 10 Hz)
Properties: 1) -rays are electromagnetic waves and have velocity equal to that of light.
2) -rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Uses: 1) -rays are used in radiotherapy.
2) -rays are used to produce nuclear reactions.
36
UNIT III
CHAPTER 1
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
BIOT-SAVARTS LAW:
According to Biot Savarts law the magnetic field (in magnitude) at a point at a distance r from the
current element of length el carrying a current I is given by
2
I sin
B
4
dl
d
r


Where is the angle between direction of the current and the line joining the current element to the
observation points and is the absolute permeability of free space.
RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE:
If we grasp the conductor in the palm of right hand so that the thumb points in the direction of flow
of current, then the direction in which the fingers and represents the direction of magnetic field lines.
MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCULAR LOOP:
Consider a circular loop of radius r carrying a current I whose centre is O. To find magnetic field at
the centre of the loop, consider a small element AB = dl.
According to Biot-Savarts Law, the magnetic field due to the whole circular loop is given by
0
2
I sin
B
4
dl
d
r


Since = 90, sin 90 = 1

0
2
I sin
B
4
dl
d
a


The magnetic field due to the whole circular loop is given by

0 0
2 2
I I
B B
4 4
dl
d dl
a a


But
2 , the circumference of the loop dl a


0
2I
B
4 a

If the loop has n number of turns, then
0
2 I
B
4
n
a

37
MAGNETIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE AXIS OF CIRCULAR LOOP:
A circular loop of radius a, centre o carries a current I. Let P be the point on the axis of the loop at a
distance X from O. To find magnetic field at point P, consider a small element AB = dl and CP = r.

According to Biot Savarts Law.

0
2
0
2
I sin
B
4
I
B ( 90 )
4
dl
d
r
dl
d
r

o
Q
Consider a small element A B = dl
opposite to AB and B = B . d d
Both dB and dB
1
can be resolved
into two components: B cos d and B cos d
cancel each other and the effective component is only
B sin . d
Thus the magnetic field at point P due to the whole circular loop is
0
2
0
2
B B sin
I
sin
4
I
sin
4
d
dl
r
dl
r

But
2 , the circumference of the loop of radius dl a a

0
2
Isin
B 2 (i)
4
a
r


From
OCP, V

( )
1
2 2 2 2 2
2
r a x r a x + +
And
( )
1
2 2
2
sin

a
r
a
a x

+
Putting this value in eqn. (i)
( )
( )
( )
0
1
2 2
2 2
2
2
0
3
2 2
2
I
B 2
4
2I

4
a
a
a x
a x
a
a x

+
+

+
38
AMPERES CIRCUITAL LAW:
Amperes circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field around any close path or circuit
is equal to
0
m
times the total current (I) threading the close circuit.
0
B I dl

r r

Where
0

is the absolute permeability of free space.

Application:
Magnetic field due to infinitely long straight wire:
Consider an infinitely long straight wire carrying current I. Consider a circular path of radius r, such
that the wire pass through its centre.
Let PQ=dl
uuur ur
be a small element of circular path and B be msgnetic field at point P.
According to amperes circuital law,
0
0
0
0
B I
B cos 0 I
or B I ( cos 0 1)
or B I
dl
or dl
dl
dl

o
o
r r
Q

But
2 , dl a

circumference of circular path.
0
0
B 2 I
2I
B
4
r
r


This equation gives strength of magnetic field due to a straight conductor.
Magnetic field due to a Toroidal Solenoid:
Consider a toroidal solenoid consisting of an anchor of radius r. Let n be the number of turns per unit
length of the solenoid.
According to amperes circuital law,
0
0
0
0
0
B total current threading the ring
B ( 2 I)
B ( 2 I)
2 ( 2 I) ( cos 0 1)
or B I (since 2 )
dl
or dl n r
or dl n r
or B r n r
n dl r

o
r r
r r
Q

39
Magnetic field due to a long straight solenoid:
Consider a long solenoid having n turns per
unit length. Let I be the current flowing in the
solenoid. Consider a close path ABCD and let AB =
L. The line integral of
B
r
along path ABCD is given
by
B C D A
ABCD A B C D
B B B B B dl dl dl dl dl + + +

r r r r r r r r r r

. i
Let AB=L. For path AB, and dl B
ur r
are along the same direction.

B B
A A
B B BL dl dl

r r
. ii
For path BC and DA, and dl B
ur r
are perpendicular to each other.
C A
B D
B B 0 dl dl

r r r r
.iii
For path CD,
0 = B
r
since field outside the solenoid is zero.
D
C
B 0 dl

r r
. iv
Combining i, ii, iii, and iv, we get
B
ABCD A
B B BL dl dl

r r r r

According to amperes circuital law,

0
ABCD
0
ABCD
0
0
B Total current enclosed by the path ABC D
B ( L I)
or BL ( L I)
B I
dl
or dl n
n
or n

r r
r r

This equation gives the magnetic field due to a solenoid.

40
CHAPTER 2
FORCE ON A CHARGE
FORCE ON A CHARGE IN ELECTRIC FIELD:
A charge q inside an electric field
E
r
experienced a force
F
r
given by
F E q
r r
FORCE ON A CHARGE MOVING INSIDE AN ELECTRIN FIELD:
A charge q moving with velocityv
r
inside a magnetic field
B
r
experience a force
F
r
given by
F ( B) q v +
r r
r
or,
F B sin qv
LORENTZ FORCE:
The total force experience by a charge moving inside the electric and magnetic field is called Lorentz
force.
F E ( B) q q v + +
r r r
r
Q Define the SI unit of magnetic field. (Tesla)
Ans: The strength of magnetic field is called Tasla if a charge of 1 C moving with a velocity of 1 ms
1
(along the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field), experience a force of 1 Newton.
MOTION OF A CHARGE PARTICLE INSIDE A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD:
When a charge particle having charge q moves inside a magnetic field
B
r
with velocityv
r
is experience
a force given by
F ( B) q v
r r
r
1) When velocity of the charge particle is perpendicular to the magnetic field:
When a charge particle moves perpendicular to the magnetic field, it moves in a circular path as it
experience towards its centre. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the lorentz magnetic force.
2
B
B
mv
qv
r
mv
r
q

The period of the circular motion is given by
41
2
T
2

B
2

B
r
v
r mv
v q
m
q

The angular frequency,

2
T

2

2 B
B
(Cyclotron frequency)
r
mv q
q
m

2) Whenv
r
and
B
r
are inclined to each other:
A charge particle moves inside a
magnetic field making an angle with the
direction of the magnetic field. The velocityv
r
of the
charge particle can be resolved into two
components: V cos and V sin . As the charge
particle experienced an inward force.
The period of the circular path is
2
B
sin

B
mv
qv
r
mv
r
q

The period of the circular path is

2
T
2 sin

sin B
2m
T
B
n
r
v
mv
v q
q

cos 2
Pith of helican path
B
2 cos

B
v n
q
nv
q

42
CYCLOTRON:
Principle: A positive ions can acquire sufficiently large
energy with cooperatively smaller alternating potential
difference by making it to cross the same electric field time
and again by making used of a strong magnetic field.
Construction: It consists of two D-shaped hollow semi
circular metal chambers D
1
and D
2
(called dees) separated by a
small gap and connected to high frequency electric field. The
whole arrangement in enclosed in a metallic box at low
pressure between two poles of strong electromagnet. Positive
ions are produced in the gap of ionization of gas.
Theory: Positive ion is produced at the centre gap when D
1
is
at positive potential and D
2
at negative potential. Hence the ion
will move from D
1
to D
2
. The force on the positive ion
provides the necessary centripetal force and it is deflected
along a circular path
.
2
B
(i)
B
mv
qv
r
mv
r
q

When the ions reach the gap after passing through D
2
, the polarity of the dees changes and it is
attracted by D
1
and this process repeats itself time and again.
The time spent inside the dee,
(ii)
r
t
v
m
Bq

This time t is equal to half of the time period of the electric field
T
2
_

,
T
2 B
2
T
B
m
q
m
q


Angular frequency,
2

2 B
B

m q
q
m

Cyclotron frequency,
1
T
v
1
2 B
B
2
v
m q
q
v
m

43
If
max
v
is the maximum velocity acquired by the ions corresponding to radius R

max
max
R
B
B R
2
mv
q
q
v
m

Hence maximum kinetic energy
2
max
2
2
max
2 2 2
1
E
2
1 1 B R

2 2
1 B R

2

mv
q
mv m
m
q
m

_


,

44
CHAPTER 3
FORCE ON A CURRENT
FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD :
A conductor of length l carries a current I and is placed inside a magnetic field. If the conductor has
cross sectional area A, number of electrons per unit volume n and drift velocity v
d
then,
I A
d
n ev
Multiplying both sides by l, we get
I A
d
l n lev
I and
d
l v
r
r
are opposite in direcrion
I A (i)
d
l n lev
r
r
The magnetic lorentz force can be written as
( B) (ii)
d
f e v +
r r
r
Each three electrons experience a force and let N be the total number of electrons then,
F (iii) nf
r r
N A we have n l

F A ( B)
A ( B)
F I B
d
d
n l e v
n le v
l
+
+

r r
r
r
r
r r r
or, F BI sin l
a) If 0 or 180 then, sin 0
o o

F 0 (minimum)
b) If 90 or 180 then, sin 1
o o

F BI (maximum) l
FLEMINGS LEFT HAND RULE:
It states that if the four finger, central finger and thumb of left hand are stre mutually perpendicular
to each other, such that the four fingers point in the direction of magnetic field and the central finger in the
direction of current and the thumb points in the direction of the force experienced by the conductor.
45
FORCE BETWEEN INFINITELY LONG PARALLEL CONDUCTOR:
Consider two infinitely long parallel conductors X
1
Y
1
and X
2
Y
2
separated by a distance r and carrying
currents I
1
and I
2
.
The magnetic field at point P due to current I
2
flowing through the conductor X
2
Y
2
is
0 2
2
2I
B
4 r

The direction of
2
B
r
at point P is perpendicular to the plane of paper and in inward direction.
Hence the conductor X
1
Y
1
lies inside the magnetic field B
2
and experienced a force given by
2 1
0 1 2
F B I
2I I
F (towards left)
4 r


Similarly the conductor X
2
Y
2
experience an equal force but towards right. Torque on a current loop
placed in a magnetic field.
TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:
A rectangular coil ABCD carrying current I is suspended in a magnetic field B. Let l be the length
and b be the breadth of the coil. Let
1 2 3 4
F , F , F and F
r r r r
and be the force acting on the arm DA, BC, AB and CD
of the coil. Now,
46
( )
1
F I(DA) B
I(DA)Bsin 90
I Bcos b

o
uuur r r
1
F BI cos (i) b
r
and,
2
F I(BC) B
uuur r r

( )
2
I(BC)Bsin 90
I Bcos
F BI cos (ii)
b
b

o
r
The forces and are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Hence they cancel each other.
3
F I(AB) B
uuur r r
3
I(AB)Bsin90
I B
F BI (iii)
b
b

o
r
Then,
4
F I(CD) B
uuur r r
4
I(CD)Bsin90
I B
F BI (iv)
b
b

o
r
The forces
3
F
r
and
4
F
r
are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and have different line of action.
Hence the form a torque given by
Force er distance
BI sin
BIAsin
l b

Where A is area of the coil

In vector notation
M B
r r
r
Since
IA M
r r
, magnetic dipole moment of the loop
1) If the coil has n turns
BIAsin n
2) If is the angle between the coil and the magnetic field, we can write.
BIAcos n
47
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:
Principle: When a current carrying coil is placed in a
magnetic field it experienced a torque.
Construction: It consists of a coil wounded on a
non-metallic frame and has a central soft iron core. The coil is
suspended between poles of permanent magnet (whose poles are
made concave so as to produce radial magnetic field)from a
torsion head. The other end of the coil is attached to a hair
spring and a small concave mirror is attached to a small
suspension wire. The whole arrangement is enclosed in a
non-magnetic case which can be leveled by leveling screws.
Theory: The coil ABCD of length l and breath b
having n turns is suspended inside a magnetic field. If current is
passed through the coil in the direction of ABCD.
Force on arm AB, F = nBIl (normally
outwards)
Force on arm CD, F = nBIl (normally inwards)
The two forces are equal, parallel and opposite and acting at
different points. So they given rise to a torque.
In case of radial magnetic field,
Deflecting torque nBIl b nBIA = =
If k is restoring torque per unit twist.
Restoring torque ka =
In equilibrium, Defecting torque = restoring torque.
,
,
,
or nBIA k
k
or I
nBIA
or I G
a
a
a
=
=
=
Where
k
G
nBIA
= is called Galvanometer constant.
. ., i e I a
Deflection produced is directly proportional to the current passed through the Galvanometer.
a) Current sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer on
passing unit current through its coil current sensitivity,
BA
I
n
k

b) Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer

when a unit voltage is applied across its coil.
BA
V IR R
n
k

48
TO CONVERT A GALVANOMETRE INTO AMMETR:
To convert an galvanometer into an ammeter of range 0 to I, a small resistance S is connected in parallel to
the coil of the galvanometer. Let G be the resistance of the galvanometer.
Potential difference across shunt = potential difference across galvanometer.
( )
( )
g g
g
g
I I S I G
I
S G
I I

Knowing the value of

g
I
, I and G, the value of S can be find out.
TO CONVERT GALVANOMETRE INTO VOLT METRE:
To convert a galvanometer into volt meter of range 0 to V volt, a resistance R is connected in series
with the galvanometer. When a current
g
I
flows through the coil, the galvanometer gives full scale
deflection. If G is the resistance of the galvanometer, then,
g
g
V I (G R)
V
R G
I
+

Knowing the value of
g
I
, I and G the value of R van be found out.
49
Magnetism is a force generated in matter by the motion of electrons within its atoms. Magnetism
and electricity represent different aspects of the force of electromagnetism, which is one part of Nature's
fundamental electroweak force. The region in space that is penetrated by the imaginary lines of magnetic
force describes a magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field is determined by the number of lines of
force per unit area of space. Magnetic fields are created on a large scale either by the passage of an electric
current through magnetic metals or by magnetized materials called magnets. The elemental metalsiron,
cobalt, nickel, and their solid solutions or alloys with related metallic elementsare typical materials that
respond strongly to magnetic fields. Unlike the all-pervasive fundamental force field of gravity, the
magnetic force field within a magnetized body, such as a bar magnet, is polarizedthat is the field is
strongest and of opposite signs at the two extremities or poles of the magnet.
Magnetism arises from two types of motions of electrons in atomsone is the motion of the
electrons in an orbit around the nucleus, similar to the motion of the planets in our solar system around the
sun, and the other is the spin of the electrons around its axis, analogous to the rotation of Earth about its
own axis. The orbital and the spin motion independently impart a magnetic moment on each electron
causing each of them to behave as a tiny magnet. The magnetic moment of a magnet is defined by the
rotational force experienced by it in a magnetic field of unit strength acting perpendicular to its magnetic
axis. In a large fraction of the elements, the magnetic moment of the electrons cancel out because of the
Pauli exclusion principle, which states that each electronic orbit can be occupied by only two electrons of
opposite spin. However, a number of so-called transition metal atoms, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, have
magnetic moments that are not cancelled; these elements are, therefore, common examples of magnetic
materials. In these transition metal elements the magnetic moment arises only from the spin of the electrons.
In the rare earth elements (that begin with lanthanum in the sixth row of the periodic table of elements),
however, the effect of the orbital motion of the electrons is not cancelled, and hence both spin and orbital
motion contribute to the magnetic moment. Examples of some magnetic rare earth elements are: cerium,
neodymium, samarium, and europium. In addition to metals and alloys of transition and rare earth elements,
magnetic moments are also observed in a wide variety of chemical compounds involving these elements.
Among the common magnetic compounds are the metal oxides, which are chemically bonded compositions
of metals with oxygen.
Earth's geomagnetic field is the result of electric currents produced by the slow convective motion of its
liquid core in accordance with a basic law of electromagnetism which states that a magnetic field is
generated by the passage of an electric current. According to this model, Earth's core should be electrically
conductive enough to allow generation and transport of an electric current. The geomagnetic field generated
will be dipolar in character, similar to the magnetic field in a conventional magnet, with lines of magnetic
force lying in approximate planes passing through the geomagnetic axis. The principle of the compass
needle used by the ancient mariners involves the alignment of a magnetized needle along Earth's magnetic
axis with the imaginary south pole of the needle pointing towards the magnetic north pole of the earth. The
magnetic north pole of Earth is inclined at an angle of 11 away from its geographical north pole.
You were introduced to the concept of an electric charge and studied some properties of charges at
rest. You learnt that a static distribution of charge produces a static electric field. Similarly, steady flow of
charge (i.e., a steady current) produces a static magnetic field, which is, infact, the topic of this unit.
However, there are some major differences between the two fields which you will discover in this unit. In
the science laboratory, during your school days, you must have been fascinated with magnets. Recall, when
you tried to push two magnets together in a way they didn't want to go, you felt a mysterious force! In fact,
magnetic fields or the effect of such fields have been known since ancient times when the effect of the
naturally occurring permanent magnet (Fe304) was first observed. The north and south seeking properties of
such materials played a large role in early navigation and exploration. Except for this application,
magnetism was a little known phenomenon until the 19th century, when Oersted discovered that an electric
current in a wire deflects a compass needle. This discovery showed that electric current has something to do
with the magnetic field because a compass needle gets deflected and finally points inathe north-south
50
direction only when placed in a magnetic field. In this Unit, we shall consider in detail the production of the
magnetic fields due to steady currents, and the forces they exert on circuits carrying steady currents and on
isolated moving charge. A good way of gaining a better understanding of the nature of fields is to know how
they affect the charged particles on which they act. Hence, in the next unit, you will study the behaviour of
charged particles in both electric and magnetic fields
CHAPTER 4
MAGNETIC DIPOLE AND EARTH MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC DIPOLE: An arrangement of two magnetic poles of equal and opposite strength separated by
a finite distance is called magnetic dipole.
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT: The product of the strength of either magnetic pole and the magnetic
length of the magnetic dipole. It is denoted by
M
r
M (2 ) m l
r r
Its SI unit is Ampere metre square.
CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE: A circular coil carries current I as shown in fig. The
magnetic field lines due to and portion will be the shape of circular loop. Using right hand thumb rule it
follow that the lower face behaves as south pole while the upper face behaves as north pole.
The magnetic dipole moment of the current loop of area A carrying current I is given by
M IA
r r

If the coil has n turns
M IA n
r r
ATOM AS MAGNETIC DIPOLE (Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron):
In an atom electron revolves around the nucleus and may be considered as small current loop. Due to
this an atom posses magnetic dipole moment and behaves as a magnetic dipole.
The angular momentum of electron on due to its orbital motion is given by
L M (i)
e
vr
Where
M
e
is the mass of electron and r is the radius of the orbit.
The orbital motion of electric is equivalent to current.
51
1
I
T
e
_

,
Where I is the time period of the electron
2
T
I (ii)
2
r
v
ev
r

Area of the loop
2
A (iii) r
Magnetic dipole moment of the atom
2
M IA
2

2
ev
r
r
ev
r



2
M L
2
e
e
e
e
m vr
m
e
m

_

,
In vector rotation
M L (iv)
2
e
e
m
_


,
r r
According to Bohrs theory, the angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of the
2
n
L (v)
2
nh

Where n =1, 2, 3, . and so on.
From equation (iv) and (v), we have
M
2 2
M
4
e
e
ev nh
m
eh
n
m
_


,
_


,

Q. Define Bohr magnetron.
Ans: It is define as the magnetic dipole moment associated with an atom due to orbital motion of an
electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom. It is denoted by
B

.
24 2
B
9.27 10 A
4
e
ehv
m
m


MAGNETIC FIELD ON AXIAL LINE OF A BAR MAGNET:
Consider a bar magnet NS having pole strength m
1
magnetic length 2l and centre O. Let P be the
point on the axial line at a distance r from O.
The magnetic field axial r at point P is given by
52
1 2
B B B
axail
+
r r r
then
( )
0 0
1 2 2

B (outwards)
4 NP 4
-
m m
r l

r
and
( )
0 0
2 2 2

B (inwards)
4 SP 4
m m
r l

+
r
Since
1 2
B B >
r r
( ) ( )
1 2
0 0
2 2
B B B


4 4
-
axail
m m
r l r l


+
r r r
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
0 0
2 2 2
2 2
- 1 1

4 4
-
-
r l r l
m m
r l r l
r l
1
1
+
1
1
1
+
1
]
]
( )
0
2
2 2
4

4
-
rl
m
r l

Since, m (2l) = M, magnetic dipole moment.
( )
0
2
2 2
2M
B
4
-
r
r l

If the bar magnet is of very short length l can be neglected.
0
3
2M
B
4
axail
r

r
MAGNETIC FIELD ON EQUITORIAL LINE OF A BAR MAGNET:
Consider a bar magnet NS having pole strength m magnetic length 2 l and centre O. Let P be the
point on the equitorial line at a distance r from O.
88
Let
1 2
B and B
r r
be magnetic field at point P due to N-pole and S-pole of the bar magnet.
53
( )
0 0
1 2 2 2

B
4 NP 4
m m
r l

+
and
( )
0 0
1 2 2 2

B
4 SP 4
m m
r l

+
Using triangle law of vector, we have,
( )
( )
1
0
1 2
2 2
2 2
SN
B B
NP
2

4
equi
l m
r l
r l


+
+
( )
0
3 2
2 2
M
( m (2l) = M, magnetic dipole moment)
4
r l

+
Q
If the bar magnet is of short length, l can be neglected.
( )
0 0
3 2 3
2
M M
B
4 4
equi
r
r

TORQUE ON A BAR MAGNET IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:
A bar magnet NS having pole strength m and of length
2l
r
is placed in uniform magnetic field B
making an angle .
Force on N-pole of magnet = mB (along)
Force on S-pole of magnet = mB (opposite to)
The two forces are equal, parallel and opposite and constitute a torque. ()
Force distance
B KN m


In NKS V
KN KN
sin
NS 2
KN 2 sin
l
l

Since, m (2l) = M, magnetic dipole moment.

MBsin
In vector rotation
M B
r r
r
54
BAR MAGNET AS EQUIVALENT SOLENOID:
For a solenoid having cross sectional area A and carrying current I. Its turns behaves as small
magnetic dipole having magnetic dipole moment I A. Therefore, solenoid can be treated as an arrangement
of small magnetic dipole placed in line which can be treated as a bar magnet having magnetic dipole
moment n I A.
CHAPTER 5
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL
MAGNETIC INTENSITY (Also called H-field or Magnetic field strength)
55
Consider that inside vacuum, a magnetic field B
o
exist. The magnetic intensity is given by the
relation
0
0
B
H=

Where
7 1
0
4 10 TmA m p
- -
=
Its SI unit is Ampere per metre (Am
-1
)
INTENSITY OF MANETISATION: It is defined as the magnetic moment developed per unit volume
when a magnetic specimen is subjected to magnetizing field. It is denoted by I. Its SI unit is
1
Am

.
M
I=
V
MAGNETIC INDUCTION: The magnetic induction is defined as the number of magnetic lines of
induction (magnetic force lines inside the material) crossing per unit area normally through the magnetic
substance. It is denoted by B. Its SI unit is Tesla (T)
Magnetic induction B is the sum of B
0
and the magnetic field
0
I
produced due to magnetization.
0 0
0 0
0
B = B + I
, B = H+ I
, B = (H+I)
or
or

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY: It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization to the

magnetic intensity.
I
H
m
(It has no unit)
MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY: It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the magnetic
intensity (H)
B

H

Its SI unit is Tesla metre per Ampere (TmA

-1
)
Q. Derive the relation
1
r m
m c = +
where symbols have their usual meaning.
Ans: We have
0
, B = (H+I) or
Dividing both sides by H, we get
0
B
= I+
H
I
H

_

,
1
Also,
0
I B
and
H
m
H

( )
( )
( )
0
0
1
, 1
, 1 ......................................2
m
m
r m
or
or

+
+
+
Where
0
r

is called relative permeability of the magnetic substance.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC SUBSTANCE
56
DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCE: A substance, which when placed in a magnetic field is feebly magnetized
in a direction opposite to that of the magnetizing field is called diamagnetic substance.
e.g.: Copper, Zinc, water, Bismuth, etc
Properties:
1) It does not obey Curies law.
2) The magnetic susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance has a small negative value.
3) For a diamagnetic substance, the intensity of magnetization (I) has small negative value.
PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCE: A substance, which when placed in a magnetic field is feebly
magnetized in the direction of the magnetizing field is called paramagnetic substance.
e.g.: Aluminum, Manganese, Sodium, antimony, etc.
Properties:
1) A magnetic substance is feebly attracted by a magnet.
2) It obey Curies law i.e. the susceptibility of paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to its
absolute temperature.
3) The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance has small positive value.
FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCE:
Those substances, which when placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetized in the direction of
magnetizing field are called ferromagnetic substances.
E.g.: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, etc.
Properties:
1) A ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted by a magnet.
2) The magnetic susceptibility (
m
c
) of a ferromagnetic substances has a large positive.
3) The ferromagnetic substance does not obey Curies law.
CURIE LAW IN MAGNETISM:
For paramagnetic material, intensity of magnetization of the material is
1) directly proportional to magnetic intensity
i.e.,
I H a
2) inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the material,
i.e.,
1
I
T
a
Combining, we get,
H
I
T
H
, I C
T
or
a
=
Where C is called curies constant.
I C
,
H T
m
or c = =
This is called Curies law in magnetism.
i.e., The magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to its
absolute temperature.
CURIES POINT (CURIES TEMPERATURE):
The Curie point (or Curie temperature) of a ferromagnetic material is the temperature above which it
loses its ability to posses magnetism in the absence of an enternal magnetic field.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER:
It is the ratio of output power to input power. It is denoted by y,
57
E I
E I
s s
p p
output power
y
input power

ENERGY LOSS IN A TRANSFORMER:
1) Copper losses: Due to resistance of the copper coil, some electrical energy is converted into heat
energy.
2) Humming losses: When a.c. is supplied to the primary coil, the iron core starts vibrating and
producing humming sound thereby losing some electrical energy in the form of sound.
3) Hysteresis losses: When the ion core is magnetized, the iron core gets heated due to hysteresis. The
energy loses in the form of heat is equal to the area of hysteresis loop.
USES OF TRANSFORMER:
1) They are used as voltage regulator and stabilized water supply.
2) Small transformer are used in radio sets, TV and telephones etc.
Q. Which is the material used in making the core of transformer or a moving coil galvanometer?
Ans: Soft iron is used in making the core of galvanometer. It makes the magnetic field strong as magnetic
field lines tend to cross through the paramagnetic.
Q. Why soft iron is used in making the core of a transformer?
Ans: The area of the hysteretic loop for soft iron is very small. Since energy dissipated during a complete
cycle of magnetization and demagnetization is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop, a small
amount of energy will be wasted, when the core of the transformer is made of soft iron.
Q. State two methods to destroy the magnetism of a magnet?
Ans: 1) By applying magnetizing field on the reverse direction.
2) By heating the magnet.
58
UNIT IV
CHAPTER 1
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
MAGNETIC FLUX: The number of magnetic field lines crossing the surface normally is called magnetic
flux.
( )
linked with that surface.
Mathematically,
B A BAcos
r r
Where B is the magnetic field, A is area of the surfaces; Q is the link between the field and the
normal to the surfaces.
Its SI unit is Webes (Wb).
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
It is the phenomenon of production of e.m.f in a coil. When the magnetic flux linked with the coil is
changed.
FARADAYS LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
1) Whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, induced e.m.f is produced.
2) The induced e.m.f lasts as long as the change in the magnetic flux continues.
3) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic
flux.
Mathematically,
Induced e.m.f,
2 1
d
e
dt t


LENZS LAW:
59
It states that the induced current produced in a circuit always flows in such a direction that opposes
the change or causes produced by it.
LENZS LAW AND PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
Consider a solenoid connected to electric lamp. When a magnet is moved towards the solenoid as
shown in fig., induced current is produced and the lamp grows. All the energy conservation principle work
in equivalent to electric energy which must be done by the agent in pushing the magnet. As one magnet
experiences opposing sources from the solenoid, work has to be done. Hence Lenzs law is in accordance
with law of conservation of energy.
EDDY CURRENT:
The current induced in the body of a conductor when the magnetic flux link with the conductor
changes are called Eddy current.
Q How are Eddys current produced ? Give two application of Eddys current.
Ans: Eddy currents are produced in a metallic conductor when the magnetic flux link with the conductor
changes.
Applications:
1) In energy matter.
2) Dead beat galvanometer.
Q. How can Eddy current be reduced?
Ans: Eddy currents produced in the core of transformer is formed by joining identical iron strips together
and coating than with a varnish.
Q. Define self induction.
Ans: The phenomenon according to which an opposing induced e.m.f is produced in a will as a result of
change in current on magnetic flux linked with it is called self induction.
Q. Define co-efficient of self induction.
Ans: The co-efficient of self induction is equal to the magnetic flux linked with the coil when a unit
current flows through it. It is denoted by L.
LI
Its SI unit is Henry (H).
The induced e.m.f can be written as
(LI)
I
L
d d
e
dt dt
d
e
dt



SELF INDUCTION OF LONG SOLENOID:
The magnetic field inside a solenoid carry current I is given by
0
B I n
Where n is the no. of turns per unit length.
In case of a long solenoid, magnetic flux passing through its turns
60
=
0
B area of each turn B nI
If l is the length of the solenoid, total magnetic flux,
0
2
0
IA
AI (i)
n nl
n l

If L is self inductance of the solenoid
LI (ii)
Comparing equation (i) and (ii)
2
0
L An l
Q Define mutual induction.
Ans: The phenomenon according to which an opposing emf is produced in a coil as a result of change in
current or magnetic flux linked with the neighboring coil.
Q. Define co-efficient of mutual induction.
Ans: The co-efficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal magnetic flux linked with one
coil, when a unit current flows through the neighboring coil. It is denoted by M.
MI
Its SI unit is Henry. In terms of induced e.m.f.
I
M
d
e
dt

Q Define one Henry.
Ans: One Henry is the rate of change of current of 1 ampere per second in one coil induces an e.m.f of 1
volt in the neighboring coil.
61
UNIT IV
CHAPTER 2
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
ALTERNATING CURRENT: The electric current, whose magnitude changes with time and direction
reverse periodically, is known as alternating current.
It can be represented by a sine curve or a cosine curve .i.e.,
0
I = I sin t
or
0
I = I cos t
Where
0
I
is peak value of current (Amplitude) and I is called instantaneous value of AC.
2
= 2
T
f
Where T is period of A.C. and f is frequency of A.C.
Alternating emf can be represented by
0
E = E sin t
0
E = E cos t
62
MEAN OR AVERAGE VALUE OF AC: It is the value of steady current which would send the same
amount of charge through the circuit in the time of half cycle ( )
2
. .,
T
i e
as is sent by A.C. through the same
circuit in the same time.
It is denoted by
I or I
m a
The instantaneous value of a.c is given by,
0
I = I sin (i) t
If the current remains constant for small time, at then the amount of charge flowing is
I
Isin (ii)
dq dt
dq t dt

The amount of charge flowing in time
T
2
is given by,
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
T 2 T 2 T 2
0 0
0 0 0
T 2
T 2
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
I sin I sin
I cos
I cos
I 2 T 2 2
cos cos 0 =
2 T T 2 T T
I T I T
cos cos 0 1 1
2 2
T
I (iii)

q dq t dt t dt
t
t
q

1

1
]
1 _


1
] ,



Q
If
I
m
is mean value of current, then,
0
0
0
0 0
I T
I
T 2 T 2
2I
I 0.636 I

0.636 100% I 63.6% I

m
m
q



The mean value of a.c. during half cycle is 63.6 % of its peak value.
During the next half cycle, the mean value of a.c. will be equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. Hence, the mean value of a.c. over a complete cycle is always zero.
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE OF A.C.:
It is a steady current which when passed through a resistance for a given time will produce the same
amount of heat as the a.c. does the same through the same resistance and in the same time.
It is denoted by
I
rms
or
I
v
The instantaneous value of a.c. is given by,
0
I = I sin (i) t
If the current through the resistance remain constant for a small time dt small amount of heat
produced is
2
H = I R (ii) d dt
The amount of heat produced in time T 2 is given by
T 2 T 2
2 2 2 2
0 0
0 0
T 2 T 2 T 2
2 2
0 0
0 0 0
H I Rsin I R sin
1 cos 2 1 1
I R I R cos 2
2 2 2
t dt t dt
t
dt dt t dt

,


63
Since
T 2 T 2
0 0
1 T 1
and cos 2 0
2 2 2
dt t dt

2
0
2
0
1 T
H I R
2 2
R T
H I (iii)
2 2
1

1
]

If
I
rms
is the RMS value of current, then
2
T
H I R (iv)
2
rms

Comparing equation (iii) and (iv)
2
2 0
0
0
I
I
2
I
I
2
I 0.707 I
rms
rms
rms

The RMS value of a.c. is 70.7 % of its peak value.

A.C. THROUGH LCR:
An alternating current emf is connected to a series combination of inductance L, capacitance C and
resistance R. Let V
L
, V
C
and V
R
be the instantaneous across L, C and R.
L L C C R
I I X ; I I X ; V I R
Where
L C
XL and X 1 C
Where X
L
= X
C
and
C
X 1C
are the resistance of inductor and capacitor
The relation between E, V
L
, V
C
and V
R
are shown in the phases diagram.
From phases diagram in ABD V
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2
R L C
2
2 2
L C
2
2 2 2
L C
2
2
L C
2
2
L C
OB OA AB
E OA OC
V V V
I R I X IX
I R I X X
E I R X X
E
I
R X X
E
I
Z
+
+
+
+
+
+

+

Where
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
L C
Z R X X R L 1 C + + is called impedance of LCR circuit.
64
From OAB V e
L C
R
L C
R
L C
R
L C
1
AB
tan
OA
OC

OA
V V

V
I X I X

V
I X I X

I
X X
tan
R
L 1 C
tan
R

,
RESONANCE CONDITION:
If the inductive and capacitive reactants (X
L
and X
C
) are equal i.e. L and1 C cancel out and the
current in the circuit becomes very high. This condition is called resonance.
If
0

is the resonant frequency, then

0
2
0
0
0
0
L 1 C
1

LC
1

LC
1
2
LC
1

2 LC
f
f

POWER OF AN A.C. CIRCUIT:
The instantaneous e.m.f and current in an a.c. circuit are given by
( )
0
0
E E sin
I I sin
t
t

+
Where

is called the phase angle and,

2
T

If the e.m.f and current in the a.c. circuit remains constant for a small time dt than small amount of
electrical energy is given by
( )
( )
0 0
0 0
EI E sin I sin
E I sin sin cos cos sin (i)
d dl t t
d t t t dt


+ +
+
2
2
2
0 0
1 cos sin 2
sin sin cos
2 2
1 cos sin 2
E I cos sin
2 2
t t
t and t t
t t
d dt

+
' ;

The energy consumed in time T is
65
T T T T
0 0
0 0 0 0
E I
cos cos cos sin sin 2
2
d dt t dt t dt
1
+
1
]

And [ ] ( )
T
T
0
0
T 0 T dt t

T T
0 0
cos sin 0 t dt t dt

[ ]
0 0
0 0
E I
cos (T) cos (0) sin (0)
2
E I
cos (T)
2


+

The average power of a.c. circuit is

0 0 0 0
P
T
E I 2cos T E I
P cos
T 2 2
P E I cos
rms rms

i) a.c having R only

0
P E I cos 0
P E I
rms rms
rms rms

ii) a.c having L only

2
P E I cos 2
rms rms

iii) a.c having C only
2
P E I cos 2
P 0
rms rms

A.C. CONTAINING LCR CIRCUIT:

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
L 1 C
tan
R
R
cos
RL 1 C
R
P E I
RL 1 C
rms rms

,

+

+
66
Flemings Right Hand Rule:
It states that if the thumb, fore finger and the central finger of right hand are kept perpendicular to
each other, fore finger points in the direction of the field and the thumb in the direction of motion of the
conductor, then the induced current flows in the direction of central finger.
TRANSFORMER:
It is a device used to convert low alternating voltage at high current to high alternating voltage at low
current or vice versa.
Principle:
It is based on the principle of mutual induction i.e. if two coils are inductively coupled with changing
magnetic flux or current in one coil, induced e.m.f is produced in another coil.
Construction:
It consists of two coils, primary P and secondary coil S wounded on soft iron core. The a.c. input is
applied across the primary coil P and the transformed output is obtained across the secondary coil S. The
soft iron core is laminated to reduce eddy current.
The transformer are of two types:
1) Step-up transformer : The number of turns in the coil S is greater than that in the coil P. The
primary coil is made of thick insulated copper wire while the secondary coil is of thin wire. It
converts a low voltage at high current to a high voltage at low current.
2) Step-down transformer: The number of turns in the coil S is less than that in the coil P. The
primary coil is made of thin wire while the secondary coil is of thick wire. It converts a high
voltage at low current into a low voltage at high current

Working and Theory:
When the primary coil is connected to a.c. source,
induced e.m.f
s
e
is produced in secondary coil and also causes self
induced e.m.f
p
e
in itself.
and
p
s
p s
d
d
e e
dt dt

..1
Where
and
p s

are the fluxed linked with primary and
secondary coil.
67
Also, magnetic flux linked with the coil is simply proportional to their number of turns, then
, ................2
s s
p p
p
s s
p
N
N
d
d N
or
dt N dt

From eqns 1 and 2, we get

,
s
s p
p
s p
N
e e
N
or e k e

Where
s
p
N
k
N

is called transformer ratio.

If k > I i.e.
N >N
s p
, the transformer is called step up transformer.
If k < I i.e.
N >N
s p
, the transformer is called step down transformer.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER:
It is the ratio of output power to input power. It is denoted by y,
E I
E I
s s
p p
output power
y
input power

ENERGY LOSS IN A TRANSFORMER:
4) Copper losses: Due to resistance of the copper coil, some electrical energy is converted into heat
energy.
5) Humming losses: When a.c. is supplied to the primary coil, the iron core starts vibrating and
producing humming sound thereby losing some electrical energy in the form of sound.
6) Hysteresis losses: When the ion core is magnetized, the iron core gets heated due to hysteresis. The
energy loses in the form of heat is equal to the area of hysteresis loop.
USES OF TRANSFORMER:
3) They are used voltage regulator and stabilized water supply.
4) Small transformer are used in radio sets, TV and telephones etc.
A.C. GENERATOR (AC Dynamo)
It is a device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy by virtue of electro magnetic
induction.
Principle: It is based on the principle of magnetic induction. An induced
emf is produced in a coil whenever there is a change in the magnetic
flux linked with it.
Construction;
It consist of a rectangular coil of wire ABCD wound on a soft iron
core. It is mounted on a shaft between the poles of a powerful magnet.
It can be rotated about an axis perpendicular to the direction of magnetic
field lines. The ends of the coil are connected to two metal rings R
1
and R
2
which rotate with the coil. Contact is maintained with the external circuit by
means of two carbon brushes B
1
and B
2
which touch the rings.
working:
During the motion from t = 0 and t = T/2, the arm AB move down
and CD moves up. Using Flemings Right Hand Rule, the direction of current will be DCBA.
68
During the motion from t = T/2 and t = T,
the arm AB move up and CD move up. Using
Fleming Right Hand Rule, the direction of current
will be ABCD. If A is the area of the coil, and
n be number of turns in the coil, then the
magnetic flux = nBA cos t.
Differentiating with respect to t, we get,
BA sin
d
n t
dt

If e is the induced emf, then
0
0

BA sin
sin
BA is caled the peak value of induced e.m.f .

d
e
dt
n t
e e t
e n