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American Geographical Society

The Greater Middle East and Reform in the Bush Administration's Ideological Imagination Author(s): Dona J. Stewart Reviewed work(s): Source: Geographical Review, Vol. 95, No. 3, New Geographies of the Middle East (Jul., 2005), pp. 400-424 Published by: American Geographical Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034245 . Accessed: 27/02/2013 16:53
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THE GREATER MIDDLE EASTAND REFORM IN THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION'S IDEOLOGICALIMAGINATION


DONA J.STEWART
ABSTRACT. In pursuit of its foreign-policy of President goals,theadministration George W. Bushhas attempted a dramatic of the vision of the Middle Eastin theAmerireshaping to the"new"or "greater" MiddleEastnow include countries faroutcan mind.References of theregion, thosein West Southeast sidetraditional Africa, Asia,and concepts including is defined notbycultural Central Asia.The administration that thisregion (Arab)or argues hencea grand is needed butbya lackofdemocracy; (Islam)characteristics religious strategy to execute reform. Thisarticle examines current U.S. efforts to achieve reform in theregion, theperceived roleof thecomponents oftheideological construction oftheNewMiddleEast, from theregion to and responses roleas a "model"fortheregion, Iraq,Turkey's potential W Bush, current U.S.-led reform efforts. construction, identity Keywords: George geopolitics, Middle East, geography, political presidency.

in theaftermath ofthe9/11attacks theMiddleEast, bytheGeorge largely ignored W.Bushadministration sincetheinauguration months became a cenearlier, eight tralfocus ofU.S. foreign The region, and thevirulent Islamist adpolicy. ideology hered tobyterrorist suchas al-Qa'ida, were as a threat to theU.S. perceived groups In response, national interest. a needfor an actheBushadministration identified theUnitedStates, theAmerican tivist, preemptive people,and policy "defending ourinterests at homeand abroadbyidentifying and destroying thethreat before it reaches ourborders" The the House decision administration to (White 2002a). by theregion on these a radical from decadesofU.S. terms marked departure engage in MiddleEastpolicy that had placedprimary on thestability ofregimes emphasis theregion, of and of their level democratization civil-society participaregardless and on securing a steady ofoil,while thesurvival ofthestate tion, supply ensuring ofIsraelbyproviding itwith and economic support. military rests theadministration's on a two-pronged MiddleEastpolicy approach. Today, Thefirst is an aggressive ofidentified terrorists andtheregimes that support pursuit of can be them the so-called war on terror. The this through application approach in theousting of theTaliban in Afghanistan, closercooperation with seenclearly an increased in theregion, and the U.S. military services, presence foreign security is thedemocratic of Iraq.The secondprong, thefocusof thisarticle, occupation themlesslikely to in theregion, transformation of governments thereby making or tolerate terrorism. harbor terrorists activities that promote Attherootofthis Middle Eastpolicy is a very specific geographical conceptualizationoftheregion, in formed theaftermath ofthe9/11 attacks. Thisarticle examinesthat and outlines howthecreation ofthenewly constructed conceptualization
%iDR.STEWART ofgeography andthedirector oftheMiddleEastInstitute professor is an associate at Georgia State Atlanta, 30302. University, Georgia
C 200oo6 Copyright bytheAmerican Geographical Society ofNewYork
The GeographicalReview 95 (3): 400-424, July 2005

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As a result, theimageoftheMiddle reality. regional identity ignores geographical is fundamenin theBushadministration's Eastfashioned ideological imagination to a flawed and has undermined its realize reform attempts tally regional agenda. areparticularly The effects ofthis acutein theareaofpolitical imagined geography thesuccess ofprograms suchas theMiddleEastPartnerwhere hinder reform, they
ship Initiative(MEPI), launched in December 2002, and the GreaterMiddle East Initiative (GMEI), unveiledin June 2004.
GEOGRAPHICAL PARAMETERS

Also known as the "Barcelona Process,"the EMP had been launched in 1995 "to

Fromtheoutset, theBushadministration has struggled to define thegeographical limits oftheMiddleEast.A series of high-level to adinitiatives, policy designed dress forces suchas terrorism and thespread ofviolent Islamic thatspan ideology formal borders and operate thereachof traditional state actors, beyond spokeof the"Greater MiddleEast"and the"Broader MiddleEast." The GMEI, envisioned as themainvehicle with which to bring aboutreform in theregion, was described as "themostambitious U.S. democracy effort sincetheendoftheCold War .... The definition ofthe'greater MiddleEast'includes the22 nations oftheArab working in Europe, and Pakistan and Afghanistan in SouthAsia" world, Israel, plusTurkey the Middle East has been stretched convenHere, (Wright already beyond 200oo4). tional limits to include and Pakistan. The GMEI theadAfghanistan evenspanned ministrative unitsin the Department of State, wherethe policywas based,by countries from within thepurview ofboththeBureauofNearEastern including Affairs andtheBureau ofSouthand Central Asian Affairs. Thepolicy waslaunched without a concrete listof the countries it addressed-the StateDepartment anthatthecountries nounced to be included werestilla "work in progress" (see,for theMiddleEastthat example, Aljazeera.net. spread throughout zoo4)-and rumors other Muslim suchas Indonesia, and thecentral Asiannacountries, Bangladesh, tionsofUzbekistan, and Tajikistan, would Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, be included as well. of 2004, in conjunction withthe Groupof Eight(G-8) Duringthesummer andtheUnited the United -Canada, France, Russia, Japan, Germany, Italy, Kingdom, a partnership in the States-the Bushadministration formed to promote reform identified as the"Broader MiddleEast and NorthAfrica" The (BMENA). region, BMENA framework includes nations and is described of nearly thirty bySecretary State Condoleezza Riceas a "partnership ofprogress world between thedemocratic twodozennations, andnearly from Morocco to Pakistan" House extending (White With this to the the administration endorsed with G-8, linkage cooperation 200oo5a). Unionstructures thatfacilitate reform in theMiddleEast,such existing European as theEuro-Mediterranean thelistofcoun(EMP), further Partnership expanding tries associated withU.S. MiddleEastern Malta and Cyprus). policy(specifically,

on political foster economic and socialissues reform, liberalization, cooperation between theEuropean Union(EU) and thecountries on thesouthern and eastern

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rim of the Mediterranean." The Barcelona Process includes Cyprusand Malta, as well as countriescustomarily consideredpart of the Middle East: Algeria,Egypt, Israel,Jordan, Lebanon,Morocco,thePalestinian Tunisia,and TurAuthority, Syria, and Carothers key (Ottaway 2004, 4). the regionin such broad geographical the Bush administraterms, By defining tion was attempting to generalizea geographicallandscape fullof contradictions an approach thathas minimizeda nuanced understanding and diversity, of diverAs a result, theadministration's was strongly within theregion. conceptualization sity to recognizethe heterogeneity of Middle Easterncountries. attackedforits failure of the region as "a One criticaptlydescribedthe administration's interpretation The frameconstruct" war-on-terror one-size-fits-all (Satloff demographic 2004). whichsees the regionas fertile workis at the root of the conceptualization, ground as forthe growth of groupssuch as al-Qa'ida. In adoptingterrorism and harboring has the dominantlens,the administration's deemphasized policy-forming process Even ifone assumes the region'sdiversepolitical,economic,and culturalelements. Arab countries a narrowview of theGreater Middle East-only thetwenty-two plus in and is economic Israel, Pakistan, diversity present Afghanistan-enormous Turkey, and linguistic as wellas in very differcircumstances, structures, patterns, governance ent historiesand unique culturalpatterns. Nor was the new "broad and homogIn diplomatic enized"view of theMiddle East receivedwellwithintheregionitself. parlance,the redefined regionwas termed"especiallyproblematic"(Ezzat 2004). Lebanese ForeignMinisterJeanEbeid called the proposed model "poorly fitting democraciesthat ignore the veryobvious curves of the region,its ready-to-wear and culture"(quoted in Ezzat 2004). The overlygeneralconceptualization history in implementing a politicalreform has provenproblematic agenda.
AGAINST TERROR-BUT NOT ISLAM

The Bush administration has assiduouslyavoided identifying Islam, or the presof ence militant Islamic networks, as the main criterion forincludinga country in the expandingdefinition of "the Middle East."Fearingthatpolicies will be interthatitsimaginedgeography pretedas againstIslam,it emphasizes,at leastpublicly, is not based on religion. The administration has takenpains to ensurethatitspolicies are not perceivedas anti-Muslim or as targeting theIslamicworldoverall.Public diplomacyattempts to assuage such criticism, especiallyfromthe regionitself, have taken two forms:official that highlight statements the inclusion of Muslim Americansin U.S. societyand statements thatdemonstrate U.S. official acceptance and respectforthe religionof Islam. A section of the White House Web site,"In the President's Words: Respecting anti-Islamcriticism and providesa background comIslam' is devotedto dispelling prising the president'squotations on Islam (see [www.whitehouse.gov/infocus attacks,PresidentBush spoke of the /ramadan/quotes.html]). Days afterthe 9/11 inclusionof Muslim Americansin U.S. society:"Americacounts millionsof Muslims amongstour citizens, and Muslims make an incredibly valuable contribution

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toourcountry. Muslims aredoctors, lawprofessors, members ofthe mililawyers, and dads. And need to be treated with tary, entrepreneurs, shopkeepers, they morns In our and our fellow Americans must treat each other emotion, with respect. anger
respect"(White House 200oola).

tween Islamas practiced and other bypeaceful peopleand thatofthe"evildoers" enemies oftheUnitedStates. In thisclassicattempt to define the"other," thecultural fault lineis basednoton a division between theChristian andMuslim worlds orbetween EastandWest butbetween theUnited States andtrue believers ofIslam and thosewho follow a misguided and violent of the faith. At its interpretation the conflict is presented as one between core, thisargugood and evil.In making

Themost distinction the administration tries todraw isthe onebesignificant

the administration hassought todefine what Islam isandwhat ment, itisnot:

Theface ofterror isnot the faith ofIslam. not That's what Islam isallabout. Islam is These terrorists don't evil and war. peace. represent peace. (White They represent
House 200oola)

Allofus here understand this: wefight evil. Islam, today Wedo notfight against
House 2001b) (White

AllAmericans must that theface ofterror is notthetrue faith-face of recognize Islam. Islam isa faith that comfort toa billion around the world. It's a brings people faith that hasmade brothers andsisters ofevery race. It's a faith based not love, upon
hate.(White House 2002b)

We're action evil Because this nation ofmany taking against people. great religions ourwar isnotagainst oragainst understands, faith the Islam, practiced by Muslim Ours isa war evil. is This a case of versus andmake people. against evil, clearly good
no mistake aboutit-good willprevail. House 200oo2c) (White

Within thisframework, theUnited States is aligned with themajority ofpeoplein theMiddleEast, who peacefully follow Islamic The mainenemy is those practice. whowoulduse Islamas a rationalization to permit actsofviolence, either against outsiders ortheir ownpeople.Thisreligious framework wasused,inpart, tojustify theremoval of SaddamHussein, whomtheadministration castas a false follower ofIslam.In a document entitled ofLies:Saddam's Disinformation and "Apparatus Hussein is labeled as an of Islam Propaganda,1990-200oo3," (White House exploiter outHussein's useofIslamic 4-5, 20-24). The document themes inhis points 200oo3a, and mosquebuilding whilehe was prohibiting from propaganda people making thehajj-evenundera U.N.-sponsored vouchers forpilgrims' plan forproviding
traveland expenses (White House 2oo003a, 21).

In theBushadministration's oftheMiddleEast, imagined geography religiosity is presented as a characteristic shared oftheUnited States and observant bycitizens Muslims in theMiddleEastandtheIslamic World: after shows that "Survey survey Americans arethemost world. TheAmerican Conreligious peopleinthedeveloped stitution and theAmerican a successful balancebetween theimwayof lifestrike

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and the demands of conscience.Since our foundingwe perativesof government haveseparated church and state, butwe do notexcludereligion from our lives"(White House 200oo4b). Thisstatement a double message. The first reaffirms theshared conveys values of the United the Middle States and the second sends a strong East; religious in the regionand reflects the signalabout the need forsecular,democraticreform in a larger administration's concernthatdemocratic reform can result role forIslam the riseof religiouspartiesand the applicationof Islamiclaw. through For this reason,Turkeyhas figured in the administration's comprominently in ments on the Middle East and on the prospects for reform the region. The administration's embraceof Turkey and itsformof government, seen as balancing and as further evidence that U.S. policy is are also democracy religion, presented not specifically un-Islamic.Speakingin Istanbul,President Bush declared:"Turkey seculardemocracy, a majority Muslim society, and a close allyof all free is a strong, stands as a nations.Your country, with 150yearsof democraticand social reform, futureof progressand peace in Europe and in the broader Middle East-and the of theUnitedStates" can depend on thesupportand friendship Republicof Turkey in the Euroformembership (White House 2oo4d). Turkey's ongoingnegotiations plans forthe region(Turkpean Union are anothercrucialelementof U.S. reform ingaining intotheunion ishDailyNews200oo4), because success acceptance Turkey's is expectedto encourageothercountriesto implement reform. The Turkishgovernment, has been less thankeen about its role as the however, administration's posterchild for"moderateIslam" and the coexistenceof demochave taken issue with of the Turkishgovernment racyand Islam. Representatives as Islamic state. For example,Deputy the administration's definition of Turkey an is a secular, demoGeneralIlkerBasbug declaredthat"Turkey Chiefof GeneralStaff of being a model has no intention craticstate"and statedin cleartermsthatTurkey officials have fordemocratization of theregion(quoted in Demirelli2004). Turkish also disputedthe verynotion of moderateIslam put forth by the administration. consternation: Commentsby PrimeMinisterTayyip Erdoganexpressedthe official "Firstof all, what does moderateIslam mean? If you talk about moderateIslam, you somehow mean that thereis an immoderateIslam as well .... Our state is the administration erred in grossly Demirelli 2004). In reading Turkishhistory, oftheTurkish in theformation theessential roleofa secularidentity underestimating and electionsby the IslamistJustice state,despitethe dominance of parliamentary DevelopmentParty(AKP). has produced results thatdo not alwayssupportU.S. inDemocracy in Turkey thepotentialpitfalls of democratization in theregion.Although terests, illustrating the riseof the AKP, whichwon 35 percentof the popular vote in Turkey's 2002 parhas not threatened thesecularism of theTurkish stateand govelection, liamentary it is an important reminder of the potentialforIslamistpartiesto play a ernment, role in governancethroughelectoralstrength. Even when the role of religreater

world. Yoursuccess isvital modelto others, andas Europe's tothewider to a bridge

in thesecular state" notIslamic. Therecan be no Islamicstate secular, (quotedin

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In spring tothesurprise oftheBush Turkish the Parliament administration, 2003, votedto forbid use ofTurkish basesbyU.S. and British forces to launchattacks on theU.S. wareffort. Morerecently, in theWest elections Bankand Iraq-hampering Gaza produced an overwhelming forHamas,leaving theBushadministravictory tionto dealwith a democratically elected identified group bytheState Department as a terrorist organization.
A REGION
IN NEED OF REFORM

isnot canproduce results that conflict with U.S. the issue, democracy gion policy.

the strongest characterisIn the Bush administration's conceptualization, defining of Islam but the need tic of the Middle East is not geography or the sharedhistory fordeep and wide-ranging reform, includingthe economic,political,and educais the most often-cited tional spheres.The Middle East's democracydeficit central for rise such as In factor the of terrorist this model, al-Qa'ida. explanatory groups authoritarianrule has created an environmentfromwhich al-Qa'ida and other militant threatens groups can draw support.The lack of politicalfreedomdirectly and (Hawthorne2003). peace, prosperity, modernity The publicationof the U.N. Arab Human Development bolstered Report200oo2 theadministration's forreform written (UNDP 2002). The report, arguments byArab reform as a pressing citedare intellectuals, pan-Arabconcern.Specifically presents

cal and social freedom(Middle East Quarterly 2002). Facts compiledin thereportfor example,"The combined gross domestic product of the 22 Arab countriesis smallerthan thatof Spain, and 40 percentof adult Arabs are illiterate"-were later need forthe program(Wright2004, 18; see also UNDP 2002). Althoughsome commentators in the regionhave been criticalof the report, which does not addressin detail the causes of the region'simpoverishment, the published data do depict a regionfacinggravechallenges.
MIDDLE EAST REFORM POLICY

ineducation, deficits andtheempowerment ofwomen. freedom, goodgovernance, The report theregion's links lowhuman-development status with itslackofpoliti-

in launching theGMEI in order to justify the quotedbytheBushadministration

whichhas emphasized Democracyhas neverbeen a goal of U.S. Middle East policy, in the region,continued access to the region'soil supplies,and political stability to mediatethe Israeli-Palestinian attempts peace process.The policyarticulated by theBush administration markeda noticeablechangein approach fromthatof preThe current vious administrations. reform-focused policydeveloped incrementally The issuewas barelyraisedin theNational Security after the9/1 attacks. of Strategy the United States,released September2002, which called mildlyfor"supporting moderateand modern government, especiallyin the Muslim world,to ensurethat the conditionsand ideologiesthatpromoteterrorism do not findfertile groundin in the Middle East had anynation"(White House 2002a). But by June2004 reform become a central focus. The U.S. reform had been launched in which policy agenda,

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in conjunction the200oo2 intothelarger MEPI, had evolved plan,theGMEI, unveiled with theG-8 meeting at Sea Island, these initiatives Georgia. Together, layout the in forachieving reform administration's priorities, goals,and methods sweeping DiffiArabcountries. Fromtheoutset theplanshavebeen problematic, however. culties include theamount ofresources allocated to thepolicies, a leakofthedraft which to ofArabgovernments, causedtheadministration GMEI, and thereaction and back on its modify pull proposals.
THE MIDDLE EAST PARTNERSHIP INITIATIVE

newMiddleEastpolicy theMEPI, laid out a The administration's first mechanism, theregion. As Secretary of StateColin setofpriorities and goalsfor four-pronged whenhe announced theprogram, initiative rests on Powelldescribed them "Our Wewillengage with andprivate sector tobridge thejobs three groups public pillars. and private-sector business reform, investment, development. gap witheconomic to closethefreedom to with leaders Wewillpartner gapwith projects community civil andlift thevoices ofwomen. society, expand political participation, strengthen to bridge theknowledge And we willworkwithparents and educators gap with for education" better schools and moreopportunities higher (USDOS2002). Soon a and educational to create fourth "economic, political systems "pillar"designed and equal opportunities,' was added (USDOs 2004C). where womenenjoyfull commitment to the theadministration's In actualimplementation, however, In terms. thansubstantive, in MEPI appeared morerhetorical especially budgetary under theMEPI havebeencriticized thecritical areaofthepolitical pillar, programs the"democracy deficit" so often citedin theadministration's to address for failing theMEPI was Launched with muchfanfare statements. official Powell, bySecretary of more with the with a paltry funded $29million, funding promise though initially Powell at and comments commitment to come.The lackoffinancial bySecretary as theadministhat thepolicy thetimesuggested maynotbe as significant change withhuge of theMEPI, staged tration has made it out to be. The announcement little notein theMiddleEast. received domestic emphasis bytheadministration, itdoesnotrepretheMEPI waspresented as a groundbreaking policy, Although in the to encourage democratic reform senttheUnited States' first or onlyattempt 2001 Between and W. Bush's the United States 1991 inauguration, region. George in theregion, ninecountries and thePalestinian some$250 million spent targeting included parliaments, improving human-rights strengthening Authority. Projects was and to the of the According critics, impact projects monitoring, training judges. Alat thelocallevel(Hawthorne due to lackof receptivity limited, mostly 200oo3). and civil-society werefeatured durdevelopment prominently though democracy for bilateral aid to inthestrategic that setfunding priorities objectives ingthe1990os and results from to seeanytangible countries intheregion, itis difficult democracy aid disbursed in that decade. civil-society
totaled$293million(USDOS In fiscal years(FY) 2002-2005 theMEPI expenditures FY million was for 2006 $120 2006). But thisfigure 2005a); pales requested (USDOS

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millionin economic-support fundsin FY 2003,an increaseof $1oo millionover2001 levels. Other of economic-support fundsincludedTurkey, which funding recipients received$200 million as a supplementalrequestto the 2002 budget,and Yemen, whichreceived$10o million(Mark 2002). The fundsallocated to eradicatethe"free$48 million; Bahrain, $28.5 million; Oman, $25 million; and Yemen, $20 Turkey, million (Mark 2002). Such military aid provideskey supportforregimesthat ex-

in comparison with thebilateral aid to countries in theregion, those that especially havebeen supportive in the"waron terror." forexample, received Jordan, $250

domdeficit" fiscal 2002 were with U.S.military aid during year negligible compared to theregion: Israelreceived $2.0 billion; $1.3 billion; Jordan, Egypt, $soo million; hibit little toward suchas Egypt, where tendency increasing political participation, theconstitution hasbeensuspended since1981, andBahrain, where theprime minister is appointed the monarch. by

In comparative thelevelof resources devotedto theMEPI, describedat its terms, launch as a bridgebetweenthe U.S. and the Middle East that"spans the hope gap withenergy, ideas and funding" less than the level of (usDOS 2002), is significantly resources directedat othermajor StateDepartmentprograms. The FY 2006 budget for the Andean Initiative requests Counterdrug ($734.5million),the International NarcoticsControl and Law Enforcement ($523.9 million), and the Nonproliferation,Anti-Terrorism, Demining and Related Programs($440 million) are all subthanthe MEPI allocation (USDOS 2006). An additional$40 million stantially greater

was recently awarded to theNational Endowment forDemocracy to continue its work toward democratization in theregion, itstotalfunding to $80 milbringing
lion (White House 200oo4g).
THE POLITICAL PILLAR

The "political"pillarof theMEPI, now in itsfourth yearof implementation, appears

achievement of democracyin the thoughtheadministration speaksof the"historic broaderMiddle East" (White House 2004d), the actual goals of the MEPI are much narrower in scope. When it was launched,criticsnoted thatthe MEPI did not seem to offer a major departure frompreviouspolicyto encouragecivil-society developwithSecretary Powell callingfor"a stronger ment, politicalvoice forthe peoples of theMiddle East" (USDOs 2002). As RobertSatloff notes,the"'freedomgap' pillarof MEPI is not specifically intendedto promotedemocracy, civilsojust to strengthen

to be struggling to match itsresults to theambitious rhetoric it.Alsurrounding

Powell in USDOs 2002). In recentpublicity the MEPI Democracy and Civil material, SocietyProgramsetsout goals thatfallfarshortof real structural changein Middle Easterncountries: * Strengthen political parties as a vital part of responsivegovernanceby * Promoteindependentand responsiblemedia throughprofessional standards and accountability.

and lift thevoicesofwomen" ciety, expandpolitical participation, (2002, quoting

candidates in advocacy and leadership skills. training political

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* Pursue legislativeaccountabilityand oversight by improvingskills and knowledgeof local parliamentarians. * Bolstertheruleof law through on ethicalstandardsand judicial programs courtprocedures.(USDOS 20o5a) transparent, trustworthy These goals have failedto trigger reform thatwould lead systematic governmental to functioning withdirectelections.It seemslikely thatpolitical multiparty systems in the regionwill takeyears,if not decades; yetthe rhetoric reform of Middle East democratization promisesmuch more. to explain its policies At the heartof the MEPI lies the administration's attempt to the regionand to improvethe public image of the UnitedStatesthrougha mulmultimediapublic-diplomacycampaign. The public-diplomacy timillion-dollar, is campaign designed to win Arab heartsand minds and to expose Arabs to key elementsof U.S. democracy. By reachingout throughthe media, the United States will showcase"American" values of religioustolerance, open debate,and women's tours will Arabs to the United States to expose themto AmeriStudy bring rights. and practices.Fellowshipsand English-language can democraticinstitutions study useful will Arabs build links with Americans and personal provide help programs "tools" forthe modern (democratic) global community(Hawthorne 2003). The to reach out to the Arab world: The United media play a crucial role in the effort bothradio (Radio Sawa, [www.radiosawa.com]) Statesnow producesand broadcasts to the Middle East. Radio and television(AlhurraTelevision,[www.alhurra.com]) broadcastsArab-lanSawa, with an annual budget of $22 million (Kessler 200oo4), in an to reach music attempt youngpeople. guage pop Assessments of theirsuccess have been mixed.A reportby the U.S. inspector found thatRadio Sawa "has been so preoccupiedwithbuilding an general'soffice audience throughits music that it has failedto adequatelymeasure whetherit is minds" (quoted in Kessler2004). The station'snews reports, designed influencing containsuch poor to counterthe"biased" reports broadcastbyArab radio stations, Arabic grammarthat parentsdo not want theirteenagersto listento it (Kessler which also oversees Board of Governors, the Broadcasting 2004). Not surprisingly, took issue with the AlhurraTelevision, inspectorgeneral'sreport.Alhurra ("the

in the to thetwenty-two countries from FreeOne"), whichbroadcasts Virginia and otherinformanewscoverage beam "balanced" MiddleEast,willeventually channels ofArabnewssatellite theinfluence to counter tion,an explicit attempt viewsas having a very which theadministration suchas al-Arabiya and al-Jazeera, anti-American bias. strong
ASSESSING MEPI-BASED POLITICAL REFORM

is difficult, in no small part the overallimpactof the MEPI's activities Determining because comprehensive data on theprojectsfundedare elusive.In thepoliticalarea, Institute forexample,the MEPI Web siteclaimsthecreationof a Middle East Justice and regionalcampaign schools forwomen candidates (usDOS 2005b), but I could

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about them.Eventhepartiallistof MEPI-funded notobtainanyinformation projects Funded projects in Appendix I raises questions about the program'seffectiveness. Web portal,to a traveling range fromvoter education,to creatinga civil-society and workshopsfigure theater production.Conferences heavilyamong the projects, less emphasisis placed on applied projectsIn manyprojectsthe numberof partici-

The 2003 ArabWomen's Forumin Cairo,forinstance, limited: drew pantsis very


women fromtwelvecountries(USDOS 2003a). onlytwenty-five In the political programsin areas pillar,the MEPI has operated ten regionwide to legislative to preparing strengthening, rangingfromdemocraticstrengthening, women as political leaders,to judicial and legal reform(Appendix I). Countryand elecjudicial reform, specific programsin areas such as parliamentary training, tion assistanceare also underway.Some of the most interesting projectsand those thatappear to have the greatest level are fundedunderthe impactat the grassroots MEPI Small GrantsProgram(Appendix II). and successof theMEPI cannotyetbe fully assessed,some Althoughtheefficacy mustbe noted.Giventherelatively concerns smallnumberofprojectsfunded, which are thenimplemented in collaborationwithloby nongovernmental organizations cal partners in the region,the need to createan entirely new fundingmechanism and bureaucracy under the MEPI may be questioned.Bypassing the existing funding mechanismsthroughthe U.S. AgencyforInternational Development and the StateDepartment, theMEPI createda parallelstructure In focusedsolelyon reform. addition,an "achievementgap" seems to existbetween the loftygoals associated with the programand the rhetoricthat accompanied its launch. With respectto deficit than did thebilateralprogramsof the 1990os is not clear. closingthe freedom
THE GREATER MIDDLE EAST INITIATIVE

whether theMEPI meta-approach hasmadegreater strides toward reform, political

The MEPI was only the first creationof a new Middle step in the administration's East policy.A fewmonthsafterits launch, amid a greater in the push forreform articulateda broader policy,with far-reaching region,the administration goals in the area of democratization. Againstthe backdrop of the impendingU.S. invasion of Iraq, the administration formulated the GMEI, whichwas both a means forjustithe war in Iraq and a plan forfuture action in the region.Because it misread fying theregion, the administration made criticalerrors in articulating thispolicy, which has since been scaled back, again curtailing the administration's to attempts effect democraticreform in the region. By late 2003 the stagewas being set forthe June2004 launch of the GMEI at the G-8 meeting, withlinksbeing made betweenremovingHussein and spreadingdein the Middle East. According to the Bush administration, thetopplingof mocracy the dictatorwould quickly resultin a democraticIraq, which would "unleash a democratictsunami across the Islamic world" (Ottawayand others2002, 1). The

administration's rhetoric drewa direct linkbetween regime changein Iraq and theMiddleEast: change throughout

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democratic revolution. House 200oo3b) (White

will succeed-and will forth that success send the from Damnews, Iraqi democracy toTehran-that ascus freedom canbethe ofevery nation. Theestablishment future heart ofa free ofthe Middle East will be a watershed event inthe Iraqatthe global

inthat Voices are reform anddemocratic region increasingly demanding change ... Now freedom isstirring inthe Middle andnooneshould betagainst it.(White East,
House 200oo4f)

inFebruary ofthelandmark "Churchill andtheGreat 2004 atthe Speaking opening exhibition at the of President Bush thecurRepublic" Library Congress, compared rentU.S. driveto democratize theMiddleEastwithWinston Churchill's stance thepost-World WarII expansion Atthecenter ofcommunism. ofthepolicy, against thepresident is a "forward offreedom": "We're the reiterated, strategy challenging enemies ofreform, thealliesofterror, and expecting a higher standard confronting from ourfriends. Fortoolong, while menandwomen American lookedaway policy were their andtheir Thaterais over, andwe oppressed, rights ignored hopesstifled. can be confident. As in Germany, and Japan, and Eastern willoverEurope, liberty comeoppression in theMiddleEast"(White House 200oo4e). suchas these Statements Bushand high-ranking members ofhis byPresident a significant in theGMEI; however, administration of interest amount the sparked lackof details so closeto theGMEI's launchdateled to muchspeculation among oftheyet-to-be-revealed MiddleEastscholars and in theregion. assessments Early wereoften unfavorable: policy plansarestill "Democracy-promotion beingformuofthree lated. Whathas emerged so far an awkward combination strands: suggests in for and calls certain aggressive democracy 'unfriendly' regimes, elsewhere, heavy doses of reachingout to civil societyand modest diplomaticengagement" in February, Arabic that later whentheLondon-based newspaper erupted al-Hayat Paunder thetitle "U.S.Working a leakedcopyofthepolicy. published Appearing G-8 Greater MiddleEastPartnership" ("Partnership" being per For G-8 Sherpas: with fulldeused interchangeably theleakedworking "Initiative"), paperoffered
tails of the administration's new flagship 2004). policy (al-Hayat 2004; Satloff (Hawthorne 2003, 21-22). Such commentspaled in comparison to the firestorm

with intheregion as the wasbeing take leaders consultation developed policy any

thefailure to underon twokey oftheGMEI proposal: aspects Disputecentered

conflict. Tension between the andthelackofanymention oftheIsraeli-Palestinian theability forcalmand substantive actors United States and regional constrained of theGMEI'S contents. The GMEI debateto eventakeplaceon therelative merits criticism from in theregion, evokeda visceral including response amongleaders theadministration neededto legitimize thepolicy. whosesupport governments them President HosniMubarak, alsovoiced allies, among Keyregional Egyptian the United States should the role of and not that criticism, play partner insisting of the enforcer of reforms. Mubarak's concerns, Secretary-General Arab Echoing initiative based on a big-brother-to-small"Any LeagueAmrMoussa declared,

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brother is unlikely to work. Arabcountries cannotbe on thereceiving approach end.Theyhaveto be adequately consulted on matters thatconcern their own future" after the the Saudi and the leak, (quotedin Salhani200oo4a). Shortly Egyptian issueda jointstatement thatattempt to externally imleadership against projects Mirror Kuwait's Sheikh (Mideast minister, posereform Similarly, then-prime 200oo4a). Sabahal-Ahmad Al Sabah,responded, "Wehavenotreceived thisinitiative and we don't want it"(Kuwait Times Even Jordan's Marwan minister, Muasher, foreign 200oo4). wished that theAmerican initiative would"never seethelight ofday"(Aljazeera.net wasunableto buildsupport in theregion for theleaked 2004).The administration in Later thespring of2004,disagreement Arabgovernments over proposal. among U.S. motivations behindtheGMEI left an ArabLeaguemeeting in disarray. With states thatreforms could notbe externally manymember induced, arguing only eleven ofthetwenty-two ministers metin advance oftheArabLeaguesumforeign mit inan attempt to draft a common Thiseffort endedunsuccessfully, and position.
the summitwas "postponed" (Amrawi200oo4).

In effect, theGMEI'S chilly created a stillborn andled to signifireception policy cantredrafting of theproposal to theJune G-8 summit. The final prior proposal, theG-8meeting-with a few Arableaders in attendance-conadopted during only tained substantive from theleaked U.S. draft. Thechanges a larger included changes rolefor in thekeyareaofpolitical reform. European partners, especially The roleoftheIsraeli-Palestinian conflict is recognized as a contributing factor tothedevelopment andmodernization oftheregion. G-8support for inthe reform is said to be "hand in hand"withsupport fora just and comprehensive region
settlement based on U.N. SecurityCouncil Resolutions242 and 338.' Both parties

arecalleduponto fulfill their under theroadmapsponsored obligations bythesocalledQuartet theEuropeanUnion,theUnitedNations, and (theUnitedStates, which offered a resolution of the with thecessaRussia), phased conflict-starting tionofviolence-that wouldultimately lead to thecreation of a Palestinian state The G-8announcement also acknowledges theheterogeneity within theregion, a recognition intheBushadministration's "Eachcountry isunique lacking approach: and their should be Our must to local diversity respected. engagement respond conditions andbe basedon localownership. Eachsociety willreach itsownconclusionsaboutthepace and scope of change. Yetdistinctiveness, as it is, important must notbe exploited to prevent reform" House Goneis theimpli(White 200oo4c). cationof a single fortheregion, as is mention of theUnitedStates' prescription to establish direct relations withsocietal without theconsent of their right actors, The announcement also recognizes theexistence of multiple tracks governments. inthereform between the Middle Eastandthe theBarcelona West, dialogue including theJapanese initiative for reform ofthePalestinian Process, andU.S.-led Authority, reform. thedocument Overall, on economics, placesfar greater emphasis stressing theroleof"leaders ofthefinance and business sector,' whilereference to political
has been minimized(Mideast Mirror200oo4b, rights 2004c). (USDOS 2003b).

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THE BROADER MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA INITIATIVE

theWhite HouseWebsitedeDespitetheconstraints in theG-8 pronouncement, thegoalsofthePartnership forProgress and a CommonFuture, launched scribes with theG-8announcement, in confident terms: States has adopted "[T]he United a forward of freedom in theMiddleEast.Thisstrategy rea newpolicy, strategy and idealism we haveshown before. Andit thesamepersistence and energy quires oftheworld, willyield thesameresults. As in Europe, as inAsia,as in every region YettheG-8 statetheadvanceof freedom leadsto peace'." (WhiteHouse 200oo4a). no specific theIsraeli-Palestinian conflict mentoffers beyond plan forresolving U.N. resolutions and theroadmap.Nor did thecommuniqu6 endorsing existing intheregion with terrorism address the broader ofdealing (Salhani question 200oo4b). in Iraq,the after theGMEI was launched, amidtheworsening situation Sixmonths billedas the"cenadministration theimportance ofan event deemphasized widely The forum wasto be hosted in Moroccoin December 2004 and cochaired byoutof State Basedon thedeclaration G-8 Powell. adoptedat theJune goingSecretary to advance "a historic theMoroccomeeting wasto create summit, popartnership theadministration hadbacked off from theplan thetimeofthemeeting, however, view of the United States has so "The to promote reform: grown popular political themeeting withcauofficials areapproaching evenhateful, that American dark, thathaveonlya scant and socialinitiatives tionand witha packageof financial to theoriginal change" (Brinkley relationship goalofpolitical 2oo4b).The conferreaffirmed thelinkage few results. Itsfinal statement enceseemsto haveproduced and lasting settlement of reform and support fora just,comprehensive, between for The theArab-Israeli conflict politiresponsibility facilitating (Brinkley 2oo4a). oftheDemocunder themandate cal reform shifted from theUnited States, away Aninitial of and Italy. Assistance Yemen, meeting byTurkey, Dialog,organized racy a for inRomeinNovember failed to thegroup however, yield plan workshops 20oo04, on civilsocietyreform (TESEV 2005).
THE FUTURE OF THE MIDDLE EAST REFORM AGENDA

of BMENA":theyearly ForumfortheFuture(see,forexample, terpiece USDOS2oo4b).

in the region"(USDOS 2004a). By and progress litical,economic,and social reform

debate. Events such ofmuch hasbeenthesubject ofMiddle Eastreform for itspolicy and inLebanon as widespread demonstrations occupation Syrian against continuing to vote) women were notallowed national thefirst pollsin SaudiArabia(although Butthe forces in theregion. of democratic oftheunleashing arecitedas evidence beenformed, inIraq, hasnotyet democratic a transitional government catalyst, prime The United dominated theelection months after IraqiAlliance. by theShiite-led hasyetto takeplace.The setin Iraq'sconstitution overtheroleofreligion debate entire reform theadministration's backsin Iraqhaveundermined agenda. reform overMiddleEast A growing senseof defensiveness policyis apparent Advisor In 2004, comments theadministration. within Security bythen-National

recordof success of the GMEI, the Bush administration's Since the first anniversary

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Condoleezza Ricedisplayed this defensiveness over the "And so wearemoving policy: ahead on thatagendaof engaging theMuslimworld. We tookthetimeto try to buildan international coalition from which to do that. I knowthat think that you we do everything butsometimes it'sa goodthing to stopand to build unilaterally, thecoalition, andthat is whatthePresident hasdone"(White House 200oo4b). SimiPresident Bush used the State of the Union Address in to theU.S. larly, clarify 2005 on reform, between theUnited States and itsenemies position againdistinguishing in theMiddleEast: TheUnited States nodesire, hasnoright, andno intention toimpose ourform of on else. That is one of the main differences between us and our government anyone enemies. seek toimpose andexpand anempire ofoppression, inwhich a tiny They ofbrutal, rulers control life. ofevery Ouraimisto group self-appointed every aspect build andpreserve a community offree andindependent with nations, governments that answer totheir citizens andreflect their owncultures. House (White 2oo5b) A closer ofactivities theadministration to as evidence ofdemocraanalysis points tization in theregion, suchas theSaudi national seemlargely dialogon reform, tokeepthecurrent inpower, rather than totruly create designed regimes participademocracies. Such is the case in Saudi where the elections choseonly Arabia, tory half ofthe members ofmunicipal-level councils others members areappointed). (the ofcourse, werenotallowed to vote. Women, President Mubarak did ask Although theEgyptian Parliament toamend theconstitution toallowdirect, presimultiparty dential elections remains thepresi(Hawthorne 2004), theconstitution suspended, denthas ruledfortwenty-five elected in single-candidate and referendums, years, his son Gamalis apparently foran eventual succession beinggroomed pharaonic after President BushlaudedEgypt attheFebruary oftheUnion Shortly 2005 State address andcalledon ittopushdemocratization-"And thegreat andproudnation ofEgypt, which showed thewaytoward cannowshowthe peaceintheMiddleEast, in theMiddleEast"(White House 200oo5b)-Egypt arrested waytoward democracy theleading activist Nour.The government accusedNourof prodemocracy Ayman all but fourteen of thousands of signatures collected to form his party, alfaking Ghad.Nourhad written a letter to President Mubarak to participate in the asking debate between and Mubarak's National Democrats and for the opposition parties discussions to be open to thepublic(Stack2005). Although al-Ghadhad notyet been approved (Stack2005), Nour announced by thegovernment plansto chalin theOctober2005presidential if theconstitution had lengeMubarak election, beenchanged that time. by Pressure which threatened to withhold aid bytheBushadministration, foreign toEgypt, anda trip canceled ofState Riceseemtohaveplayed a crucial bySecretary rolein Egypt's decision to release Nourfrom hisparty is still not prison, although authorized. Whether willundertake realreform or merely a suEgypt go through remains to be seen.The Parliament, where reforms areinitiated, is perficial process
(New YorkTimes 2005).

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and presidential dominatedby Mubarak'sNational Democratic Party, termlimits refer to him as a"cowardlyagentofAmerica;' havenotbeen discussed.Nour's critics as externally reform presenting imposed ratherthan responsiveto the will of the of the leveragethe Egyptianpeople. On the otherhand, thisepisode is a reminder rhetoric-driven, poorlyconceived,regionalpolicy.
IMAGINING THE MIDDLE

United States can exercise in bilateral which than relations, maybe moreeffective
EAST AND REFORM

failedto articulated The grand reform meta-narrative by the Bush administration

In addition results in theareaofpolitical reform. to equal to itsrhetoric produce the administration's the barriersposed by conditions in the region itself, at implementation seriof theMiddleEastand itsown efforts conceptualization
ously hampered the potential success of the reform agenda. Among the the reform that frustrated policy are a failureto compremisconceptualizations the lack of a democracy-orihend the impact of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, in pursuinga political and the perceptionsof U.S. hypocrisy ented local context, reform agenda. eitherby launchinga new In failing to address the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, to the effects of the conflict Middle East peace processor even in makingreference unsucin the GMEI Sherpa paper (al-Hayat 2004; Satloff 2004), the administration Israel an between to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as issue cast attempted cessfully withlittleor no regionalimpact.Nor did the administration and the Palestinians, acknowledge that the conflictis an underlyingcause of regional terrorismand atviolence. This approach proved to be a major obstacle in the administration's message. Its uncriticalembrace of the administration temptto deliverits reform of Israeli Prime MinisterAriel Sharon during the escalation of the conflictbeBush'sdeclarationthattheprimeministween2000 and 2003,includingPresident terwas a "man of peace," exacerbatedtensionsbetweenthe United Statesand the because America supdesignedto quell Arab discontent-"Yet, region.Statements many in the Muslim world seem to believe that ports Israel's desire forsecurity, This is a misconceptionthat America opposes the Palestiniandesireforfreedom.

on is thatour policyinsists we musttakehead-onand dispel.Becausethetruth in the conflict as progress freedom" (WhiteHouse 2004b)-made little impact, remained elusive. rhetorical In many goalsfortheMiddleEastare far waystheadministration's in theshort to medium than what the is to achieve term, given region likely greater thesevere economic and educathelocalcontexts. problems Having acknowledged intheregion intheU.N.Arab HumanDevelopment tional deficits cited Report 2002
a point noted by critics: craticpotential,
(UNDP 2002), the administration downplays their impact on the region's demo-

thatsetthestagefordemoThe MiddleEasttoday lacksthedomestic conditions withdemocracy cratic elsewhere. It does nothavetheprevious experience change

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thatfacilitated transitions in Central Europe .... Norhas theMiddleEastexperi-

enced the ofeconomic andthe dramatic prolonged periods growth resulting changes ineducational andlife that ledAsian countries like standards, standards, living styles Taiwan andSouth Korea todemocratic Thepicture isinstead oneofsociochange.
economic deterioration. and others 3) (Ottaway 200oo2,

The administration's articulation of goalssuchas increasing theeffectiveness of foronlyTurkey and Israelhavetruemultiparty political parties ringhollow, sysfor tems their chief In many executive. countries theopposition, ifitexists electing at all,is restricted from Inby theruling regime mounting anytrueopposition. theeffectiveness ofopposition without structural reform toincrease creasing parties their rolein governance willnot lead to significant democratization. Critics also to the lack of a movement for democratic in notpoint popular change theregion, of thecurrent callsforreform are driven of theelite, ingthatmany by members whohave a vested inthesurvival interest ofcurrent (Hawthorne governments 2004). In promoting a platform ofreform whilemaintaining closetiesto clearly very undemocratic suchas Egypt and Saudi Arabia, theBushadministration regimes itspolicy to criticisms ofhypocrisy. Rather thana universal exposed good,applicationofdemocratic reform to a particular couldbe seenas a punitive policy country for where theUnited States does approach: "Pressing democracy onlyin countries notliketheregime and seemsconfident it can foster a friendly successor governmentsendsa discouraging to the rest of the Arab world: is message 'democracy'
about our choices,not yours"(Hawthorne2003,23).

theadministration doesnotacknowledge thepossibility that increased Moreover, democratic in MiddleEastern countries willbring intopowerparties expression and individuals who do notfavor a strong withtheUnitedStates or relationship envision from a secular SuchwasthecaseinPakistan's democracy perspective. parelections of2002, which theUnited States Thepollsaw liamentary pushed strongly. Action an Islamic fundamentalist which won Council, gains bytheUnited coalition, ofthefederal seats. The party nowgoverns thekeyprovince 17 percent parliament ofBaluchistan, where ithastried toimpose Islamic lawandis unwilling toassist the United States in tracking downmembers of al-Qa'ida(Cole 2005).Similarly, elecin Kuwait tions in 200oo3 sawa reduction inthenumber oflegislators whosupport a and a risein support forIslamist candidates Western-style democracy (Murphy tionsproved thepotential fordemocratic to produceoutcomes notinprocesses
tendedby the administration (Gearan 200oo6). thevictory of Hamas in theJanuary elec2004). Finally, 2006 Palestinianlegislative

With topolicy theadministration's twogoals-toeradirespect implementation, cateterror and to bring democratic reform to theregion-conflict. To mountan effective "waron terror," theUnitedStates leansheavily on existing in leadership countries likePakistan and SaudiArabia, U.S. support for these yetthecontinued undermines thepotential for democratic reform in theregion and exposes regimes theentire reform to charges ofhypocrisy. project

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NOTE U.N. Security CouncilResolution items, 242,adoptedon 22 November 1. Amongother 1967, calledfor thewithdrawal ofIsraeli armed forces from theterritories the1967 the war, occupied during settlement of all claims, and an end to belligerency (see, forexample, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/i/hi U.N. Security /in_depth/middle_east/israel_and_the_palestinians/keydocuments/1639522.stm]). in the1973 CouncilResolution on 22October calledfor a ceasefire Arab-Israeli war 338, 1973, adopted andimplementation ofU.N.Security Council Resolution 242(see,for example, [http://news.bbc.co.uk /1/hi/indepth/middleeast/2001/001/israel_andthepalestinians/keydocuments/1681243.stm]).
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AND

2004 year

2003 year

200oo3 200oo2

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2003

2002 year

2002 year

THE OF

STATUS FUNDING

year year

year

year

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