All Ch4,5,6,9 Organizational Behavior Ch4: personality and Values 1. What is personality?. How do we typically measure it?.

What factors determine personality?. Personality: The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment. Measuring Personality: a. Personality Tests: Helpful in hiring decisions b. Self-reporting surveys: Most common method. c. Observer-ratings surveys: provide an independent assessment of personality often better predictors Other ways to measuring personality Self-report surveys Observer-rating surveys Projective measures Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test Factors determine personality: a. Heredity b. Personality Traits Other Factors determine personality c. Environment d. Situation 2. What is the Myers-Briggs Type indicator (MBTI), and What does it measure?. Myers Briggs Indicator (MBTI): A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types using 100 questions. Myers Briggs Indicator measure: a. Extroverted (E) vs. Introverted (I) b. Sensing (S) vs. Intuitive (N) c. Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) d. Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P) Participants are classified on four axes to determine one of 16 possible personality types, such as ENTJ. Most widely-used instrument in the world. 3. What are the Big Five personality traits?. Big Five Personality Model: A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions. 1. Extroversion 2. Agreeableness 3. Conscientiousness 4. Emotional Stability

5. Openness to Experience.

4. How do the Big Five traits predict work behavior?. 1. Extroversion: The quality of being comfortable with relationships (Sociable, gregarious, and assertive). Higher performance Enhanced leadership Higher job & life satisfaction. 2. Agreeableness: The ability to get along with others (Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting). Higher performance Lower levels of deviant behavior. 3. Conscientiousness: The number of goals on which a person focuses (Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized). Higher performance Enhanced leadership Greater longevity. 4. Emotional Stability: Less moodiness and insecurity (Calm, self-confident, secure under stress (positive), versus nervous, depressed, and insecure under stress (negative). High job & life satisfaction Lower stress level 5. Openness to Experience: The capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information (Curious, imaginative, artistic, and sensitive). Training performance Enhanced leadership More adaptable to change. 5. Besides the Big Five, what other personality traits are relevant to OB?. 1. Core Self-Evaluation: The degree to which people like or dislike themselves. Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance. 2. Machiavellianism: A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends justify the means. High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than they are persuaded. Flourish when: Have direct interaction. Work with minimal rules and regulations. Emotions distract others. 3. Narcissism An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration. Less effective in their jobs. 4. Self-Monitoring The ability to adjust behavior to meet external, situational factors. High monitors conform more and are more likely to become leaders. 5. Risk Taking

 The willingness to take chances. May be best to align propensities with job requirements. Risk takers make faster decisions with less information. 6. Type A vs. Type B personality Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more in less time. Impatient: always moving, walking, and eating rapidly. Strive to think or do two or more things at once. Cannot cope with leisure time. Obsessed with achievement numbers. but quality of the work is low. Type B people are the complete opposite. 7. Proactive Personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres to completion. Creates positive change in the environment. 6. What are Values, why are they important, and what is the difference between terminal and instrumental values?. Values: Basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to live your life that is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence. They are important: 1. Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors 2. Influence our perception of the world around us 3. Represent interpretations of right and wrong 4. Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over other. The difference between terminal and instrumental values: Terminal Values: Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental Values: Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving ones terminal values. 7. Do values differ across generations?. How so?. Yeas, The dominant work values differ from generations. How: Experience has shown that: 1. Generations in the age of 65+: They are do Hard working, conservative, conforming; loyalty to the organization 2. Generations in the age of 40:60: They are Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of authority; loyalty to career 3. Generations in the age of 20:40: They are Work/life balance, team-oriented, dislike of rules; loyalty to relationships 4. Generations in the age of 30: They are Confident, financial success, self-reliant but team-oriented; loyalty to both self and relationships. 8. Do values differ across cultures?. How so?.

Values differ across cultures. How: Experience Hofstedes Framework for assessing culture five value dimensions: Power distance Individualism vs. Collectivism Masculinity vs. Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation.

Ch5: Perception and Individual Decision Making 1. What is perception?. And what factors influence our perception?. Perception: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Factors influence our perception. 1. Factors in the perceiver: Attitudes Motives Interests Experience Expectations. 2. Factors in the situation: Time Work setting Social setting. 3. Factors in the target: Novelty Motion Sounds Size Background Proximity Similarity. 2. What is attribution theory?. What are the three determinants of attribution?. What are its implications for explaining organizational behavior?. Attribution Theory: An attempt to determine whether an individuals behavior is internally or externally caused. Internal causes are under that persons control. External causes are not person forced to act in that way. The three determinants of attribution: Observation Interpretation Attribution of Cause. 1. Observation of behavior 2. Interpretation Distinctiveness: Shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus: Response is the same as others to same situation. Consistency: Responds in the same way over time. 3. Attribution of Cause -- Internal or External causes 3. What shortcuts do people use in making judgments about others?. Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others: Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic 1. Contrast Effects: Evaluation of a persons characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. 2. Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs a prevalent and often useful, if not always accurate, generalization 3. Profiling: A form of stereotyping in which members of a group are singled out for intense scrutiny based on a single, often racial, trait. Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations 4. Employment Interviews:

a. Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers judgments of applicants. b. Formed in a single glance 1/10 of a second! 5. Performance Expectations: Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities. 6. Performance Evaluations: a. Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employees job performance. b. Critical impact on employees. 4. What is the link between perception and decision making?. How does one affect the other?. The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision Making: Problem: A perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state. Decision: Choices made from among alternatives developed from data. How does one affect the other: Perception Linkage: 1. All elements of problem identification and the decision making process are influenced by perception. 2. Problems must be recognized. 3. Data must be selected and evaluated. 5. What is the rational model of decision making?. How is it different from bounded rational and intuition?. Rational Decision-Making: The perfect world model: assumes complete information, all options known, and maximum payoff. Six-step decision-making process: 1. Define the problem 2. Identify the decision criteria. 3. Allocate weights to the criteria. 4. develop the alternatives. 5. Evaluate the alternatives. 6. Select the alternatives. Rational Decision-Making is different from bounded rational and intuition: Bounded Reality: The real world model: seeks satisfactory and sufficient solutions from limited data and alternatives. Intuition: A non-conscious process created from distilled experience that results in quick decisions. Relies on holistic associations. Affectively charged engaging the emotions.

6. What are some of the common decision biases or errors that people make?. Common Biases and Errors in Decision-Making: 1. Overconfidence Bias: Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions especially when outside of own expertise. 2. Anchoring Bias: Using early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments. 3. Confirmation Bias: Selecting and using only facts that support our decision. 4. Availability Bias: Emphasizing information that is most readily at hand. 5. Escalation of Commitment: Increasing commitment to a decision in spite of evidence that it is wrong especially if responsible for the decision!. 6. Randomness Error: Creating meaning out of random events superstitions. 7. Winners Curse: Highest bidder pays too much due to value overestimation. 8. Likelihood increases with the number of people in auction. 9. Hindsight Bias: After an outcome is already known, believing it could have been accurately predicted beforehand. 7. What are the influences of individual differences, organizational constraints, and culture on decision making?. The influences of Individual Differences in Decision-Making: 1. Personality: Conscientiousness may effect escalation of commitment. Achievement strivers are likely to increase commitment. Dutiful people are less likely to have this bias. High self-esteem people are susceptible to self-serving bias. 2. Gender Women analyze decisions more than men rumination. Women are twice as likely to develop depression. organizational constraints, and culture on decision making: 1. Performance Evaluation: Managerial evaluation criteria influence actions. 2. Reward Systems: Managers will make the decision with the greatest personal payoff for them. 3. Formal Regulations: Limit the alternative choices of decision makers. 4. System-imposed Time Constraints: Restrict ability to gather or evaluate information. 5. Historical Precedents: Past decisions influence current decisions. 6. Are unethical decision more a function of an individual decision maker or decision maker's environment?. Explain. The decision maker is responsible for the ethics of a decision regardless of the work environment. Of course, the decision maker may be influenced by the work environment. Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem or an opportunity.

 A problem is a discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state, requiring consideration of alternative courses of action. Ethical Decision Criteria: 1. Utilitarianism: Decisions made based solely on the outcome 2. Rights: Decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges 3. Justice: Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially. 7. What is creativity?. And what is the three-component model of creativity?. Creativity: The ability to produce novel and useful ideas. Creativity Potential: Those who score high in openness to experience, intelligent, independent, self-confident, risk-taking, have an internal locus-of-control, tolerant of ambiguity, low need for structure, and who persevere in the face of frustration. The Three-Component Model of Creativity: 1. Expertise: This is the foundation 2. Creative-Thinking Skills : The personality characteristics associated with creativity. 3. Intrinsic Task Motivation: The desire to do the job because of its characteristics.

Ch6: motivation concepts 1. Define motivation?. What are the key elements of motivation?. A. Motivation: The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal specifically, an organizational goal. B. Three key elements: 1. Intensity how hard a person tries. 2. Direction effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organizational goals. 3. Persistence how long a person can maintain effort. 2. What are the early theories of motivation?. How well have they been supported by research?. A. The early theories of motivation: 1. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory Alderfers ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth) 2. McGregors Theory X and Theory Y 3. Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory 4. McClellands Theory of Needs. B. They been supported by research: Theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers. 3. What is cognitive evaluation theory?. What does it assume about the effects of intrinsic rewards on behavior?. A. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation. B. It assume about the effects of intrinsic rewards on behavior: It will offer Self-concordance to the personal, When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and more successful. 4. What are the major predictions of goal-setting theory?. Have these predictions been supported by research?. A. Lockes Goal-Setting Theory Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance. B. These predictions been supported by research: While Goal-Setting Theory limited in scope, it is good predictor. Relationship between goals and performance depends on: Goal commitment,

 Task characteristics, Culture. 5. What is reinforcement theory?. How is it related to goal-setting theory?. Has supported reinforcement theory?. A. Reinforcement Theory: Behavior is a function of its consequences. B. It related to goal-setting theory: Reinforcement Theory are Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but reinforcement theory focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one. C. Yes Goal-setting theory has supported reinforcement theory Goal-setting theory focus of goal commitment, self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture on goal-setting theory. Reinforcement Theory Powerful predictor in many work areas, and usually a good predictor of quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates. 6. What is equity theory?. Why has it been supplanted by organization justice?. A. Equity Theory: Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. B. It supplanted by organization justice: Organizational Justice: Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. Made up of: 1. Distributive Justice: Fairness of outcome. Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. 2. Procedural Justice: Fairness of outcome process. Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. 3. Interactional Justice: Being treated with dignity and respect. The perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, and respect. 7. What are the key tenets of expectancy theory?. What has research had to say about this theory?. A. Vrooms Expectancy Theory: The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. B. key tenets of expectancy theory: Individual Effort.

 Individual Performance. Organizational Rewards. Personal Goals. C. Research had to say about this theory, It focuses on three relationship: Effort - Performance Relationship Performance Reward Relationship Rewards- Personal Goals Relationship 8. How do the contemporary theories of work motivation complement one another?. Contemporary theories of work motivation complement one another: A. There is integrating between contemporary theories of motivation. B. Employees opportunity, ability and the purpose or objectives of the current performance evaluation system in which they work. C. Link between individual effort individual performance organizational rewards and personal goals. D. Influenced by a variety of factors (needs, reinforcement, equity). 9. Do you think motivation theories are often culture bound?. Why or why not?. A. Motivation theories are often culture-bound 1. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory: Order of needs is not universal 2. McClellands Three Needs Theory: presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance concerns not universal traits 3. Adams Equity Theory: A desire for equity is not universal. a. Each according to his need socialist/former communists. b. Desire for interesting work seems to be universal. 4. There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory may be universal. B. Why: Note that most theories were developed in the US. While there may be many differences across cultures, there are some cross-cultural consistencies.

Ch9: foundation of group behavior 1. Define group?. What are the different types of groups?. Group: Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Different types of groups: 1. Formal Group: Defined by the organizations structure with designated work assignments establishing tasks. a. Command Group: A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager. b. Task Group: Those working together to complete a job or task in an organization but not limited by hierarchical boundaries. 2. Informal Group: Alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. a. Interest Groups: Members work together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. b. Friendship Groups: Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics. 2. What are the five stages of group development?. Five Stages of Group Development Model: 1. Forming: Members feel much uncertainty. 2. Storming: Lots of conflict between members of the group. 3. Norming Stage: Members have developed close relationships and cohesiveness. 4. Performing Stage: The group is finally fully functional. 5. Adjourning Stage: In temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than performance. 3. Do role requirements change in different situations?. If so, how?. Role requirements change in different situations: Yes. How: Role: A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Classes of role: 1. Role Identity: Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role 2. Role Perception: An individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation received by external stimuli. 3. Role Expectations: How others believe a person should act in a given situation. 4. Role Conflict: A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations. 5. An Experiment: Zimbardos Prison Experiment.

4. How does group norms influence an individual's behavior?. Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups members. Classes of Norms: a. Performance norms level of acceptable work. b. Appearance norms what to wear. c. Social arrangement norms friendships and the like. d. Allocation of resources norms distribution and assignments of jobs and material. Norms and Behavior are evidence of influence an individual's behavior: a. Conformity: Gaining acceptance by adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the group b. Reference Groups: Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform. c. Asch Studies: Demonstrated the power of conformance. 5. How does group size affect group performance?. Size: Group size affects behavior (Twelve or more members is a large group Seven or fewer is a small group). a. Best Attribute for use of small group affect group performance: Speed, Individual Performance, Overall Performance. b. Best Attribute for use of large group affect group performance: Problem Solving, Diverse Input, Fact-Finding Goals. 6. What are the advantages and limitations of cohesive groups?. Cohesiveness: Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. Advantages and limitations of cohesive groups had managerial implications to increase cohesiveness: 1. Make the group smaller. 2. Increase time members spend together. 3. Stimulate competition with other groups. 4. Physically isolate the group. 5. Encourage agreement with group goals. 6. Increase group status and admission difficulty. 7. Give rewards to the group, not to individuals. 7. What are the strengths and weaknesses of group (versus individual) decision making?. Strengths of Group Decision Making: a. Generate more complete information and knowledge. b. Offer increased diversity of views and greater creativity. c. Increased acceptance of decisions.

d. Generally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most accurate group member). Weaknesses of Group Decision Making: a. Time-consuming activity. b. Conformity pressures in the group. c. Discussions can be dominated by a few members. d. A situation of ambiguous responsibility. Correct the weaknesses and focus on the strengths lead to Effectiveness and Efficiency. 8. How effective are interacting, brainstorming, nominal, and electronic meeting groups?. The effective are: 1. Interacting Groups: where members meet face-to-face and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication. Its High effective in Social Pressure, Potential for Interpersonal Conflict, Commitment to Solution, Development of Group Cohesiveness.
2. Brainstorming: An idea-generating process designed to overcome pressure

for conformity. Its High effective in Task Orientation, Development of Group Cohesiveness. 3. Nominal Group Technique: Works by restricting discussion during the decision-making process. Members are physically present but operate independently. Its High effective in Number and quality of ideas, Task Orientation.
4. Electronic Meeting: Uses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50

people. Its High effective in Number and quality of ideas, Money Costs, Task Orientation. 9. What is the evidence for the effect of culture on group status and social loafing?. How does diversity affect groups and their effectiveness over time?. The evidence for the effect of culture on group status and social loafing: a. Status and Culture: The importance of status varies with culture &And certainly varies from one group to another. b. Social Loafing: Most often does not affect in individually culture, And shows clearly the impact of social loafing in collectively cultures. Group Diversity affect groups and their effectiveness over time: a. Increased diversity leads to increased conflict. b. May cause early withdrawal and lowered morale. c. If the initial difficulties are overcome, diverse groups may perform better. d. Surface diversity may increase openness.