Computer Networks

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer Networks is interconnection of many antonomous computers. It can be connected through copper wires, coaxial cables / fiber optics, IR, satellite microwave etc.
GOALS OF NETWORKING
1) Resource sharing 2) High relativity
HISTORY OF NETWORK DEVELOPMENT

Historical overview In 1950s the computer links were use to connect central computers to remote terminals and other peripherals devices like printers. In 1960s the number of peripheral devices increased with development of time shared computer system and with increasing power of central computer.
around 1970s special processor called front end were developed to control communication to and from all the peripheral. ARPANET and TYMNET were first large scale general purpose Data networks connecting Geographically distributed computer system users and peripherals. In 1980s more-n-more networks have been connected via gateways & bridges. So as to allow users to one Network to send data to users of other Network LAN and WAN users also developed in 1970s.
NETWORK HARDWARE
Link configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attached to a link.
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A link is a physical communication hathway that transfers data from one device to another for communication to occur two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time.
Link configuration
Point-to-point
Multipoint
1) Point to Point A point-to-point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the channel is reversed for transmission between these two devices. Most point-to-point line configuration use on an actual length of wires or cable to connect two devices but other options such as microwave, satellite links are also possible.
2) Multipoint A Multipoint line configuration is one in which more than two devices share a single link. In a multipoint invironment the capacity of the channels is shared either spatically or timely. If several devices can share link simultaneously it is called spatically sharing line configuration. If users make turns it is time shared line configuration.
TOPOLOGY
The term topology refers to the way the network is laid out either physically or locally two or more devices connect to a link. Two or more link form a topology. Topology defines physical or logical arrangement of link in a network. Evil basic topology are horrible. Topology
Mesh 1) Mesh Topology 2)
Star
Tree
Bus
Ring
number of devices = n
numberoflinks
number of ports = n 1
n(n 1) 2
In a Mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The term dedicated means that it carrie traffic only between the 2 devices it connected. A fully connected Mesh Network has n (n 1) / 2 physical channels to link n devices. To accommodate that many links, every device or the network must have (n 1), i/p r o/p ports.
ADVANTAGES
1) A dedicated link guarantee that each communication can carry its own data load, does eliminating traffic problems. 2) Mesh topology is robust i.e. if link becomes unusable it does not incapacitate the entire system. 3) Privacy or security is more because every message send travels along a dedicated line & only the intended recipitent see it. Disadvantages 1) Installation and reconfiguration becomes difficult because of the cabling involved. 2) Hardware required to connect each link [i/p cable] can be expensive.
STAR TOPOLOGY
In a star topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to the central controllers HUB. The devices are not directly linked to each other, unlike Mesh topology A Star topology does not allow a direct traffic between device. If one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller which then relays the data to the other communicating devices. Advantages 1) It is less expensive than Mesh topology. Between each devices it needs only one link or one input outport port to connect it to any number of other devices.
2) It is easy to install & reconfigure, less cabling is involved & addition and deletion involves only one connection i.e. between that device and HUB 3) If one link fails only that link is affected [Robustness] Disadvantages 1) Less privacy because is has to pass through HUB. 2) If the HUB is affected whole topology goes down.
TREE TOPOLOGY
A tree Topology is a variation STAR, as in star nodes in a tree are connected to central HUB that controls the traffic to the Network. However not every device plugs into the central HUB the majority of the device connect to secondary HUB that in turn is connected to the central HUB. The central HUB in the tree is a active HUB. An active HUB contain a repeater which is a Hardware device which regenerates the received bit patterns before sending them out. Repeating strengthens the signal and increasing the distance the signal can travel. The secondary HUB may be active or passive HUBs. A passive HUB provides a simple physical connections between the attached devices. The advantage & disadvantage of Tree topology are generally the some of that of star. The addition of secondary HUB brings two advantage. 1) It allows more devices to be attached to the central HUB therefore increases the distance a signal can travel between devices. 2) It allows the Network to isolate an d privatize communication from different computers. Eg:- computers attached to one secondary HUB can be given priority over computers attached to other secondary HUB. In that way the
Network operators can guarantee that time sensitive data will not have to wait for access to the Network.
BUS TOPOLOGY
1) A Bus topology is a Multipoint configuration, one long cable acts like a backbone to link all the devices in a n/w. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop line is a connection running between a device and a main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the of a cable to create a contact with a Metallic core. As the s/g travels along the backbone some energy is transformed into heat. Therefore it becomes weaker & weaker the farther it has to travel. For this reason there is a limit to the no. of taps a bus can support & the distance between the taps. Advantages 1) Easy to install 2) Less cabling compared to Mesh Star, tree etc. Disadvantages 1) Difficult to reconfigure and fault isolation. 2) It is difficult to add new device. 3) S/g reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number & spacing up devices connected to the given length of cable. Therefore adding new devices require modification or replacement of the backbone. 4) A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission even between devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects s/g back in the direction of origin creating noise in both directions.
RING TOPOLOGY
In a Ring topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration only with 2 devices on the either side of it. A s/g is passed along the ring from device to device until it reaches the destination. Each device in the ring incorporates the repeater. When a device receives a s/g intended for another device its repeater regenerates the bits & passes them along. Advantages 1) It is relatively easy to install & reconfigure. 2) Each device is linked only to its immediate neighbours. Through to add or delete a device require two connections. 3) Fault isolation is simplified. Disadvantages 1) Unindirectional traffic can be a disadvantages. 2) In a simple ring, a break in a ring can disable the entire n/w. this weakness can be solved using dual ring. If one device does not receive a s/g within a specified period it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the m/w operator to the problem & its location.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
often a n/w combines several topologies as sub network linked together in a larger topology. For instance one dept of business may have decided to use the bus topology while another has a ring. The 2 can be connected to each other via central controller in a star topology. Transmission Mode Half duplex
Simplex
Full duplex
The term transmission mode is used to define the direction of s/g flow between 2 linked devices. There are 3 types of transmission mode. Simplex In Simplex mode the communication is unidirection as on the one way street. Only one of the two stations other can only receive. Keyboards & monitors are the examples. The keyboard can only introduce i/p, the monitor can only accept o/p.
Half Duplex In half duplex mode each station can both transmit & receive but not at a same time. When one device is sending the other can only receive & viceversa. The entire capacity of the channel is taken over by whichever of the 2 devices is transmitting at that time. Eg. Walky-talky
Full Duplex Both stations can transmit & receive simultaneously. In Full Duplex mode s/gs going in either direction share the capacity of the link. Eg telephone network when two people are communicating both can talk & listen at the some time.
NETWORK SOFTWARE
Protocol: 1) A protocol is used for communication between entities in different system. 2) Eg: Entities are users application programs, file transfer package DBMS, e-mails etc 3) Entity is anything capable of sending and receiving information 4) A system may contain two or more entities. 5) For two entities to communicate successfully they must speak same language. 6) What is communicated How is communicated and when is communicated must confirm to some mutually acceptable communications between the entities. 7) These conventions are referred to as protocol. 8) Protocol is a set of rules. Governing the exchange of data between two entities Key Elements of Protocol are:1) Syntax:- It includes data format and signal levels. 2) Symantics:- It includes control of information for coordination and error handling. 3) Timing: It includes speed matching and sequencing. 9) Thus we can say that a protocol is an agreement betn two communicating devices on hour communication is to proceed.
DATA TRANSMISSION
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Data Transmission 1) The transmission of binary data across the link can be accomplished either in parallel or serial mode. 2) In parallel mode multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse. 3) In serial mode only bit is sent with each clock pulse. Parallel Transmission 1) Binary data consisting of ones & zeros may be organized into graphs of n bits each. 2) By grouping we can send data n bits at a time instead of one. 3) We use n wires to send n bits at one time. 4) The figure shows how parallel transmission works for n = 8. 5) Typically the 8 wires are bundled in a cable with connector at each end. 6) The advantage of Parallel Transmission is speed. 7) Parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission there is a significant disadvantage i.e. cost. 8) Parallel transmission requires n communication lines just to transmit the data stream because of this it is expensive. 9) Parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.
Serial Transmission 1) In serial transmission one bit follows another. 2) So we need only one communication channel rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices. 3) The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel it reduces the cost of Transmission by a factor of n 4) Since communication within devices is parallel, convertion devices are required at the interface between sender and the line [parallel to serial] and between line and receiver [serial to parallel]. Serial transmission occurs in one of the two ways: 1) synchronous 2) A synchronous
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Asynchronous Transmission 1) Asynchronous Transmission is so named because the timing of signal is unimportant. Each group usually 8 bits is sent along the link as a unit. The sending system handles each group independently relaying it to the link whenever ready without regard to time up. To alert the receiver to the arrival of new group. Therefore an extra bit is added at the beginning of each byte. This bit usually a zero is called as start bit. To let the receiver know the byte is finished one or more additional bits are added to end of the byte. These bits usually ones are called stop bits. By this method each byte is increased in size a at least 10 bits of which eight bits are information bits and two bits or more are signal to the receiver. In addition the transmission of each byte may be followed by a Gap of varying duration. The gap can be represented by either additional stop bits. The addition of stop and start bits & inserting of Gap into the bit stream makes the Asynchronous transmission slower than forms of transmission that can operate without the addition of control information. But it is cheap and affective, two advantages that make it attractive choice for situation like low-speed communication.
Synchronous Transmission In synchronous transmission bits are send in a continuous stream without start and stop bits into meaning full bytes. It is the responsibility of the receiver. The advantage of Synchronous transmission is speed. For this reason it is more useful for high speed application like transmission of data from one computer to another.
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DTE DCE Interface
There are usually four basic functional units involved in communication of data. The DTE and DCE at one end and DCE and DTE on the other. The DTE generates the data and passes them along with the necessary control characters to the DCE. The DCE converts the signal to a lormat appropriate to the transmission medium and introduces it on to the network link. When the signal arise at the receiver and this process in reversed. DTE [Data Terminal Equipment] DTE includes any unit that function either as a source or as a destination for binary digital data. It can be a terminal micro computer, fax machine or any other device that generates digital data. DTE do mot communicate directly with one another. They need an intermediate device to communicate. Data circuit terminating Equipment. It includes any functional unit that transmits or receives data in the form of analog or digital signal through a network. A DCE takes the data generated by a DTE converts then to a appropriate signal and then introduces the signal on to the communication link. Commonly used DCE includes modern [modulation & demodulation]. To make the communication possible both the sending & receiving DCEs must use the same modulation method. Two DTEs do not need to be coordinated with each other. But each must be coordinated with its DCEs & DCEs must be coordinated so that Data translation occurs without loss in integrity.
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OSI MODEL
SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI
The International Standard Oranization [ISO] was established in 1947 which created a model open system Interconnection which allows diverse systems to communicate. The OSI mode is a layer architecture or framework which provides guidelines for development of university compatable Hardware, software and architecture. With a single machine each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Eg Layer 3 uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4.
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Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it & passes the whole package to the layer just below it. This information is in the form of headers or trailors [controls data added to the beginning or end of data parcel.] Headers are added to the message at layer 6, 5, 4, 3 & 2 and trailor is added at layer 2. The passing of data & network infon down the layers of sending machine & back up through layers of receiving machine is made possible by an interface betn each pair of adjacent layer. The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroup. The layer 1, 2, 3 are network support layer they deal with the physical aspect of moving data from one device to another. The layer 5, 6, 7 are the user support layers. Layer 4 i.e. Transport layer insures n to n reliable data transmission & links the network support layer & user support layer.
In this figure L7 data means the data unit at Layer 7. L6 mean the data unit at layer 6 & soon the process starts from layer 7 & then moves from layer to layer is decending sequence order. At each layer [except layer 7 &1] a header is added to data unit. At layer 2 a trailor is added as well. When the formated data units passes through physical layer it is changed into electromagnetic signal & transported through a physical link. Up reaching its destination the signal passes into layer & it transformed back into bits the data unit move up through OSI layer as each block of data reaches the next higher layer the header & trailors attached to it at the corresponding sending layer is removed & actions appropriate to that layer are taken, by the time it reaches layer 7 the message is again in the form appropriate to the application is made available to the recipitent.
FUNCTIONS OF OSI MODEL LAYERS I PHYSICAL LAYER
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1) Physical layer co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. 2) It deals with the mechanical & electrical specification of the interface & transmission medium. 3) It also defines the procedures and functions of that physical devices & interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
The physical layer is concerned with the following: 1) Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:- The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the device & the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium. 2) Representation of bits:- In physical layer data consist of a stream of bits i.e. sequence of 0s and 1s without any interpretation. To be transmitted the bits must be encoded into signals i.e. electrical or optional. The physical layer defines the type of encoding. 3) Data Rate:- The transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent each second is also defined by the physical layer. In other words it defines the duration of a bit. 4) Synchronization of bits:- The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized. 5) Line configuration:- The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the medium. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected together through dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared between several devices. 6) Physical topology:- The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network i.e. Device can be connected using a mesh topology, a star topology, a ring topology or a bus topology.
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7) Transmission mode:- The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between 2 devices i.e. simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.
II DATA LINK LAYER
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a r our transmission facility, to a reliable link and is responsible for node to node delivery. Specific responsibilities of Data link layer includes the following: 1) Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units known as frames. 2) Physical addressing:- 1) If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network. 2) The data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender [source address] & destination address of the frame. 3) If the frame is intended for the system outside the senders network. 4) The receiver address is the address of the device that connects one network to the next. 3) Flow control:- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender. The Data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver. 4) Error control:- The data link layer adds relatively to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to prevent duplication of frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailor added to the end of the frame.
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5) Access control:- When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
III NETWORK LAYER
Network layer is responsible for sources-to-destination delivery of a packet across multiple networks. If two systems are connected to the same link there is usually no need for network layer. Specific responsibilities of network layer includes following: 1) Logical addressing:- The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary we need another addressing system to help distinguish the source & destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that includes the logical addresses of sender & receiver. 2) Routing:- When independent networks or links are connected together to create an internetwork. The connecting devices called Routers or gateways route the packets go their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism.
IV TRANSPORT LAYER
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Transport layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the entire message. Specific responsibilities of transport layer indicate the following 1) Service-point addressing:- Computers often run several programs at the some time for this reason, the source-to destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process or running program to the other. 2) Segmentation and reassembly:- A message is divided into transmittable segments each segment containing a sequence number. There numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in the transmission. 3) Connection Control:- The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segments as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred the connection is terminated. 4) Flow control:- 1) Like the data link layer the transport layer is responsible for flow control. 2) however the flow control at this layer is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link. 5) Error control:- The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error. Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
V SESSION LAYER
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The services provided by the first three layers i.e. physical, data link and network are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is network dialog controlled. It establishes, maintain and synchronizes the interaction betn communicating systems. Specific responsibilities of the session layer includes the following 1) Dialog control:- The session layer allows two systems to enter into a Dialog. It allows the communicate between two processes either in Half duplex or full duplex. 2) Synchronization:- The session layer allows the process to add checkpoints i.e. synchronization points into a stream of data. Eg. if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100 page unit is received and acknowledged independently.
VI PRESENTATION LAYER
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Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer includes the following 1) Translation:- The processes or running programs in two systems are usually exchanging information in the form of characters, strings, numbers and so on. The information should be changed to bit streams before being transmitted because different computers are different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for inter operatively between these different encoding methods. 2) Encryption:- To carry sensitive information a system must be able to assure privacy. Encryption means sender transforms the original information to another form & sends the resulting message over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to original form. 3) Compression:- Data compression reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. It is particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio and video.
VII APPLICATION LAYER
The Application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides user interfaces & support for services such as e-mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management and other types of distributed information. Of the many application services available, the figure shows X. 500 which is directory services, X. 400 which is message handling services, FTAM which is File Transfer Access Management.
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Specification services provided by the application layer include the following. 1) Network virtual terminal:- A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote host. 2) FTAM:- This application allows user to access files in remote computers to retrive files & to manage or to control files in a remote computer. 3) Mail Service:- This application provides the bases for e-mail forwarding & storage. 4) Directory Services:- This application provides distributed Data close sources & access for global information about various objects & services.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of electromagnetic energy transmission media are of 2 types:1) Guided Media 2) Unguided Media 1) Guided Media Guided Media are those that provide a conduct from one device to another. Signal travelling along the Guided media is directed & conducted by physical limits of the medium. The include the 1) twisted pair cable 2) coaxial cable 3) fibre optical cable Twisted & coaxial cable are metallic conductors [copper] that accepts a transport signals in the form of electric current optical fibre cable is a glass or optical fibre cable that accepts & transport signals in the form of light.
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Twisted pair cable:- Twisted pair cable comes in two forms unshielded & shielded. USTC:- UPT Cable is the most common type of telecommunication medium in use today. Its frequency range is suitable for transmitting both voice & data/ Frequency range of TPC
A TPC consist of 2 conductors usually copper, each with its own coloured plastic insulation. The plastic insulation is colour banded for identification. Colours are used both to identify the specific conductors in a cable & to indicate which wires belong in pairs & hw they relate to other pairs in a larger bundle. Advantages of UTP are its cost, ease to use & installation. Disadvantages of UTP is it is more susceptable to interference or noise. Electronic industry associates [EIA] has developed to co-grade UTP cable by quantity. Categories are determined by cable quality 1 with lowest & second as highest. (a) Category 1:- The basis TP cabling used in telephone system. This level of quality is fine for voice but inadequate for low speed data communication. (b) Category 2:- The next higher grade suitable for voice & data transmission upto 4 Mbps. (c) Category 3:- Required to have at least three twists per foot & used for data transmission upto 10 Mbps. It is now standard cable for most telephone systems. (d) Category 4:- Used data transmission rate upto 16 Mbps (e) Category 5:- Used for data transmission upto 100 Mbps.
UTP CONNECTOR
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UTP is mostly common connected to n/w via a type of snap in plug like that use in telephone Jacks. Each wire is attached to one conductor or pin in the connector the most frequently used of there plug is RJ45 connector with 8. Conductors are for each wires of 4 twisted pairs.
Three different types of connectors
SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
STP cable has a metal foil or mesh covering that incases each pair of insulated conductor. The metal casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise & eliminates a phenomena called cross talk. STP uses same connectors as UTP. It is more expensive than UTP but less susceptble to noise.
COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable. It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire enclosed in an insulating sheath which is in turn encased in an outer conductor of metal foil. The outer metal wrapping serves both as a shield against noise & as a second conductor which completes the circuit. This outer conductor
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is enclosed in a insulating sheath & the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover. Frequency of coascial Cable
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PHYSICAL LAYER
The Physical Layer Co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical Medium. It deals with the Mechanical & electrical Specifications such as cables, connectors & signaling options that Physically Link two nodes on a Network.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission Media is the Physical path between transmitter & the receiver signals are transmitted from one device to another device in the form of electromagnetic energy. Transmission Media are of Two Types :1) Guided Media 2) Unguided Media
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1) Guided Media Guided Media are those that provide a conduct from one device to another. Examples include twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optics cable. Twisted pair cable & co-axial cable use Metallic conductors that accepts & transports signals in the form of Light. Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts & transports signals in the form of light.
TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

Twisted Pair Cable-Comes in two Forms: a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: UTP is set of twisted pair with in a plastic sheath. UTP is a ordinary telephone wire. It consists of two conductors (usually copper), each with its own colored Plastic insulation
FREQUENCY RANGE OF TWISTED PAIR CABLE:
The Electronic Industry Associate (EIA) has developed Standards to grade UTP cables by quality. Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as lowest and 5 as the highest. Category 1: The basic twisted Pair Cable used in telephone systems. This level of quality is fine for voice Category 2: The next higher grade suitable for voice & for data transmission of up to 4Mbps.
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Category 3: Required to have at least three twists per foot & can be used for data transmission up to 10Mbps. Category 4: Used to data transmission up to 16Mbps. Category 5: Used to data transmission up to 100Mbps.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: STP cable has a Metal foil or braided Mesh covering that encases each Pair of insulated conductors. The Metal casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise. It can also eliminate a phenomenon called CrossTalk.
COAXIAL CABLE:
Co-axial Cable Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable. It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire enclosed in an insulating Sheath which is in turn encased in an outer conductor of Metal foil. The outer metal wrapping serves both as a shield against noise & as a second conductor which completes the circuits. This outer conductor is enclosed in a insulating sheath & the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.
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Frequency Range of Co-axial Cable:
Advantages of Coaxial Cable: 1) Co-axial cable used for both data transmission i.e. analog & digital data transmission. 2) It has Bandwidth. 3) Easy to handle & relatively inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables.
UTP CONNECTORS:
Unshielded Twisted Pair is most commonly connected to network devices via a type of snap in plus like that used with telephone Jacks. Each wire in cable is attached to one conductor (or Pin) in the connector. The most frequently used of these plugs is an RJ45 connector with eight conductors, one for each wire of four twisted pairs.
UTP CONNECTION:
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DATA LINK LAYER
LINE DISCIPLINE / ACCESS CONTROL
Access control function of Data Link layer manages the establishment of tasks & the right of a particular device to transmitt at a given time. Line discipline can be done in two ways 1) ENQ / ACK
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ENQ / ACK
ENQ / ACK is primarily used in Peer to Peer communication. It is used in systems where there is a dedicated link between two devices. The initiator first transmitts a frame called ENQ [i.e. enquiry] Asking if the receiver is available to receive data. The receiver must answer either with an acknowledge ie ACK frame if it is ready to receive or with negative acknowledgement ie NAK frame if it is not. If neither an ACK nor NAK is received within a specified time limit the initiator assumes that ENQ Frame was lost in transmitt disconnects and sends a replacement. An initiating system makes 3 such attempts to establish a link before giving up. If the response to a ENQ frame is negative for three attempts, initiator disconnects & begins the process again to another time. If the response is positive initiator is free to send its data once all its data have been transmitted, the sending system finishes with end of transmission frame ie EOT.
POLL / SELECT
POLL / SELECT method of Line Discipline works with Topology where one device is designated as primary station & other as secondary stations. The primary device controls the line & secondary device follows its instruction. It is upto the primary to determine which device is allowed to use the channel at a given time. If the primary wants to receive data it asks the secondaries if they have anything to send. This function is called Polling. If the primary wants to send data it tells the targets secondary to get ready to receive this function is called selecting.
SELECT
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The select mode is used when the primary device has something to send. The SEL frame is sent from primary to secondary to tell the secondary to prepare to receive data. One field of the SEI frame contains the address to intended secondary. As the frame makes its way down the link each of the secondary devices checks the address field. Only when a device recognizes its own address, it opens the frame & reads data. If the secondary is ready it returns a ACK frame or NAK frame if it is not ready.
POLL
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When the primary is ready to receive data it must ask or POLL each device in turn if it has anything to send. When the first secondary is approached. It responses either with a NAK frame if it has nothing to send or with data. If the response is NAK frame the primary then POLLs the next secondary in the same way until it finds one with data to send when the response is positive the primary reads the frame & returns with an acknowledgement varying with receit. The secondary may send several data frames one after other or it may be required to wait for an acknowledgement before sending each frame depending on the protocol. There are 2 possibilities for terminating the exchange. Either the secondary sends all its data finishing with an EOP frame or the primary sends the time up signal. Once a secondary has finished transmitting the primary can POLL the remaining devices.
FLOW CONTROL
Flow Control is a set of procedure that tells the senders how much data it can transmits before it must wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver. The flow of data must not be allowed to overwhelm the receiver. Any receiving device has a limited speed at which it can process incoming data & a limited amount of memory to store a incoming data. The receiving device must be able to inform the sending device before those limits are reached & to request that transmitting device to sends fewer frames or stops transmission temporarily. The rate of process in data is often slower than the rate of transmission. For this reason each receiving device has a block of memory called buffer reversed for storing incoming data until they are process. If the buffer begins to fill up. The receiver must be able to tell the sender to halt transmission until it is once again able to receive data.
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CATEGORIES OF FLOW CONTROL

Flow Control
Stop and wait
Sliding window
STOP AND WAIT FLOW CONTROL

In Stop & Wait method of flow control the sender waits for an acknowledgement after every frame it sends. Only when a acknowledgement is received the next frame is send. This process of alternately sending & waiting repeats until the sender transmits an EOT frame
The advantage of S & W fc is simplicity ie each frame is checked & acknowledged before the next frame is send. The disadvantage is inefficiency S & W is slow. Each frame must travel all the way to the receiver & an acknowledgement must travel all the way back before the next frame is send. Here each frame is sent alone i.e. the frame sent & received used the entire time need to traverse the link.
SLIDING WINDOW FLOW CONTROL
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1) In sliding window method of flow control the sender can transmit several frames before needing acknowledgement. 2) The link can carry several frames at one time & its capacity can be used efficiently. 3) The Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender & the receiver. 4) The window can hold frames at either end and these may be acknowledged at any point without waiting for the window to fill up. 5) To keep track of which frames have been transmitted & received. 6) SW introduces an identification scheme based on size of the Window. 7) The frame are numbered from 0 to n 1 & size of window is also n 1. Eg./ If n = 8 the frames are number 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2 & size of window = 7. Thus receiver sends an acknowledgement which includes the number of next frame it expects to receive.
SENDER WINDOW
At the beginning of transmission the senders window contains n 1 frames. As the frames are sent out the left boundary of the window moves inwards shirking the size of the window. Once an acknowledgement arrives the window expands to allow in a number of new frames equal to the number of frames acknowledged by ACK frame. Sender Sliding Window
RECEIVER WINDOW
AT the beginning of transmission receiver window contains n 1 spaces for frames. As new frames come in the size of the receiver window shrinks as soon as an acknowledgement is sent. The window expand to include spaces for a n umber of frames equal to the number of frame acknowledged. Receiver Sliding Window
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Example of Sliding Window
ERROR DETECTION
Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, errors must be detected & corrected whenever an electromagnetic signal flows from one point to another then it is subjected to interference from heat, magnetism & other forms of electricity. This interference can change the shape of timing of the signal. Errors are of 2 types single bit errors & burst error. In a single bit error only one bit in the data unit has changed. A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have been change Redundancy is the conflict of sending extra bits for use in error detection
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CRC
1) One of the most common & error detecting codes are CRC [Cyclic Redundant Check] 2) In CRC a sequence of Redundant bits called CRC remainder is appended to the end of the data unit. 3) So that the resulting data becomes exactly divisible by a predetermined binary number. 4) At the destination the incoming data unit is divided by the same number 5) If at this step there is no remainder the data unit is assumed intacted & is therefore accepted. 6) A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit & therefore must be rejected.
CRC GENERATOR & CHECKER
The basic steps involved in CRC are:1) A string of n 1 zeros are appended to the data unit. The number n is the number of bits in the predetermined divisor. 2) The newly elongated data unit is divided by the divisor using a process called Binary division. The remainder resulting from the divisor is CRC. 3) The CRC of n 1 bits derived in step 2 replaces the zeros at the end of data unit. The data unit arrives at the receiver, data first followed by the CRC. The receiver treats the whole string as a unit & divides it by the same division that was used to find the CRC remainder. If the string arrives without error the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero & the data unit
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passes. If the string has been changed in transit the division gives a nonzero remainder & data unit does not pass.
BINARY DIVISION IN CRC GENERATOR
predetermined divisor = 1001 i.e n = 4 & the number zeros added are 3 to the Divident 000 Quotient = 11110 1 Remainder ie CRC = 001 Original Divident = 100100 After adding n 1 zeros Divident = 100100000 Binary division in CRC checker
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ERROR CONTROL
The term error control refers to the methods of error detection & retransmission. Any time a error is detected in an exchange. A positive acknowledgement NAK is return & the specified frames are retransmitted. This process is called automatic repeat request [ARQ] Retransmission of data is done in 3 cases:(i) Damaged Frame (ii) Lost frame (iii) Lost Acknowledgement
CATEGORIES OF ERROR CONTROL

Error Control
Stop and Wait ARQ Go Back N
Sliding Window
Selective reject
STOP AND WAIT ARQ

Stop and Wait ARQ is a form of stop and wait flow control extended to include retransmission of data in case of lost or damaged frames. The sending device keeps a copy of the last frame transmitted until it receives an acknowledgement for that frame. Keeping a copy allows the sender to retransmit lost or damaged frames until they are received correctly. Damaged frames:When a frame is discarded by the receiver to contain an error it returns. NAK frame & sender retransmitts the lost frame.
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Lost Data frame:-
The sender is equiped with the timer that starts every time the data frame is transmitted. If the frame never makes it to the receiver then the receiver can never Acknowledge it positively or negatively. The sending device waits for a acknowledgement or NAK frame until the timer goes off. It retransmitts the last data restarts its timer & waits for an acknowledgement.
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Lost acknowledgement frame
In this case the data frame has made it to the receiver & has been found to be either acceptable or not acceptable but the ACK or NAK frame returned by the receiver is lost in transit. This sending device waits until its timer goes off. Then retransmits the data frame. The receiver checks the number of the new data frame if the lost frame was a NAK the receiver accepts the new copy & returns the ACK. If the lost frame was ACK the receiver recognize the new copy as a duplicate acknowledges it receipt & then discards it & waits for next frame. Sliding Window ARQ Go Back n ARQ In Sliding Window Go back n ARQ method, if one frame is lost or damaged all the frames sent since the last frame acknowledged are retransmitted. Damaged frame:-
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The figure gives an example where 6 frames have been transmitted before an error is discovered in frame 3. In this case ACK 3 has been returned telling the sender that frames 0, 1, 2 all have been accepted. The ACK 3 is sent before the data 3 is arrived in the Fig. Data 3 is discovered to be damaged so a NAK 3 is sent immediately & frames 4, 5 are discarded as they come in. the sending devices retransmits all the three frames 3, 4 & 5 sent. Since the last Acknowledgement & the process continues. Lost data frame
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Sliding window protocols require that Data frame be transmitted sequentially. If one or more frames become lost in transmit the next frame to arrive at the receiver checks the identifying number on each frame discovers that one or more have been skipped & returns NAK. For the first missing frame the sending device then transmits the frame indicated by the NAK as well as any frame that it has transmitted after the lost frame. Lost ACK frame
The sender is not expecting to receive an ACK frame for every data frame it send. The sending device can send as many frames as the window allows before waiting for an acknowledgement. Once that unit is reached or sender has no more frames to send then it must wait. The sender is equiped with a timer that being counting whenever the window capacity is reached. If an acknowledgement has not been received within the time limit. The sender retransmits every frame transmitted since last ACK.
SELECTIVE REJECT ARQ

Selective reject ARQ only the specific damaged or lost frame is retransmitted if a frame is corrupted in transit a NAK is returned & the frame is resend out of sequence. The receiving device must be able to sort the frames it has & insert the retransmitted frame in to its proper places in the sequence. The receiving device must contain sorting logic to enable it to reorder frames received out of sequence. It must also be able to store frames received after NAK has been sent until the damaged frames has been replaced. The sending device must contain a searching mechanism that allows it to find & select only the requested frame for
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retransmission. A buffer in the receiver must keep all previous received frame on hold until all retransmission have been sorted & any duplicate frames have been identified & discarded Damaged frames
Figure shows a situation in which a damaged frame is received. Frame 0 & 1 are received but Acknowledged. Frame 2 arrives & is found to contain an error. So a NAK 2 is return. Unlike the receiver in Go back-n system. The receiver in a selective reject continuous to accept a new frame while waiting for an error to be corrected. The receiver accepts the data 3, 4 & 5 while waiting for a new copy of data 2. When the new data 2 arrives and ACK 5 is returned acknowledging the new data 2 & original frames 3, 4 & 5. Lost Frames If a frame is lost the next frame will arrive out of sequence when the receiver tries to record the existing frames to include it, it will discover the discrepency and return a NAK. Lost Acknowledgement Lost acknowledgement & NAK frames are treated by selective reject ARQ just as they are treated by Go back-n ARQ. When the sending device reaches the either the capacity of the window or the end of the transmission it sets a timer. If no acknowledgement arrives in the time alloted the sender transmits all the frames that remains unacknowledged. The receiver will recognize any duplication & discard them.
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DATA LINK PROTOCOL

Data link Protocols Asynchronous Eg : X Modem Y Modem Z Modem Character oriented Synchronous
Bitoriented Eg SDCL
Data Link protocols are a set of specifications used to implement the data link layer. Data link protocol can be divided into 2 groups 1) Asynchronous Protocols 2) Synchronous Protocols Asynchronous Protocols The protocols which support Asynchronous transmission are called Asynchronous Protocols. In Asynchronous transmission a data unit is transmitted with no timing co-ordination between sender & the receiver. A receiver does not need to know exactly when a data unit is sent it only needs to recognize the beginning & end of data units. Eg:- X MODEM Y MODEM Z MODEM Asynchronous Protocols are primarily used in Modems. Synchronous Protocols The protocols which support synchronous transmission are called Synchronous Protocols. In case of synchronous protocol timing is very important. Synchronous protocol can be divided into 2 classes. 1) Character-oriented protocol 2) Bit oriented protocol Character Oriented protocol Character Oriented protocol are also called as byte oriented protocols. The frame is interpreted as series of characters. Each character is composed of one byte. Bit Oriented Protocols In Bit oriented protocols the frame is interpreted as series of bits. Each bit or group of bits has meaning depending on their placements in the frame.
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Eg: SDLC [Synch Data Link Control Protocol], HDLC [high level datalink control protocol], LAP [link access procedures]
HDLC
HDLC is a bit oriented data link control protocol designed to support both half duplex & full duplex communication. One point-to-point & multipoint link HDLC defines three types of stations:1) primary station 2) secondary station 3) combined station Three Stations of HDLL
Primary - control of the link - frames command
Secondary - controlled by - primary - frames response
Combined
Primary Station (a) Primary has the control of the link. (b) Frames issued by primary are called commands (c) Primary sends commands to the secondary station Secondary Station (a) Secondary operates under the control of primary (b) Frames issued by secondary are called responses. Combined Station (a) Combined station combines the features of both Primary and secondary. (b) It is programmed to behave either as a primary or secondary depending on the direction of transmission.
HDLC SUPPORTS 3 LINK CONFIGURATION

1) Unbalanced Configuration
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An Unbalance configuration is also called as master slave configuration in one in which one device is primary & others are secondary unbalance configuration can be point-to-point if only 2 device are involved & multipoint with one primary controlling several secondary stations.
2) Symmetric Configuration
A Symmetric configuration is one in which each physical station on a link consists of 2 logical stations one a primary & other a secondary separate lines link the primary aspect of one physical station to the secondary aspect of another physical station.
univ_com_net\newtif\chp1 3) Balance Configuration
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A balance configuration is one in which both stations in a point-to-point topology are of combined type. The stations are linked by a single line that can be controlled by either stations. Modes of Communication A mode in HDLC is the relationship between 2 devices involved ion an exchange the mode describes who controls the link. The data transfer modes are:1) Normal response mode [NRM] (a) NRM is used with unbalance configuration. (b) Primary initiates data transfer to a secondary & the secondary can only transmit data in response to a command from primary. In this mode a secondary device must have permission from the primary device before transmitting. Once permission has been granted secondary may begin a response transmission of one or more frames containing data. 2) Asynchronous response mode [ARM] (a) ARM is used with unbalanced configuration. (b) The secondary may initiate transmission without permission from the primary whenever channel is ideal. (c) The primary still retains the responsibility of the line 3) Asynchronous balanced mode [BRM] (1) ABM is used with Balanced configuration either the combined station may initiate transmission without receiving permission from the other combine station.
univ_com_net\newtif\chp1 HDLC defines 3 types of frame (i) Information Frame (ii) Supervisory Frame (iii) Unnumbered Frame
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I frames are used to transport the user data & control information related to user data. S frames are used only to transport control information U frames are reserved for system management i.e. for manage the entire network.
Frame check sequence FCS 1) Each frame in HDLC may contain upto six fields. 2) A beginning flag field, an address field, an control, information field. 3) In multiple frame transmission is the ending flag at one frame is the beginning flag of the next field. Flag field:- 1) The flag is 8 bits of a fixed pattern it is made up of 6 ones enclosed in 2 zeros ie 0 111111 0 2) It identifies the beginning & end of frame & serves as a synchronization pattern for the receiver. 3) To guarantee that a flag does not appear anywhere else in the frames HDLC uses a processes called bit stuffing. 4) Every time a sender wants to transmit a bit sequence having more than 5 consecutive ones. 5) It inserts or stuffs one redundant zero after the 5th one.
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6) Its presents tells the receiver that the current sequence is not a flag. 7) Once the receiver has seen the stuffed zero, it drops the zero from the data & original bit stream is restored. 8) Thus bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra zero whenever there are 5 consecutive one in the data. 9) So that the receiver does not mistake the data for a flag. Address Field:- The address field contains the address of the secondary station ie either a originator or destination of the frame. If a primary station creates a frame then it contains to address & if secondary creates a frame it contain from address. Control Field:- The control field of a frame is used for extensively used for flow management infn. Information Field:- The information field contains the user data in an I frame & network management information in a U frame. FCS Field:- Frame Check sequence is the error detection field. It can contain a 2 byte or 4 byte CRC.
LAN ARCHITECTURE
A Lan is a data communication system that allows a number of independent devices to communicate directly with each other in a limited geographical area. LANs are dominated by four architecture 1) Ethernet 2) Token ring 3) Token Bus 4) FDDI [Fibre distributed Data Interface]
TOKEN RING
A LAN using ring topology & token passing access method. Token passing access method When the n/w is unoccupied it circulates a simple 3 byte token this token is passed from station to station in sequence until it encounters a station with data to send. When a station captures a token it sends one data frame at a time. When a station captures a token & begins to transmit there is no other token & hence other stations wishing to transmit must wait. When the data frame proceeds around the ring each intermediate station examines the destination address finds that frame is addressed to another station & sends it to its neighbour. The intended receive recognizes its own address copies the message checks for errors and changes the 4 bits in the last byte of the frame to indicate the address
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recognized the frame copied. The entire frame then continues to travel around the ring until it reaches the station that had sent it. The sender receives the frame & recognizes bits if they are set it known that the frame was received. If then discards the used data frame & realises the token back. Token passing mechanism
When the traffic is light the token will spend most of its time ideally circulating around the ring. Vocationally a station will capture it transmit the frame & release the token. However if the traffic is heavy there is a que at each station, as soon as a station finishes its transmission & releases the token, the next station downstream will see and remove the token. Each station has a priority code, as a frame passes by a station waiting to transmit may reserve the token by entering its priority code. A station with a higher priority may remove a lower priority reservation & replace it with its own. Among stations of equal priority the process is first come first serve. Token Bus 1) This uses a bus topology & token passing access method. 2) It is a physical bus that operates as a logical ring using tokens. 3) Physically the
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token is a linear cable into which the stations are attached by logically the stations are organized into a ring with each station knowing the address of the station to its left & right. 4) It has no commercial application in the data communication.
Multiplexing Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows simultaneously transmission of signals across single data link. In a Multiplexed system n number of devices can share the capacity of the link.
Four devices on the left direct their transmission streams to a MOX. Which combines them into a single stream, at the receiving end that stream is fed into a DEMUX which separates the stream back into its component transmission & directs them to their receiving devices. The word path refers to the physical link & the word channel refers to a portion of a path that carries transmission betn a given pair of devices. 1 path can have many number of channels signals are multiplexed using 3 basic techniques. 1) FDM [Frequency Division multiplexing] 2) TDM [Time Division multiplexing] 3) WDM [Wave Division multiplexing] FDM It is an antog technique that can be applied when a bandwidth of a link is greater than the combine bandwidth of the signals to be transmitted. Multiplexer
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In FDM signals generated by each sending device modulate at different carrier frequencies. This modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. In this figure we show telephone as i/p & o/p devices each telephone generates a signal of similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer these similar signals are modulated on to different carrier frequency f1, f2, f3, the resulted modulated signals are then combined into signal composite signal that is send out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it. Although 3 carrier frequency exist at the same time the bandwidth. The signals are modulated using either AM or FM modulation. The channels in the link must be separated by strips of unused bandwidth (guard bands) To prevent signal from overlapping. TDM In this type of multiplexing 2 or more channels are transmitted over the same link by allocating a different time slot or time interval for the transmission of each channel ie the channels take turns to use the link. TDM
Sunchronous
Asynchronour TDM statistical TDI
The multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all time whether or not a device has anything to transmit Eg:- time slot y is assigned to device 1 alone & cannot be used by another device. In synchronous TDM a frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots. Thus the number of slots. Thus the number of slots in a frame is equal to number of inputs. Synchronous TDM: Multiplexing process [DIAGRAM] Demultiplexing process [DIAGRAM]
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Asynchronous TDM In asynchronous TDM each slot in a frame is not dedicated to a fixed device each slot contains an index field which indicates the device ie asynchronous TDM adds the address to each slots. Thus number of slots in a frame need not be equal to number of input device. More than 1 slot in a frame can be allocated for a i/p device. Hence asynchronous TDM allows maximum utilization of the link. It allows a lower speed i/p lines to be multiplexed to a single high speed line. Asynchronous TDM: Multiplexing process Demultiplexing process
NETWORK LAYER
The main junction of the n/w layer is source-to-destination delivery of a packet across multiple n/w links. 1) Switching:- Switching refers to a temporary communication between physical links resulting in longer links for n/w transmission. A telephone conversation is an eg of a switched communication. Here 2 lines are temporarily joined into a single dedicated link for the duration of the conversation. In this case, each packet is sent by the same route to the destination. 2) Routing:- Routing means selecting a best path for sending a packet from one-pt-to-another when more than one path is available. In this case each packet may take a different route to the destination, where the packets are collected & reassembled into their original order.
SWITCHING NETWORKS
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Communication is typically achieved by transmitting data from source to the destination through a n/w of intermediate switching nodes. The switching nodes are not concerned with the content of data, rather their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move data from node to node until they reach their destination. These nodes are connected to each other in some topology by means of transmission links. A switching n/w contains a series of interconnected switching nodes or switches. A switch is a device capable of creating temporary comms betn 2 or more devices linked to the switch but not to each other. In the above eg. data from device A intended for device F are sent first to node 4. That may then be routed via node 5 & 6 or node 7 & 6 to the destination station E. Node to node links are usually multiplexed using FDM or TDM. The 2 main methods of switching are 1) Circuit Switching 2) Packet Switching 1) Circuit Switching Networks Communication via CKT switching implies that there is a dedicated path betn 2 stations which is a connected of physical links betn the switching nodes. On each physical link a logical communication channel is dedicated to the communication. Communication via CKT switching involves 3 phases 1) Circuit establishment:- Before data transfer, an end-to-end or statn-to statn communications must be established. 2) Data transfer:- After the commn is established the used of the CKT is exclusive or continuous for the duration of information exchange. 3) Circuit disconnect:- data transfer communication is terminated usually by one of the 2 stations. After disconnection the physical link between the nodes are ready for use by other connections. Disadvantage:1) Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a commn even if no data are been transferred. 2) A small delay occurs during the communication establishment phase. 3) In CKT switching, the commn provides for transmission at a constant data rate. Thus each of the connected devices must transmit & receive at the same data rate. This limits the utility of n/w in interconnecting a variety of host computer & terminals.
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Advantages 1) Delivery is guaranteed 2) Comparatively faster than packet switching Eg:- Public telep n/w, PBX, (private branch exchange) 2) Packet Switching Networks In packet switching n/w data are transmitted in short packets & the maximum length of the packet is established by the n/w. Each packet contains a portion of the users data plus some control infon Control infon is the infon that the n/w requires in order to be able to route the packets through the n/w & deliver it to the intended destination. At each node on the route, the packet is required, stored briefly & passed onto the next node. Disadvantage:Since the CKT is not dedicated a sudden surge of i/p traffic may overwhelm a router, exceeding its storage capacity & causing it to loss packets. Advantages:1) Rate conversion is possible i.e. 2 stations of different data rates can exchange packets 2) A single node to node link can be dynamically shared by many packets at the same time. Packet switching can be done by following 2 approaches. 1) Data gram approach 2) Virtual circuit switching approach 1) Data gram approach:In datagram approach each pkt is treated independently from one another. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagrams
Figure shows how the datagram approach can be used to deliver 4 pkts from station A to station D. here all 4 pkts belong to the same message but may go by different paths to reach their destination it is the
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responsibility of the transport layer to reorder the data gram before passing them to the final destination. If a packet is lost it is again upto the destination station to detect the lost pkt & figure out how to recover them.
2) Virtual Circuit switching approach The VCPS approach appears quit similar to circuit switching. But a preplanned route is established before any pkts are send.
Suppose A has one or more messages to be sent to E. it first sends a control pkt referred to as call request pkt to node 4 requesting a logical connection to E. N ode 4 then routes the request to node 5 then to node 6 which finally delivers the call request pkt to E. if E is prepared to accept the connection it sends a call accept pkt 6 5 4 A Station A & E may now exchange data over the root that has been established. Here each node on the pre-established root known were to direct each pkt and Hence no routing discussions are requested. One of the stations terminates the connections with a clear-request pkt. At each time each statn may have more than one virtual circuit to any other station & can also have Virtual circuits to more than one statn Virtual circuit path is not a dedicated path like circuit switching. A pkt is still buffered at each node queued for output. * Advantages of Virtual approach Over Data gram approach 1) Packets arrive in original order 2) Packets are transmitted more readily as no routing discussions are involved at each node * Advantage of Data gram over Virtual approach
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1) If a node fails all pkts that pass through that node are lost. But in the case of data gram approach delivery may find an alternate route that by pass thate note. 2) Call set up face is avoided hence for fewer pkts data gram approach is quicker.
ROUTING
Routing means selecting the best path from the source to the destination for residing a pkt. In Routing the term best path can mean the combination of many factors including shortest, cheapest, fastest, most reliable & soon. A router uses a certain routing algorithm to choose the optimum path for sending pkts.
TYPES OF ROUTING
1) Static or Fixed routing:- In this method the routing algorithm do not base their routing decessions on measurements or current traffic and topology. Instead the choice of the route to be used is computed in advance before transmitting the pkts & all the pkts for that destination are sent along one route. 2) Adaptive Routing:- In this method the routing algorithm on the other hand attempt to change their routing decession to reflect changes in topology & the current traffic. In this a central controller is used to find the best path depending on the conjection in the n/w. The central controller collects status data from each switch in the n/w to determine the preferred routes. If a direct link exists betn the source & the destination it is attempted first else an alternate route is selected. 3) Alternate Routing:- In alternate routing all the possible routes to be used betn source & destination is predefined. It is the responsibility of the originating switch to select the appropriate route for each call. Each switch is given a set of preplanned routes for each destination in order of preference. Eg:-
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As shown in the figure the originating switch X has 4 possible routes to destination switch y. The direct route a will always tried first. If this is unavailable then the other routes will be tried in a particular order. Flooding:- 1) Saturation of a n/w with packets is called flooding. 2) In this each router sends its information to every other router on the inter network. 3) A router sends its information to its immediate neighbours. 4) Each neighbour then sends the packet to all its neighbours & so on. Ie Each node that receives the packet sends copies to all its neighbour. 5) Thus every router has as many copies of the same information as the number of neighbour. Congestion Control The objective of the conjection control is to maintain the number of pkts within the n/w below the level at which performance falls of dramatically. On each link pkts arrives & depart. Consider there are 2 buffers at each link one to accept arriving pkts & one to hold pkts that are waiting to depart. When the pkts arrive they are started in the input buffer of the corresponding link. The node examines each incoming pkt to make a routing decession & then moves the pkt to the appropriate o/p buffer. Packets queued up for o/p are transmitted as rapidly as possible. Now if pkts arrive too fast for the node to process them or faster than pkts can be cleared from the outgoing buffers then eventually pkts will arrive for which no memory is available. When such a saturation point is reached the simplest way is to discard any incoming pkt for which there is no available buffer space. The other alternative for the node is to exercise some sort of flow control over its neighbours so that traffic flow remains manageable. When the buffers are full it must discard pkts thus the source stations must retransmit the discarded pkts in addition to the new pkt. Even successful deliver packet may be retransmitted because it takes so long to acknowledge them. The objective of all conjection control technique is to limit que lengths at the nodes so as to avoid collapse.
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The following examples can be tried to keep the conjection level low. 1) Send a control pkt from conjection node to some or all source nodes to stop or low the rate of transmission from sources & hence limit the total number of pkts in the network. 2) Allow pkt switching nodes to add conjection information to the pkts as they go by. Introduction to networking & Internetworking devices:Two or more devices connected for the purpose of sharing data on resources can form a n/w. When 2 or more separate n/w are connected for exchanging data or resources they become an inter network. Connecting Devices
Networking devices
Internetworking devices Bridges Router Gateway
Repeaters
1) Repeater:- A Repeater is an electronic device that operates only on the physical layer of the OSI model. Signals that carry infon within a n/w can travel a fixed distance before atteniation endangers or causes the loss of data. A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes too weak or corrupted, it regenerates the original bit pattern & puts the refreshed copy back on the link. A repeater is a regenerator & not an amplifier ie when it receives weak signal it creates a copy bit for bit at original strength. The location of a repeater in a link is vital. It must be placed so that a signal reaches it before any noise changes the meaning of any of its bits.
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Bridge:Bridge is an intermediate system or device used to connect 2 LANs ie it can divide a large n/w into smaller segments. They are used for extending the range of LAN coverage.
Bridges operate in both the physical & data link layers of OSI model & hence it can access the physical address of all station connected to it. When a frame enters a bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal, but checks the address of the destination & forwards the new coy to the segment to which the address belongs. It does so by comparing the address with a table of all the stations on both segments.
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A packet from Station A addressed to station D arrives at the bridge. Since statn A is on the same segment as statn B the packet is block from crossing in to the low segment. If pkt generated by statn A intended for statn G the bridge allows the packet to cross & relays it to the lower segments where it is by statn G. Router:-
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1) Routers work at physical Data link & N/W layers of OSI. 2) They have access to the n/w address & contains s/w that enable them to determine which of the several possible paths betn those addresses is best for particular transmissions. 3) Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected n/ws 4) A packet sent from a station on one n/w to a station on a neighbouring n/w goes 1st to jointly held router which switches it over to the destination n/w. 5) If there is no one router connected to both the sending & receiving n/w 6) The sending router transfers the packet across the one of its connected n/ws to the next router in the direction of the ultimate destination. 7) That router forwards the pkt to the next router on the path & soon until the destination is reached. Gateways:1) A Gateway is a protocol convertor. 2) Router transfers, accepts & relays packets only across the networks using similar protocols. 3) A Gateway on the other hand can accept a packet forwarded for one protocol & convert it to a packet format for another protocol before forwarding it. 4) A gateway is generally a s/w installed within a router. 5) The Gateway understands the protocol used by each n/w linked into a router & usable to translate from one to another 6) That is it can adjust the data rate, size format of the packet etc. 7) A Gateway potentially operates in all the 7 layer of the OSI.
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MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. In a multiplexed system n number of devices can share the capacity of the link.
Four devices on the left direct their transmission streams to be MUX, which combines them into a single stream. At the receiving end that stream is fed into a DEMUX which seperates the stream back into its component transmission & directs them to their receiving devices. The word path refers to the physical link & the word channel refers to a portion of a path that carries transmission between a given pair of devices. One path can have many number of channels. Signals are multiplexed using 3 basic techniques. 1) FDM [Frequency Division Multiplexing] 2) TDM [Time Division Multiplexing] 3) WDM [Wave Division Multiplexing] 1) FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
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] In FDM signals generated by each sending device modulate at different carrier frequencies. This modulated signals are then combines into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. In this fig we show telephone as i/p & o/p devices. Each telephone generates a signal of similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer these similar signals are modulated on to different carrier carrier frequency F1, F2, F3. The Resulted modulated signal are then combines into single composite signal that is send out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it. All three carrier frequencies exist at the sometime within the bandwidth. The signals are modulated using either AM or FM modulation. The channels in the link must be seperated by stripes of unused bandwidth (Guard bands) to prevent signals from overlapping.
DEMULTIPLEXING:
The demultiplexing uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signals into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that seperates tem from their carrier & passes them to the waiting receivers
IDM:
In Time Division multiplexing two or more channels are transmitted for the transmission of each channel the channels take turns to use the link (i) Synchronous TDM:
The multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all time wheither or not a device has anything to Transmit.
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e.g.:- Time slot is assigned to device 1 alone & cannot be used by another device. In synchronous TDM a frame consists of one complete cycle of Time slots. Thus no of slots in a frame is equal to number of inputs. Synchronous TDM : Multiplexing Process
DEMULTIPLEXING PROCESS :
Asynchronous TDM: In Asynchronous TDM each slot in a frame is not dedicated to a fixed device. Each slot contains an index field which indicates the device i.e. Asynchronous TDM adds the address to each slots. Thus number of slots in a frame need not be equal to number of input device. More than 1 slot in a frame can be allocated for a i/p device. Hence Asynchronous TDM allows maximum utilization of the link. It allows a lower speed i/p lines to be multiplexed to a single high sped line. eg:- Multiplexing Process
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Demultiplexing Process
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ROUTING
Routing means selecting the best Path from the source to destination for sending a Packet in Routing the term best Path can mean the combination of many factors including shortest, cheapest, fastest, most reliable & so on. A router uses a certain routing algorithm to choose the optimum path for sending packets.
TYPES OF ROUTING
1) Static or Fixed Routing:In this method the routing algorithm do not base their routing decessions on measurements or current traffic & topology. Instead the choice of the route to be used is computed in advance before transmitting the packets & all the packets for that destination are sent along one route. 2) Adaptive Routing:In this method the routing algorithm on the other hand attempt to change their routing decession to reflect changes in topology & the
ADVANTAGES OF DATAGRAM APPROACH OVER VIRTUAL APPROACH:-
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1) In virtual Approach if a node fails all Pkts that pass through that node are lost. But in case of Datagram Approach delivery may find an alternate route that by-pass that node. 2) Call Setup Phase is avoided, hence for fewer Pkts datagram approach is quicker. Current traffic. In this a central controller is used to find the best path depending on the congestion in the Network. The central controller collects status data from each switch in the n/w to determine the prefered routes. If a direct link exists between the source & the destination it is attempted first, else an alternate route is selected. 3) Alternate Routing:In alternate routing all the possible routes to be used between source & destination is predefined. It is the responsibility of the originating switch to select the appropriate route for each all. Each switch is given a set of preplanned routes for each destination in order or preference. Eg: [DIAGRAM] Route a: X Y Route b: X J Y Route c: X K Y Route d: X I J Y As shown in the fig the originating switch X has 4 possible routes to destination switch Y. The direct Route a will always tried first. If this is unavailable then the other routes will be tried in a particular order. Flooding:- Saturation of a n/w with packets is call Flooding. Each Router sends its information to every other Router on the intern network. A Router sends its information to its immediate neighbours. Each neighbour then sends the packets to all its neighbours & so on i.e. each node that receives the packet sends copies to all its neighbour. Thus every router has as many copies of the same information as the number of neighbours.
NETWORK LAYER
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The main function of the network layer is source to destination delivery of packet across multiple network links. The two method by which a packet can travel from source to destination are 1) Switching 2) Routing 1) Switching :- Switching refers to a temporary connections between Physical links resulting in longer Links for N/W transmission. A telephone conversation is an eg of a switched communication. Here 2 lines are temporarily Joined into a single dedicated link for the duration of the conversation. In this case, each packet is sent by the same route to the destination. 2) Routing :- Routing means selecting a best Path for sending a packet from one pt to another. When more than one path is available. In this case each packet may take a different roue to the destination, where the packets are collected & reassembled into their original order.
SWITCHING NETWORKS
[DIAGRAM] Communication is typically achieved by transmitting data from source to the destination through a n/w of intermediate switching nodes. The switching nodes are not concerned with the content of data, rather their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move data from node to node until they reach their destination. These nodes are connected to each other in same topology by 2)Data Transfer:- After the connection is established, the use of the circuit is exclusive or continuous for the duration of the information exchange. 3) Circuit Disconnect:- After data transfer, connection is terminated usually by one of the two stations. After disconnection the physical link between the nodes are ready for use by other connections. Advantages: 1) Delivery is Guaranteed 2) Comparatively Faster than packet switching eg :- Public telephone n/w, PBX
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Disadvantages: 1) Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a communication even if no data are been transferred. 2) A small delay occurs during the connection establishment phase. 3) In circuit switching, the communication provides for transmission at a constant data rate. Thus each of the connected means of transmission links. A switching n/w contains a series of interconnected switching nodes or switches. A switch is a device capable of creating temporary connection between two or more devices linked to the switch but not to each other. In the above eg data from device A intended for device F are sent first to node 4. That may then be routed via node 5 & 6 or node 7 & 6 to the destination station F. Node to Node links are usually multiplexed using FDM or TDM. The two main methods of switching are i) Circuit Switching ii) Packet Switching i) Circuit Switching Networks Circuit switching creates a direct Physical connection between two devices such as phones or computers. Communication via circuit switching involves three phases. 1) Circuit Establishment :- Before data transfer, an end-to-end or station-to-station connection must be established device must transmit & receive at the same data rate. This limits the utility of n/w in inter connecting a variety of host computers or terminals.
2) Packet Switching Networks : In Packet Switching n/ws, data are transmitted in short packets & the maximum length of the packet is established by the n/w. Each packet contains a portion of the users data plus some control information. Control information is the information that the n/w requires in order to be able to route the packets through the n/w & deliver it to the intended destination. At each node, the packet is required to be stored briefly & passed onto the next node. Disadvantage:Since the ckt is not dedicated a sudden surge of i/p traffic may over whelm a router, exceeding its storage capacity & causing it to lose packets.
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Advantages:1) Rate conversion is possible i.e. 2 stations of different data rates can exchange packets. 2) A single node to node link can be dynamically shared by many packets at the same time.
PACKET SWITCHING CAN BE DONE BY FOLLOWING TWO APPROACHES

1) Datagram Approach 2) Virtual-circuit Switching Approach. 1) Datagram Approach:In datagram approach each packet is treated independently from one another. Packet in this technology are reffered to as datagrams. [DIAGRAM] Figure shoes how the datagram approach can be used to deliver 4 packets from station A to station D. Here all 4 Pkts belong to the same message, but may go by different paths to reach their destination. It is the responsibility of the transport layer is re-order the datagram before passing them to the final destination. If a packet is lost it is again upto the destination station to detect the lost packet & figure out how to recover them. 2) Virtual Circuit Switching Approach:The Virtual Circuit Switching Approach appears quite similar to circuit switching. But a preplanned route is established before any Pkts are send. [DIAGRAM] Suppose A has one or more messages to be sent to E, it first sends a control Pkt reffered to as call request Pkt to node 4 requesting a logical connection to E. Node 4 then router the request to node 5, ten to node 6 which finally delivers the call request Pkt to E. If E is prepared to accept the connection it sends a call accept Pkt to 6 5 4 A. Station A & E may now exchange data over the root that has been established. Here each node on the pre-established root knows were to direct each Pkt & hence no routing discussion are required. One of the stations terminates the connections with a clear-request Pkt. At each time each station may have more than one virtual circuit to any other station & can also have
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virtual circuits to more than one stations virtual circuit path is not a dedicated path like circuit switching. Advantages of virtual approach over Datagram approach :1) Packets arrive in original order. 2) Packets are transmitted more rapidly as no routing discussion are involved at each node.
CONGESTION CONTROL
Congestion in a network may occur if users send data into the network at a rate greater than that allowed by network resources. For eg, Congestion may occur because the switches in a network have a limited buffer size to store arrived packets before processing. The objective of the congestion control is to maintain the number of packets with in the network below the level at which performance falls off drastically. Consider there are 2 buffers at each link one to accept arriving packets & one to hold Pkts that are waiting to depart. When the Pkts arrive they are stored in the input buffer for the corresponding link. The node examines each incoming Pkt to make a routing decision & then moves the Pkts to the appropriate o/p buffer. Packets queued up for o/p are transmitted as rapidly as possible. Now if the Packets arriving at a node are more than the outgoing packets then their will be no memory available for new packets. When such a saturation point is reached the simplest way is to discard any incoming packets for which there is no available buffer space. The other alternative for the node is to exercise some sort of flow control over its neighbours, so that the traffic flow remains. Manageable. When the buffers are full, it must discard packets thus the source stations must retransmit the discarded packets in addition to the new packets. Even successfully delivered packet may be retransmitted because it takes so long to acknowledge them. The objective of all congestion control technique is to limit que lengths at the nodes so as to avoid collapse.
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10
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a set of rules or procedures that govern the exchange of messages in a internetwork TCP/IP was originally developed as a protocol for networks that wanted to be connected to the ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network). ARPANET is now known as internet. TCP/IP Protocol suite is 5 layer Protocol suite whose bottom 4 layers match OSI model closely.
TCP/IP & OSI MODEL
The Highest level in the Application layer corresponds to OSI 3 layers i..e. Session, Presentation and application layer of the OSI model.
PHYSICAL & DATALINK LAYERS
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In Physical & Datalink layers the TCP/IP does not define any specific Protocol. It supports all the Standard Protocols. Network Layer:The N/W layer or internet layer supports internet protocol [IP]. The IP in turn contains 4 supporting Protocol ARP, RARP, IGMP & ICMP IP is unreliable & connectionless datagram protocol it provides no error checking or trucking. IP transports data in packets called Datagram, each of which is transported seperately Datagrams can travel along different routes & can arrive out of sequence or can be duplicated. IP does not keep track of the routes & has no facility for recording the datagrams once they arrive at their destination. ARP : Address Resolution Protocol ARP is used to associate an IP address with the Physical address. On a typical Physical N/W such as LAN, each device on the link is identified by a Physical address of a station, usually it is printed on the Network Interface card. RARP : Reverse Address Resolution Protocol RARP allows a host to discover its internet address when it knows only its Physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to the N/W for the 1st time. ICMP : Internet Control Message Protocol ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts & gateway to send notification of datagrams problems back to the sender. It sends control & error reporting messages. IGMP : Internet Group Message Protocol IGMP is used to Facilitate the simultaneous transmission of message to a group of recipients. TransPort Layer TransPort layer is represented n TCP/IP by 2 protocols i.e. TCP & UDP. The IP is a host-to-host Protocol. Meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to other. UDP & TCT are transport layer protocol responsible for delivery of message from a process i.e. a running program to another process. UDP : User Datagram Protocol It is a unreliable & Connectionless Protocol. UDP communication is form Port-to-Port or Process-to-Process. The UDP packet is known as user Datagram. TCP : Transmission control
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Protocol TCP is a reliable & connection oriented Protocol. TCP communication is also port-to-port or process-to-process. The packet is called as segment in case of TCP. Domain Name System (DNS) TCP/IP Protocols use the IP Address, which uniquely identifies the \ connection of a host to the Internet. However, People prefer to use names instead of addresses. Therefore, we need a system that can map a name to an address & conversely an address to a name. In TCP/IP, this is the Domain Name System (DNS). DNS in the Internet DNS is a protocol that can be used in different platforms. In the internet, the domain name space (tree) is divided into 3 different sections: (i) Generic Domains (ii) Country Domains (iii) Inverse Domains
Generic Domains:- The generic domains define registered hosts according to their generic behaviour. Each node in the tree defines a domain, which is an index to the domain name space data base.
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Country Domains:- The Country Domains section follows the same formed as the generic domains but uses two-character country abbreviations (eg us for United States) in place of 3 character organizational abbreviations. 2nd level can be organizational or they cab be more specific, national designation
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Fig shows the country domain section. The address anza. cup. ca. us can be translated to De Anza college in cupertino in California in the United States. Inverse Domain The inverse domain is used to map an address to a name. This may happen. For example, when a server has received a request from a client to do a task. Whereas the server has a file that contains a lists of authorized clients, the server lists only the IP address of the client (extracted from the received IP Packet). To determine if the client is on the authorized list, it can s end a query to the DNS server & ask for a mapping of address to name
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BRIDGES
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND INTERNETWORKING DEVICES
Two or more devices connected for the purpose of sharing data or resources can form a network.
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When two or more separate network are connected for exchanging data or resources they become an internetwork (or internet). [DIAGRAM]
REPEATER :A repeater is an electronic device that operates only on the Physical layer of the OSI Model. Signals that carry information with in a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation endangers or causes the loss of data. A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes too weak or corrupted. It regenerates the original bit pattern & puts the refreshed copy back on the link. A repeater is a regenerator & not an amplifier i.e. when it receives weak signal it creates a copy bit for bit at original strength. The location of a repeater in a link is vital. It must be place so that a signal reaches it before any noise changes, the meaning of any of its bits. [DIAGRAM] Bride is an intermediate system or device used to connect 2 LANs i.e. it can divide a large n/w into smaller segments. They are used for extending the range of LAN coverage. [DIAGRAM] Bridges operate in both Physical & datalink layers of OSI model & hence it can access the Physical address of all station connected to it. When a frame enters a bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal, but checks the address of the destination & forwards the new copy to the segment to which the address belongs. It does so by comparing the address with a table of all the stations on both segments. When it finds a match, it discovers to which segments the station belongs & relays the packet only to that segment. Unlike repeaters, bridges contain logic that allows them to keep the traffic for each segment separate. In this way, they filter traffic that makes them useful for controlling congestion. Routers [DIAGRAM]
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ROUTER IN AN INTERNET
Routers work at Physical, datalink & Network layers of OSI Model. They have access to the n/w address & contains software that enable them to determine which of the several possible paths between those addresses is best for particular transmission. Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected networks. A packet sent from a station on one n/w to a station on a neighbouring n/w goes 1st to Jointly held router which switches it over to the destination n/w. If there is no, 1 router connected to both sending & receiving n/ws, the sending router transfers the packet across one of its connected networks to the next router in the direction of the ultimate destination. That router forwards the packet to the next router on the path & soon, until the destination is reached.
GATEWAYS :A Gateway is protocol convertor. Packets any across the networks using similar protocols. A Gateway on other hand can accept a packet forwarded for one protocol & convert it to a packet format for another protocol is generally a software installed within a router. The Gateway is generally a software installed within a router. The Gateway understands the protocol used by each network linked into a router & is therefore able to translate from one to another. That is it can adjust the data rate, size, format of the packet etc. A Gateway potentially operates is all the 7 layers of the OSI model.
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INTRODUCTION TO OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM0 is the cell oriented switching, high performance & Multiplexing technology that uses fixed length packets to carry different types of traffic. In ATM N/W all information is formatted into fixed length cells consisting of Header, Data & Trailor H Data T
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H Header, T Trailor Header consists of source ID & Destination ID. Trailor consists of error control information. As packets of different sizes & formats reach the cell network from a tributary network, they are split into multiple small data units of equal length & loaded into cells. The cells are ten multiplexed with other cells & routed through the cell network. Because each cell is of same size & all are small, the problems associated with multiplexing different sized packets are avoided. ATM uses asynchronous time-division Multiplexing that is why it is called Asynchronous Transfer Mode to multiplex cells coming from different channels. It uses fixed size slots. ATM multiplexers fill a slot with a cell from any input channel that has a cell, the slot is empty if none of the channels has a cell to send.
ATM MULTIPLEXING.
Fig. shows how cells from three inputs are multiplexed. At the first tick of a clock, channel 2 has no cell (empty i/p slot), so the MUX fills the slot with a cell from the third channel. When all the cells from all the channels are multiplexed, the o/p slots are empty. VSAT: Very small Aperture Terminal, an earth bound station used in satellite communications of data, voice & video signals, excluding broadcast television. A VSAT consists of two parts, a transceiver that is placed outdoors in direct line of sight to the satellite & a device that is placed indoor to interface the transceiver with the end users, communication devices such as PC. The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder in sky. The satellite sends or receives signals from a ground station computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user is inter connected with the hub station via the satellite forming a star topology. The hub controls the entire operation of the N/W. For one end user to communicate with other each transmission has to go first to the hub
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station that then retransmits it via the satellite to the other end users VSAT. VSAT can handle upto 56kbps. VSAT gives full access to a N/W which may comprise hundreds or even thousands of nodes. VSAT system use satellite transponders operating at C-band (uplink 6GHZ & downlink 4GH) or ISDN:Integrated services Digital Network an international communication standards for sending voice, Video & data over digital telephone lines or normal telephone wires. ISDN supports data transfer rate at 64Kbps. Original version of ISDN employs base band transmission. Another version called B-ISDN use broadband transmission & is able to support transmission rate of 1.5mbps. ISDN involves the digitization of the telephone N/W, which permits voice, data, text, graphics, music, video & other source material to be transmitted over existing telephone wire.
ISDN
To allow flexibility, digital pipes between customers & ISDN office C subscriber loops are organised in to multiple channels of different size. The ISDN std defines three channel type, each with a different transmission rate.
USER INTERFACES:
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Digital Subscriber loops are of two types (i) Basic Rate Interface (BRI) & (ii) Primary Rate Interface (PRI). Both include one D channel & some number of either B & H channel. BRI specifies Digital Pipe containing two B channels & one 16kbps D channel. BRI is designed to meet residential & small office customer. PRI: Primary Rule Interface Specifies a digital pipe with 23 B channels & one 64kbps D channel.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPING:-
In the ISDN std, the devices that enable, users to access the services of the BRI or PRI are described by their functional duties & collected in functional grouping. Functional Groupings used at the subscribers Premises include N/W terminations (type 1 & type 2), terminal Equipment (type 1 & type 2) & terminal Adapters. NT1:- The NT1 device controls the Physical & electrical termination of the ISDN at the users premises & connects the users internal system to the digital subscriber loop. These functions are comparable to those defined for the OSI physical layer. NT2:- NT2 device performs functions at the physical, datalink & N/W layer of the OSI model. NT2 provide Multiplexing (layer 1), Flow control (Layer 2) & packetizing (Layer 3). An NT2 provide intermediate signal. Processing between the data generating device & an NT1. (LAN & PBX can function as NT2). TE1:- Terminal equipment 1 is used by the ISDN std to mean the same thing as DTE in other protocol. It refers to digital subscriber equipment. TE1 is any device that supports ISDN std eg:- Digital Telephone TE2:- TE2 equipment is any non-ISDN device such as workstation, host computer or regular telephone. TE2 device are not immediately compatible with an ISDN N/W but can be used with the help of another device called Terminal Adapter. TA:- Terminal Adapter converts informan received in Non-ISDN format from TE2 into a Format Capable of being carried by the ISDN. Reference points:- The term reference point refers to the label used to identify individual interfaces between 2 elements of an ISDN installation.
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Reference point R defines the connection between TE2 & a TA. Reference point S defines the connection between TE1 or TA & NT1 or NT2. Reference pt I defines the interface between an NT2 & NT1. Finally R pt U defines the interface between an NT1 & ISDN office.
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X.25
X.25 is a packet-switching wide area network developed by ITU-T in 1976; since then it has undergone several revisions. According to the formal definition given in the ITU-T standard, X.25 is an interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating, equipment (DCE) for terminal operation in the packet mode on public data networks. Figure 17.1 gives a conceptual overview of X.25. Although X.25 is an end-to-end protocol, the actual movement of packets through the network is invisible to the user. The user sees the network as a cloud through which each packet passes on its way to the receiving DTE.
Figure 17.1 X.25 X.25 defines how a packet-mode terminal can be connected to a packet network for the exchange of data. It describes the procedures necessary for establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections. It also describes a set of services, called facilities, to provide functions such as reverse change, call direct, and delay control.
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X.25 is what is known as a subscriber network interface (SNI) protocol. It defines how the users DTE communicates with the network and how packets are sent over that network using DCEs. It uses a virtual circuit approach to packet switching (SVC and PVC) and uses asynchronous (statistical) TDM to multiplex packets.
X.25 LAYERS
The X.25 protocol specifies three layers: the physical layer, the frame layer, and the packet layer. These layers define functions at the physical, data link, and network layers of the OSI model. Figure 17.2 shows the relationship between the X.25 layers and the OSI layers.
Figure 17.2 X.25 layers in relation to the OSI layers
PHYSICAL LAYER
At the physical layer, X.25 specifies a protocol called X.21 (or X.21 bis), which has been specifically defined for X.25 by the ITU-T. X.21, however, is similar enough to other physical layer protocols, such as EIA232, that X.25 is able to support them as well. (See Chapter 6 for a discussion of these interface protocols.)
FRAME LAYER
At the frame layer, X.25 provides data link controls using a bit-oriented protocol called link access procedure, balanced (LAPB), which is a subset of HDLC. (see Chapter 11). Figure 17.3 shows the general format of the LAPB packet.
Figure 17.3 Format of a frame
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The flag, address, control, and FCS fields are exactly the same as we described ub Chapter 11. However, because the communication here is point-to-point and in asynchronous balanced mode, the only two addresses are 00000001 (for a command issued by a DTE and the response to this command) and 00000011 (for a command issued by a DCE and the response to this command). Figure 17.4 shows how addresses are used in the frame (data link) layer.
Figure 17.4 Addressing at the frame layer
THREE CATEGORIES OF FRAMES

As discussed in Chapter 11, HDLC (and its derivation, LAPB) has three categories of frames: I-frames, S-frames, and U-frames.
I-Frames I-frames are used to encapsulate PLP packets from the network layer. S-Frames S-frames are for flow and error control in the frame layer. U-Frames U-frames are used to set up and disconnect the links between a DTE and a DCE. The three packets most frequently used by LAPB in this category are SABM (or ESABM if extended address mode is used), UA, and DISC (see Chapter 11 for a description of these packets). Frame Layer Phases In the frame layer, communication between a DTE and a DCE involves three phases: link setup, packet transfer, and link disconnect (see Figure 17.5).
Link Setup The link between DTE and DCE must be set up before packets from the packet layer can be transferred. Either the DTE or the DCE can set up the link by sending an SABM (set asynchronous balanced mode) frame; the responding party sends a UA (unnumbered acknowledgment) frame to show that the link is actually set.
Transferring Data
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After the link has been established, the two parties can send and receive network layer packets (data and control) using I-frames and S-frames.
Figure 17.5 Three phases of the frame layer
Link Disconnect When the network layer no longer needs the link, one of the parties can issue a disconnect (DISC) frame to request disconnection. The other party can answer with a UA frame. Packet layer
The network layer in X.25 is called the packet layer protocol (PLP). This layer is responsible for establishing the connection, transferring the data, and terminating the connection. In addition, it is responsible for creating the virtual circuits and negotiating network services between two DTEs. While the frame layer is responsible for making a connection between a DTE and a DCE, the packet layer is responsible for making a connection between two DTE (end-to-end connection). Note that X.25 uses flow and error control at two levels (frame layer and packet layer). Flow and error control between a DTE and a DCE (link) are under the jurisdiction of the frame layer. End-to-end flow and error control between two DTEs (end-to-end) are under the jurisdiction of the packet layer. Figure 17.6 shows the difference between the frame layer and the packet layer domains of responsibility.
Virtual Circuits
The X.25 protocol is a packet-switched virtual circuit network. Note that the virtual circuits in X.25 are created at the network layer (not the data link layer as in some other wide area networks such as Frame Relay and ATM. This means that a physical
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connection established between a DTE and DCE can carry several virtual circuits at the network layer with each circuit responsible for carrying either data or control information, a concept called in-band signaling. Figure 17.7 shows an X.25 network in which three virtual circuits have been created between DTE A and three other DTEs.
Figure 17.6 Frame layer and packet layer domains
Figure Virtual circuits in X.25 Virtual Circuit Identifiers Each virtual circuit in X.25 should be identified for use by the packets. The virtual circuit identifier in X.25 is called the logical channel number (LCN). When a virtual circuit is established between two DTEs, there is always a pair of LCNs: one defining the virtual circuit between the local DTE and the local DCE and the other one between the remote DCE and the remote DTE. The reason for having two different LCNs is to make the LCN domain local. This allows the set of LCNs for each local connection to be small and consequently the LCN field to be short. A global LCN would require a larger set of LCNs and consequently a longer LCN field. The local LCN allows the same set of LCNs to be used by two different pairs of DTE-DCE links without confusion. Figure 17.8 shows the LCNs in an X.25 network.
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Figure 17.8 LCNs in X.25
X.25 uses both permanent and switched virtual circuits (PVCs and SVCs). PVCs are established by the X.25 network providers. They are similar to the leased lie in telephone networks. The LCNs are permanently assigned by the network provider.
SVCs are established at each session. The network layer uses a control packet to set up a connection. After the connection is established, both DTE-DCE links are assigned an LCN. After the data transfer, the virtual circuit is disconnected and the LCNs are no longer valid. Note that the virtual circuit establishment and release at the network layer are different from link setup and disconnect at the frame layer. In a typical situation, the following five events occur:
A link is set up between the local DTE and DCE and also between the remote DTE and DCE. A virtual circuit is established between the local DTE and the remote DTE. Data are transferred between the two DTEs. The virtual circuit is released. The link is disconnected.
LCN Assignment X.25 allows up to 4096 (2 ) LCNs. Figure 17.9 shows how these LCNs are assigned. The one-way LCNs are used for simplex communication; the two-way LCNs are used for duplex communication. PLP Packets The general format of a PLP packet, shown in Figure 17.10, has three or four bytes of header and an optional information field.
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Figure 17.9 LCN assignment
Figure 17.10 PLP packet format
The fields in the header are as follows:

General format identifier (GFI). The general format identifier (GFI) is a fourbit field. The first bit, called the Q (qualifier) bit, defines the source of control information: 0 for PLP, 1 for other high-level protocols. The D (delivery) bit, defines which device should acknowledge the packet: 0 for the local DCE, 1 for the remote DTE. The last two bits of GFI indicate the size of the sequence number fields. If these bits are 01, the sequence numbers are only 3 bitsmodulo 8 (0 to 7). If these bits are 10, the sequence numbers are 7 bitsmodulo 128 (0 to 127). Logical Channel Number (LCN). The logical channel number (LCN) is a 12-bit field that identifies the virtual circuit chosen for a given transmission. The protocol originally defined a LGCN (logical group channel number) of 4 bits and an LCN (logical channel number) of 8 bits to give a sense of hierarchy to the virtual circuit identifier, but today, the combination is normally referred to as LCN. Packet Type Identifier (PTI). The packet type identifier (PTI) defines the type of packet. The content of this field is different for each packet. We will discuss them in the next section.
TWO CATEGORIES OF PACKETS

Packets at the PLP level can be divided into two broad categories: data packets and control packets. The control packets, in addition, have two formats: one used for RR, RNR, and REJ packets and another for the remaining packets (see Figure 17.11).
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Figure 17.11 categories of PLP packets Data Packets Data packets are used to transmit user data. Figure 17.12 shows the structure of a data packet. The general format is simple: a header and a user data field. The header, however, is complex and requires discussion here. There are two formats for information packets: short and long. The PTI field in the data packet consists of four sections. P(S) and P(R) carry the packet sequence numbers for flow and error control. P(S) stands for packet send and indicates the sequence number of the packet expected by the receiver. This field is used to piggyback acknowledgments to data packets when both parties have data to send. In the short header, both the P(S) and P(R) fields are three bits long (sequence numbers from 0 to 7). In the long header, each field contains seven bits (sequence numbers from 0 to 127). The M (more) bit is used to define a set of packets belonging to the same unit. This bit is set to 1 if there are more packets in the unit (for example, a message); it is set to 0 if the packet is the last one. Data packets are differentiated from control packets by a 0 in the least significant bit in the third byte.
Figure 17.12 Data packets in the PLP layer
RR, RNR, AND REJ PACKETS

RR (receive ready), RNR (receive not ready), and REJ (reject) packets consists of just a header with the two least significant bits in the third byte set to 01. Figure 17.13 shows the general format of the packets. The header is essentially the same as the data packets with only one difference; because these packets are used solely for flow and error control, they do not carry data and therefore do not have a P(S) field. Instead, they contain a new field, the packet type field, which carries a code that describes the purpose of the packet.
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Figure 17.13 RR, RNR, and REJ packets
These packets can be one of three types: receive ready (RR), receive not ready (RNR), and reject (REJ). They are described as follows:
RR (000). Receive ready (RR) means that the device (DTE or DCE) is ready to receive more packets. It also acknowledges the receipt of a data packet by indicating the number of the next packet expected in the P(R) field. RNR (001). Receive not ready (RNR) means that the device cannot accept packets at this time. The other party must stop sending packets as soon as this packet is received.
REJ (010). Reject (REJ) means that there was an error in the packet identified by the P(R) field. The other party must resend all packets including and following the packet indicated (go-back-n error recovery). Other Control Packets The other types of control packets may carry information in addition to the header. However, the information is only, for control and does not contain user data. There is only one header size in this category because these packets do not carry sequence numbers. In these packets the two least significant bits in the third byte are set to 11. Figure 17.14 shows the general format of the header, which is essentially the same as the information packet, except that there are no P(R) or P(S) fields.
Figure 17.14 Other control packets
The packet type field in these control packets is six bits long and can be used to specify up to 64 different functions. As of this writing, however, only a handful of the possible codes have been assigned meanings. Table 17.1 shows some of these types. Packet formats for the various types are shown in Figure 17.15. the functions of each type are described next.
Table 17.1 Control packet type
DTE to DCE
DCE to DTE
Type
Call request Call accepted Clear request Clear confirm Interrupt Interrupt confirm Reset request Reset confirm Restart request Restart confirm Registration request
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000010 000011 000100 000101 001000 001001 000110 000111 000001 111111 111100 111101
Incoming call Call connected Clear indication Clear confirm Interrupt Interrupt confirm Reset indication Reset confirm Restart indication Restart confirm Registration confirm
Figure 17.15 Control packet formats
Call request/incoming call. The call request and incoming call packets are used to request the establishment of a connection between two DTEs. Call request goes from the local DTE to the local DCE. Incoming call goes from the remote DCE to the remote DTE. In addition to the header, each of these packets includes fields specifying the length of the address, the addresses of the DTEs, the length of any facilities, and optional information such as log-on codes and database access information. Facilities are optional services that can be included on a contractual or per call basis. Facilities are made available by agreement between the users and network providers. Contractual options can include such services as incoming calls barred, outgoing calls barred, flow control parameter negotiation, fast select acceptance and D-bit modification. Per call options can include flow control negotiation, fast select, and reverse charging.
Call accepted/call connected.
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The call accepted and call connected packets indicate the acceptance of the requested connection by the called system. They are sent in response to the call request and incoming call packets. Call accepted is sent by the remote (called) DTE to the remote DCE. Call connected is sent by the local (calling) DCE to the local DTE.
Clear request/clear indication.
The clear request and clear indication packets are used at the end of an exchange to disconnect (clear) the connection. Either DTE or DCE can initiate the clearing. These packets also can be used by a remote DTE to respond negatively to an incoming call packet when it is unable to accept the requested connection.
Clear confirm.
The clear confirm packet is sent in response to the clear indication packet described above.
Interrupt.
The interrupt packet is used under unusual circumstances to break into an exchange and get attention. It can be sent by either of the DTEs or DCEs involved in the exchange and acts as an alert. For example, imagine that a local DTE waits a long time without receiving either a positive or negative acknowledgment from the remote DCE. Its window has reached the end. It cannot send more packets and it cannot quit. It sends an interrupt message to get attention.
Interrupt confirm.
The interrupt confirm packet confirms the receipt of the interrupt packet described above.
Reset request/reset indication
The reset request and reset indication packets are used to reset the sequence numbers in an exchange over a particular virtual circuit. Reset packets are used when a connection has been damaged to the point where the virtual circuit must be reinitialized. The virtual circuit remains active, but the
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transmission begins again from a predetermined point; all packets from that point on are renumbered, starting from 0.
Reset confirm. The reset confirm packet confirms the reset process.
Restart request/restart indication. The restart request and restart indication packets restart all virtual circuits created by a DTE. This process is different from the reset process. Reset packets activate a new st of sequence numbers on an existing virtual circuit. Restart packets start up a new virtual circuit. Restart terminates and reestablished a call by establishing a new virtual circuit for transmission. Any packets on the original pathway are lost and new packets are renumbered starting with 0. An analogy to this process is a phone call where the connection becomes so bad that uou hang up and dial again.
Restart confirm. The restart confirm packet confirms the restart request. Registration request. The registration request packet allows on-line registration of new users to the network.
Registration confirm. The registration confirm packet confirms a registration.
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FRAME RELAY
INTRODUCTION
Recently, the nature of the demands on WANs has changed dramatically. Previous WAN technologies, such as T-lines or X.25, were not responding to the needs of the user. Users were looking for higher data rates, lower cost, efficient handling of bursty data transmissions, and less overhead. Frame Relay is a virtual-circuit technology that provides low-level (physical and data link layers) service in response to the following demands: The requirements for frame relay are
Higher Data Rate at Lower Cost.
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In the past, many organizations used a WAN technology such as a leased line or X.25 to connect single computers. The data rate was relatively low. Today, most organizations use high-speed LANs and want to use WANs to connect these LANs. One solution is to use T-lines, but these lines provide only point-to-point connections, not many-to-many. Creating a mesh network out of T-lines is very expensive. For example, to connect six LANs, we need 15 T-lines. On the other hand, we need only six T-lines to connect the same six LANs to a Frame Relay network. Frame Relay provides the same type of service at lower cost. Figure 18.1 shows the difference. Although Frame Relay originally was designed to provide a 1.544-Mbps data rate (equivalent to a T-1 line), today most implementations can handle up to 44.376 Mbps (equivalent to a T-3 line).
Bursty Data. Some services offered by wide area network providers assume that the user has a fixed-rate need. For example, a T-1 line is designed for a user who wants to use the line at a consistent 1.544 Mbps. This type of service is not suitable for the many users today that need to send bursty data. For example, a user may want to send data at 6 Mbps for 2 seconds, 0 Mbps (nothing) for 7 seconds, and 3.44 Mbps for 1 second for a total of 1.544 Megabits during a period of 10 seconds. Although, the average data rate is still 1.544 Mbps, the T-1 line cannot accept this type of demand because it is designed for fixed-rate data, not bursty data. Bursty data requires what is called bandwidth on demand. The user needs different bandwidth allocations at different times. Figure 18.2 shows the difference between fixed-rate data and bursty data.
Figure 18.1 Frame Relay versus pure mesh T-line network
Figure 18.2 Fixed-rate versus bursty data
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Frame Relay accepts bursty data. A user is granted an average data rate that can be exceeded during bursty periods.
Less Overhead Due to Improved Transmission Media. The quality of transmission media has improved tremendously since the last decade. They are more reliable and less error prone. There is no need to have a WAN that spends time and resources checking and double-checking potential errors. X.25 provides extensive error checking and flow control. Frames are checked for accuracy at each station (node) to which they are routed. Each station keeps a copy of the original frame until it receives confirmation from the next station that the frame has arrived intact. Such station-to-station checking is implemented at the data link layer of the OSI model. But X.25 does not stop there. It also checks for errors from source to receiver at the network layer. The source keeps a copy of the original frame until it receives confirmation from the final destination. Much of the traffic on an X.25 network is devoted to error checking to ensure complete reliability of service. Figure 18.3 shows the traffic required to transmit one frame from source to receiver. The white boxes show the data and data link acknowledgments. The colored boxes show the network layer confirmation and acknowledgments. Only one-fourth of this traffic is message data; the rest is reliability. Such extensive traffic was necessary at the time X.25 was introduced because transmission media were more error prone then than they are today.
Figure 18.3 X.25 traffic
Unfortunately, all this overhead eats up bandwidth that cannot therefore be used for message data. If bandwidth is limited, the data rate of the transmission, which is proportional to the available channel width, is severely reduced. In addition, the requirement that each station keep a copy of the frame in its storage while it waits for acknowledgment results in another traffic bottleneck and further reductions in speed.
Improvements in traditional transmission media and a greater use of fiber-optic cable, which is far less susceptible to noise than metallic cable, have decreased the probability of transmission error to a point where this level of caution is not only unnecessary but counterproductive as well.
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Frame Relay does not provide error checking or require acknowledgment in the data link layer. Instead, all error checking is left to the protocols at the network and transport layers, which use the services of Frame Relay. (Frame Relay operates at only the physical and data link layers.) Many data link layer operations are eliminated while others are combined. Instead of the complex situation shown in Figure 18.3, we now have the simplified transmission shown in figure 18.4.
Figure 18.4 frame Relay traffic We summarize the differences between X.25 and Frame Relay in Table 18.1 Table 18.1 Comparison between x.25 and Frame Relay
Feature Connection establishment Hop-by-hop flow control and error control End-to-end flow control and error control Data rate Multiplexing Congestion control
X.25 At the network layer At the data link layer At the network layer Fixed At the network layer Not necessary None None None
Frame Relay
Bursty At the data link layer Necessary
ADVANTAGES
Frame Relay has several advantages over comparable wide area networks such as X.25 and T-lines:
Frame Relay operates at a higher speed (1.544 Mbps and recently 44.376 Mbps). This means that it can easily be used instead of a mesh of T-1 or T-3 lines. Frame Relay operates in just the physical and data link layers. This means it easily can be used as a backbone network to provide services to protocols that already have a network layer protocol. For example, the TCP/IP protocol (see Chapter 24) already has a network layer protocol (IP). If TCP/IP wants to use the services of X.25, there is duplication in the network layer functions: X.25 has its own network layer and TCP/IP has its own. There is no duplication in the case of Frame Relay: TCP/IP uses its own network layer and Frame Relay provides services at the physical and the data link layers. Frame Relay allows bursty data. Users do not have to adhere to a fixed data rate as in the case of X.25 or T-lines.
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Frame Relay allows a frame size of 9000 bytes, which can accommodate al local area network frames. Frame Relay is less expensive than other traditional WANs.
DISADVANTAGES
Frame Relay is not perfect. Despite its low cast, there are some disadvantages:
Although some Frame Relay networks operate at 44.376 Mbps, this is still not high enough for protocols with even higher data rates (such as B-ISDN). Frame Relay allows variable-length frames. This may create varying delays for different users. A frame Relay switch handles a large frame from one user and a small frame from nother user the same way. They are stored in the same queue if they are going out the same interface. The delay of a small frame following a large frame may be different than the delay of a small frame following another small frame; users of small frames are punished. Because of the varying delays, which are not under user control, Frame Relay is not suitable for sending delay sensitive data such as real-time voice or video. For example, Frame relay is not suitable for teleconferencing.
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IP PROTOCOL
NETWORK LAYER
At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the internetwork protocol (IP). IP, in turn, contains four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP. Each of these protocols is described in detail later in this chapter.
INTERNETWORK PROTOCOL (IP)

IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol a best-effort delivery service. The term best-effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking. IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a transmissions through to its destination, but with no guarantees. As we have seen in previous chapters, transmissions along physical networks can be destroyed for a number of reasons. Noise can cause bit errors during transmission across a medium; a congested router may discard a datagram if it is unable to relay it before a time limit runs out; routing quirks can end in looping and the ultimate destruction of a datagram; and disabled links may leave no usable path to the destination. If reliability is important, IP must be paired with a reliable protocol such as TCP. An example of a more commonly understood best-effort delivery service is the post
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office. The post office does its best to deliver the mail but does not always succeed. If an unregistered letter is lost, it is up to the sender or would-be recipient to discover the loss and rectify the problem. The post office itself does not keep track of every letter and cannot notify a sender of loss or damage. An example of a situation similar to pairing IP with a protocol that contains reliability functions is a self-addressed, stamped postcard included in a letter mailed through the post office. When the letter is delivered, the receiver mails the postcard back to the sender to indicate success. If the sender never receives the postcard, he or she assumes the letter was lost and sends out another copy. IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately. Datagrams may travel along different routes and may arrive out of sequence or duplicated. IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive. Because it is a connectionless service, IP does not create virtual circuits for delivery. There is no call setup to alert the receiver to an incoming transmission. The limited functionality of IP should not be considered a weakness, however, IP provides bare-bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those facilities necessary for a given application and thereby allows for maximum efficiency.
Datagram
Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams. Figure 24.3 shows the IP datagram format. A datagram is a variable-length packet (up to 65,536 bytes) consisting of two parts: header and data. The header can be from 20 to 60 bytes and contains information essential to routing and delivery. it is customary in TCP/IP to show the header in four byte sections. A brief description of each field is in order.
Version. The first field defines the version number of the IP. The current version is 4 (Ipv4), with a binary value of 0100. Header length (HLEN). The HLEN field defines the length of the header in multiples of four bytes. The four bits can represent a number between 0 and 15, which, when multiplied by 4, gives a maximum of 60 bytes. Service type. The service type field defines how the datagram should be handled. It includes bits that define the priority of the datagram. It also contains bits that specify the type of service the sender desires such as the level of throughput, reliability, and delay. Total length. The total length field defines the total length of the IP datagram. It is a two-byte field (16 bits) and can define up to 65,535 bytes. Identification. The identification field is used in fragmentation. A datagram, when passing through different networks, may be divided into fragments to match the network frame size. When this happens, each fragment is identified with a sequence number in this field.
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Figure 24.3 IP datagram
Flags. The bits in the flags field deal with fragmentation (The datagram can or cannot be fragmented; can be the first, middle, or last fragment; etc.). Fragmentation offset. The fragmentation offset is a pointer that shows the offset of the data in the original datagram. (if it is fragmented). Time to live. The time-to-live field defines the number of hops a datagram can travel before it is discarded. The source host, when it creates the datagram, sets this field to an initial value. Then, as the datagram travels through the Internet, router by router, each router decrements this value by 1. If this value becomes 0 before the datagram reaches its final destination, the datagram is discarded. This prevents a datagram from going back and forth forever between routers. Protocol. The protocol field defines which upper-layer protocol data are encapsulated in the datagram (TCP, UDP, ICMP, etc). Header checksum. This is a 16-bit field used to check the integrity of the header, not the rest of the packet. Source address. The source address field is a four-byte (32-bit) Internet address. It identifies the original source of the datagram. Destination address. The destination address field is a four-byte (32-bit) Internet address. It identifies the final destination of the datagram. Options. The options field gives more functionality to the IP datagram. It can carry fields that control routing, timing, management, and alignment.
ADDRESSING
In addition to the physical addresses (contained on NICs) that identify individual devices, the Internet requires an additional
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addressing convention: an address that identifies the connection of a host to its network.
Each Internet address consists of four bytes (32 bits), defining three fields: class type, netid, and hostid. These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the address (See Figure 24.4).
Figure 24.4 Internet addresses
CLASSES
There are currently five different field- length patterns in use, each defining a class of address. The different classes are designed to cover the needs of different types of organizations. For example, class A, B, C addresses are numerically the lowest. They use only one byte to identify class type and netid, and leave three bytes available for hostid numbers. This division means that class A neworks can accommodate far more hosts than can class B or class C networks, which provide two- and one-byte hostid fields, respectively. Currently both class A and class B are full. Addresses are available in class C only. Class D is reserved for multicast addresses. Multicasting allows copies of a datagram to be passed to a select group of hosts rather than to an individual host. It is similar to broadcasting, but, where broadcasting requires that a packet be passed to all possible destinations, multicasting allows transmission to a selected subset. Class E addresses are reserved for future use. Figure 24.5 shows the structure of each IP address class.
Example 24.1
What is the class of each of the following addresses? a. 10011101 b. 11011101 c. 01111011 10001111 10001111 10001111 10001111 10001111 11111100 11111100 11111100 11111100 11111100 11001111 11001111 11001111 11001111 11001111
d. 11101011 e. 11110101 Solution
The first bits define the class:
a. Class B b. Class C c. Class A
101
d. Class D e. Class E
Figure 24.5 - Internet classes DOTTED-DECIMAL NOTATION To make the 32-bit form shorter and easier to read, Internet addresses are usually written in decimal form with decimal points separating the bytes - dotted-decimal notation. Figure 24.6 shows the bit pattern and decimal format of a possible address.
Figure 24.6 IP addresses in decimal notation
Looking at the first byte of an address in decimal form allows us to determine at a glasne to which class a particular address belongs (see Figure 24.7). Example 24.2
Write each of following in dotted-decimal notation: a. 10011101 b. 11011101 c. 01011101 10001111 10001111 00011111 11111100 11111101 00000001 11001111 00001111 11110101
d. 11111101 e. 11111110 10001010 10000001
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00001111 01111110 00111111 00000001
Figure 24.7 Class ranges of Internet addresses Solution
Each byte is converted to a decimal number between 0 and 255.

a. 157.143.252.207 b. 221.143.253.15 c. 93.31.1.245
d. 253.138.15.63 e. 254.129.126.1
Example 24.3
Find the class of each address: a. 4.23.145.90 b. 227.34.78.7 c. 246.7.3.8
d. 29.6.8.4 e. 198.76.9.23
Solution The first byte defines the class. a. Class A
b. Class D c. Class E
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d. Class B e. Class C
Example 24.4 Find the netid and the hostid for each address:
a. 4.23.145.90 b. 227.34.78.7 c. 246.7.3.8
d. 129.6.8.4 e. 198.76.9.23
Solution
First find the class and then find the netid and hostid.
a. Class A, b. Class D c. Class E, netid: 4 no hostid or netid no hostid or netid netid: 129.6 netid: 198.76.9 hostid: 8.4 hostid: 23 hostid: 23.145.90
d. Class B, e. Class C,
Example 24.5
Find the network address for each address:
a. 4.23.145.90 b. 227.34.78.7 c. 246.7.3.8
d. 129.6.8.4 e. 198.76.9.23
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Solution
First find the class and then find the network address.
a. Class A, b. Class D, c. Class E, network address: 4.0.0.0 no network address no network address network address: 129.6.0.0 network address: 198.76.9.0
d. Class B, e. Class C,
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SNMP
SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL (SNMP)
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a framework for managing devices in an internet using the TCP/IP protocol suite. It provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining an internet.
CONCEPT
SNMP uses the concept of manager and agent. That is, a manager, usually a host, controls and monitors a set of agents, usually routers (see Figure 25.19).
Figure 25.19 SNMP concept
SNMP is an application-level protocol in which a few manager stations control a set of agents. The protocol is designed at the application level so that it can monitor devices made by different manufacturers and installed on different physical networks. In other words, SNMP frees management tasks from both the physical characteristics of the managed devices and the underlying networking technology. It can be used in a
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heterogeneous internet made of different LANs and WANs connected by routers or gateways made by different manufacturers.
MANAGERS AND AGENTS

A management station, called a manager, is a host that runs the SNMP client program. A managed station, called an agent, is a router (or a host) that runs the SNMP server program. Management is achieved through simple interaction between a manager and an agent. The agent keeps performance information in a database. The manager has access to the values in the database. For example, a router can store in appropriate variables the number of packets received to see if the router is congested or not. The manager can also make the router perform certain actions. For example, a router periodically checks the value of a reboot counter to see when it should reboot itself. It reboots itself, for example, if the value of the counter is 0. The manager can use this feature to reboot the agent remotely at any time. It simply sends a packet to force a 0 value in the counter. Agents can also contribute to the management process. The server program running on the agent can check the environment and, if it notices something unusual, it can send a warning message (called a trap) to the manager. In other words management with SNMP is based on three basic ideas: 1. A manager checks an agent by requesting information that reflects the behavior of the agent. 2. A manager forces an agent to perform a task by resetting values in the agent database. 3. An agent contributes to the management process by warning the manager of an unusual situation.
COMPONENTS
Management in the Internet is achieved not only through the SNMP protocol but also by using other protocols that cooperate with SNMP. At the top level, management is accomplished with two other protocols: structure of management information (SMI) and management information base (MIB). SNMP uses the services provided by these protocols to do its job. In other words, management is a team effort by SMI, MIB, and SNMP. All three use other protocols such as abstract syntax notation 1 (ASN.1) and basic encoding rules (BER). We discuss SMI, MIB, and SNMP in the next three sections (see Figure 25.20).
Figure 25.20 Internet management components
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SMI
The SMI is a component used in network management. Its functions are to name objects; to define the type of data that can be stored in an object, and to show how to encode data for transmission over the network.
MIB
The management information base (MIB) is the second component used in network management. Each agent has its own MIB, which is a collection of all the objects that the manager can manage. The objects in the MIB are categorized under eight different groups: system, interface, address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp, and egp. These groups are under the mib object in the object identifier tree (see Figure 25.21). Each group has defined variables and/or tables.
Figure 25.21 MIB
SNMP
SNMP defines five messages: GetRequest, GetNextRequest, SetRequest, GetResponse, and Trap (see Figure 25.22).
Figure 25.22 SNMP messages
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GET REQUEST
The GetRequest message is sent from the manager (client to the agent (server) to retrieve the value of a variable.
GET NEXT REQUEST

The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to the agent to retrieve the value of a variable. The retrieved value is the value of the object following the defined object in the message. It is mostly used to retrieve the values of the entries in a table. If the manager does not know the indexes of the entries, it cannot retrieve the values. However, it can use GetNextRequest and define the object.
GET RESPONSE
The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to a manager in response to GetRequest and GetNextRequest. It contains the value of the variable(s) requested by the manager.
SET REQUEST
The SetRequest message is sent from the manager to the agent to set (store) a value in a variable.
TRAP
The Trap message is sent from the agent to the manager to report an event. For example, if the agent is rebooted, it informs the manager and reports the time of rebooting.

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1

HISTORY OF NETWORK DEVELOPMENT

Mesh 1) Mesh Topology 2)

DTE DCE Interface

FUNCTIONS OF OSI MODEL LAYERS I PHYSICAL LAYER

II DATA LINK LAYER

III NETWORK LAYER

VII APPLICATION LAYER

Three different types of connectors

SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR

TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

FREQUENCY RANGE OF TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

Frequency Range of Co-axial Cable:

univ_com_net\newtif\chp1 2) POLL / SELECT

CATEGORIES OF FLOW CONTROL

Stop and wait

STOP AND WAIT FLOW CONTROL

SLIDING WINDOW FLOW CONTROL

Example of Sliding Window

CRC GENERATOR & CHECKER

BINARY DIVISION IN CRC GENERATOR

CATEGORIES OF ERROR CONTROL

Stop and Wait ARQ Go Back N

STOP AND WAIT ARQ

Lost Data frame:-

Lost acknowledgement frame

SELECTIVE REJECT ARQ

DATA LINK PROTOCOL

Primary - control of the link - frames command

Secondary - controlled by - primary - frames response

HDLC SUPPORTS 3 LINK CONFIGURATION

univ_com_net\newtif\chp1 3) Balance Configuration

Asynchronour TDM statistical TDI

Internetworking devices Bridges Router Gateway

ADVANTAGES OF DATAGRAM APPROACH OVER VIRTUAL APPROACH:-

PACKET SWITCHING CAN BE DONE BY FOLLOWING TWO APPROACHES

TCP/IP & OSI MODEL

PHYSICAL & DATALINK LAYERS

Figure 17.2 X.25 layers in relation to the OSI layers

Figure 17.3 Format of a frame

Figure 17.4 Addressing at the frame layer

THREE CATEGORIES OF FRAMES

Figure 17.5 Three phases of the frame layer

Figure 17.6 Frame layer and packet layer domains

Figure 17.8 LCNs in X.25

Figure 17.9 LCN assignment

Figure 17.10 PLP packet format

The fields in the header are as follows:

TWO CATEGORIES OF PACKETS

Figure 17.12 Data packets in the PLP layer

RR, RNR, AND REJ PACKETS

Figure 17.13 RR, RNR, and REJ packets

Figure 17.14 Other control packets

Figure 17.15 Control packet formats

Call accepted/call connected.

Clear request/clear indication.

Registration confirm. The registration confirm packet confirms a registration.

Higher Data Rate at Lower Cost.

Figure 18.1 Frame Relay versus pure mesh T-line network

Figure 18.2 Fixed-rate versus bursty data

Figure 18.3 X.25 traffic

Bursty At the data link layer Necessary

INTERNETWORK PROTOCOL (IP)