Guidance and Control of

Autonomous Fixed Wing Air Vehicles

Randal W. Beard Timothy W. McLain

Brigham Young University

ii

Contents
Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coordinate Frames 2.1 Rotation Matrices . . . . 2.2 MAV Coordinate Frames 2.3 Equation of Coriolis . . . 2.4 Design Project . . . . . . Kinematics and Dynamics 3.1 MAV State Variables . 3.2 MAV Kinematics . . . 3.3 Rigid Body Dynamics . 3.4 Design Project . . . . . Forces and Moments 4.1 Gravitational Forces . 4.2 Aerodynamic Forces 4.3 Propulsion Forces . . 4.4 Summary . . . . . . 4.5 Design Project . . . . vii 1 1 4 5 5 10 18 19 21 21 22 23 27 29 29 30 36 38 39

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

Nonlinear Equations of Motion 41 5.1 Six DOF Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 5.2 Navigation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 iii

iv

CONTENTS

5.3 5.4 6 Trim 6.1 6.2 7

Wind Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 51 Turn with a Constant Climb Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 59

Open Loop Linear Dynamics 7.1 7.2 7.3

Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Linear State Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 79

Autopilot Design Using Successive Loop Closure 8.1 8.2 8.3

Lateral Autopilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Longitudinal Autopilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 99

Micro UAV Sensors 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6

Rate Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Accelerometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Pressure Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 109

10 State Estimation

10.1 Low Pass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 10.2 State Estimation by Inverting the Sensor Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 10.3 Dynamic Observer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 10.4 Essentials from Probability Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 10.5 Derivation of the Kalman Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 10.6 Attitude Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 10.7 GPS Smooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 10.8 Wind Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 10.9 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

CONTENTS

11 Waypoint and Orbit Following 11.1 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Another approach to straight line tracking 11.5 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

133 134 150 152 153 158 159 160 167 168 169 169 171 171 171 172 184 197 199 200 202 204 207 213 221 223 225

12 Path Planning 12.1 Point-to-Point Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Coverage Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Path Manager 13.1 Switching Between Waypoints . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Smooth transitions that satisfy kinematic constraints . 13.3 Smooth transitions through the waypoint . . . . . . . 13.4 Smooth transitions that preserve path length . . . . . 13.5 Path Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Dubins Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Cameras on Micro UAVs 14.1 Gimbal and Camera Frames and Projective Geometry 14.2 Gimbal Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Geolocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Estimating Target Motion in the Image Plane . . . . 14.5 Precision Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Aviones B Introduction to Modeling in Simulink

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

C Useful Formulas and other Information 227 C.1 Conversion from knots to mph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 D Graphs Theory 229

vi

CONTENTS

Bibliography

238

CONTENTS

Chapter 5 Nonlinear Equations of Motion

5.1 Six DOF Equations of Motion

5.1.1 General Force and Torque Model

If we use the general force and torque models given by

sin CX (x, ) fx S CY (x, ) fy = mg cos sin + q cos cos CZ (x, ) fz l bCl (x, ) S cCm (x, ) , m = q n bCn (x, ) 41

42

5.1 Six DOF Equations of Motion

in the six degree-of-freedom model given by Equations (3.9)-(3.12), we get

p n cc ssc cs csc + ss u e = cs sss + cc css sc v p h s sc cc w rv qw g sin u CX (x, ) S q = pw ru + g cos sin + v CY (x, ) m w qu pv g cos cos CZ (x, ) p 1 sin() tan() cos() tan() cos() sin() q = 0 r 0 sin() sec() cos() sec() b [Gamma3 Cl (x, ) + 4 Cn (x, )] 1 pq 2 qr p c C (x, ) S = 5 pr 4 (p2 r2 )+ + q q . Jy m 6 pq 1 qr r b [4 Cl (x, ) + 7 Cn (x, )]

(5.1)

(5.2)

(5.3)

(5.4)

5.1.2 Linear Aerodynamic Model

A variety of different models for the aerodynamic forces and moments appear in the literature. In particular, if we use the linear model described in Chapter 4 we get the following equations of

Nonlinear Equations of Motion

43

motion:

p n = (cos cos )u + (sin sin cos cos sin )v + (cos sin cos + sin sin )w (5.5) p e = (cos sin )u + (sin sin sin + cos cos )v + (cos sin sin sin cos )w (5.6) = u sin v sin cos w cos cos h u = rv qw g sin + (5.7) Sprop q S c q CX0 + CX + CXq + CXe e + Cprop (kt )2 Va2 m Va 2m (5.8)

q S br bp CY0 + CY + CYp + CYr CY a + CYr r (5.9) m 2Va 2Va a q S c q w = qu pv + g cos cos + CZ0 + CZ + CZq + CZe e (5.10) m Va = p + q sin tan + r cos tan (5.11) v = pw ru + g cos sin + = q cos r sin = q sin sec + r cos sec p = 1 pq 2 qr + q Sb Cp0 + Cp + Cpp bp br + Cpr + Cpa a + Cpr r 2Va 2Va q Sc cq q = 5 pr 4 (p2 r2 ) + Cm0 + Cm + Cmq + Cme e Jy 2Va bp br r = 6 pq 1 qr + q Sb Cr0 + Cr + Crp + Crr + Cra a + Crr r , 2Va 2Va (5.12) (5.13) (5.14) (5.15) (5.16)

44

5.2 Navigation Models

where Cp0 = 3 Cl0 + 4 Cn0 Cp = 3 Cl + 4 Cn Cpp = 3 Clp + 4 Cnp Cpr = 3 Clr + 4 Cnr Cpa = 3 Cla + 4 Cna Cpr = 3 Clr + 4 Cnr Cr0 = 4 Cl0 + 7 Cn0 Cr = 4 Cl + 7 Cn Crp = 4 Clp + 7 Cnp Crr = 4 Clr + 7 Cnr Cra = 4 Cla + 7 Cna Crr = 4 Clr + 7 Cnr .

5.2 Navigation Models

5.2.1 8 State Navigation Equations
The full 12-state equations of motion given in Equations (5.1)(5.4) are usually not needed to derive good navigation models. In this section we will show a useful method for reducing these equations. The rst simplication is to note that the velocity vector in the wind frame, i.e. (Va , 0, 0)T , where Va is the airspeed, can be related to the inertial coordinates by two angles: the ight path angle and the heading , as shown in Figure 5.1. The heading is obtained by rotating the inertial coordinate from by until the x-axis is aligned with the projection of the velocity vector on the x-y plane. The appropriate transformations are given by cos sin 0 cos 0 sin cos cos p n Va = sin cos Va . e = sin cos 0 0 1 0 0 p h 0 0 1 sin 0 cos 0 sin Therefore cos cos p n e = sin cos Va . p h sin

Nonlinear Equations of Motion

45

Flight path
Figure 5.1: The ight path angles and . Coordinated Turn The following derivation draws on the discussion [2, p. 224226]. From Equation (5.13) we get that = sin q + cos r. cos cos Figure 5.2 shows a free body diagram of the UAV indicating forces in the x z plane during a

Figure 5.2: Free body diagram indicating forces on the UAV in the y z plane. The nose of the UAV is out of the page. The UAV is assumed to be pitched at the ight path angle .

46

5.2 Navigation Models

cork-screw maneuver. Writing the force equations we get L cos cos = mg cos L sin cos = mVa . gives Dividing (5.18) by (5.17) and solving for = g tan , Va (5.19) (5.17) (5.18)

which is the equation for a coordinated turn. Given that the turning radius is given by Rt = Va / we get Va2 Rt = . (5.20) g tan From Figure 5.2 we also see that q= sin r= cos . Plugging Eq. (5.19) into Eq. (5.21) and (5.22) gives q= g sin2 Va cos g r= sin . Va g sin 1 . Va cos cos (5.23) (5.24) (5.21) (5.22)

Plugging into Eq. (??) gives = Noting from Eq. (5.17) that

1 L = , cos mg

and dening the Load Factor as n = L/mg gives = g sin n. Va cos (5.25)

Our derivation of the dynamic equation for draws on the discussion in [2, p. 227228]. The free body diagram of the UAV in the x z plane is shown in Figure 5.3. Since the UAV has a roll angle of , the projection of the lift vector onto the x z plane is L cos . The centripetal force due to to the pull-up maneuver is mVa . Therefore, summing the forces in the x z plane gives L cos = mVa + mg cos .

Nonlinear Equations of Motion

47

Figure 5.3: Free body diagram indicating forces on the UAV in the x z plane. The left wing is out of the page. The UAV is assumed to be in a roll angle of .

Letting n = L/mg and solving for gives

g (n cos cos ) . Va

(5.26)

We will assume that the mini-UAV is equipped with an autopilot that implements the following feedback loops: (1) airspeed hold, (2) roll-attitude hold, and (3) load-factor hold. In addition, we will assume that the autopilot is tuned such that the closed-loop behavior of these loops is essentially rst order. Therefore, the closed loop behavior of the autopilot is given by

a = 1 (Vac Va ) V V = 1 (c ) 1 n = (nc n), n

(5.27)

where > 0 are positive autopilot time constants, and Vac , c , and nc are the inputs to the autopilot.

48

5.2 Navigation Models

In summary, the equations of motion for the UAV are given by p n = Va cos cos + wx p e = Va sin cos + wy = Va sin + wh h = (5.28) (5.29) (5.30)

g sin n (5.31) Va cos g (n cos cos ) (5.32) = Va a = 1 (V c Va ) V (5.33) V a = 1 (c ) (5.34) 1 n = (nc n). (5.35) n An equivalent, but useful alternative to these equations is to assume that the load factor is selected as cos nc = n = . (5.36) cos In this case equations (5.31) and (5.32) become g = tan() (5.37) Va g cos = ( 1). (5.38) Va Note that when = 1, the airframe is experiencing a level ight coordinated turn.

5.2.2 6 State Navigation Equations

If we assume that the airspeed is constant and that the load factor is given by Equation (5.36), then the six state navigation equations become p n = Va cos cos + wx p e = Va sin cos + wy = Va sin + wh h g = tan() Va g cos ( 1) = Va = 1 (c ), (5.39) (5.40) (5.41) (5.42) (5.43) (5.44)

Nonlinear Equations of Motion

49

where the inputs are and c .

5.2.3 4 State Navigation Equations

There are times when we are interested in 2D path planning. In that case we select = 1 to obtain p n = Va cos + wx p e = Va sin + wy g = tan Va = 1 (c ), where c is the input. (5.45) (5.46) (5.47) (5.48)

5.3 Wind Models

5.3.1 Wind Speed Above Ground
According to [9], the wind-speed increases with altitude. Up to an altitude of few hundred meters, the wind speed prole vw (z ) is approximately a logarithmic function of the altitude (z ): vw (z ) vo ( ) ln z z0 , for z > 10z0 ,

where is the thickness of the surface boundary layer, z0 = 0.1 m in a low density urban zone, hence z (vw ) = z0 evw /v0 () .

50

5.4 Design Project

5.4 Design Project

5.1 Homework problem 1.

Bibliography
[1] R. C. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control. Boston, Massachusetts: McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 1998. [2] J. Roskam, Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Controls, Parts I & II. Lawrence, Kansas: DARcorporation, 1998. [3] J. H. Blakelock, Automatic Control of Aircraft and Missiles. John Wiley & Sons, 1965. [4] J. H. Blakelock, Automatic Control of Aircraft and Missiles. John Wiley & Sons, second edition ed., 1991. [5] M. V. Cook, Flight Dynamics Principles. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997. [6] B. Etkin and L. D. Reid, Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control. John Wiley & Sons, 1996. [7] B. L. Stevens and F. L. Lewis, Aircraft Control and Simulation. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2nd ed., 2003. [8] W. J. Rugh, Linear System Theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2nd ed., 1996. [9] F. Rufer and N. Franceschini, Optic ow regulation: the key to aircraft automatic guidance, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, vol. 50, pp. 177194, April 2005. [10] D. B. Barber, S. R. Grifths, T. W. McLain, and R. W. Beard, Autonomous landing of miniature aerial vehicles, in AIAA Infotech@Aerospace, (Arlington, Virginia), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, September 2005. AIAA-2005-6949. [11] http://www.silicondesigns.com/tech.html. 231

232

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[12] M. Rauw, FDC 1.2 - A SIMULINK Toolbox for Flight Dynamics and Control Analysis, February 1998. Available at http://www.mathworks.com/. [13] R. E. Bicking, Fundamentals of pressure sensor technology. http://www. sensorsmag.com/articles/1198/fun1198/main.shtml. [14] T. K. Moon and W. C. Stirling, Mathematical Methods and Algorithms. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000. [15] D. B. Barber, J. D. Redding, T. W. McLain, R. W. Beard, and C. N. Taylor, Vision-based target geo-location using a xed-wing miniature air vehicle, Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems, vol. 47, pp. 361382, December 2006. [16] S. Park, J. Deyst, and J. How, A new nonlinear guidance logic for trajectory tracking, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, August 2004. AIAA-2004-4900. [17] I. Kaminer, A. Pascoal, E. Hallberg, and C. Silvestre, Trajectory tracking for autonomous vehicles: An integrated approach to guidance and control, AIAA Journal of Guidance, Control and Dynamics, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 2938, 1998. [18] P. Aguiar, D. Da ci c, J. Hespanha, and P. Kokotivi c, Path-following or reference-tracking? An answer relaxing the limits to performance, in Proceedings of IAV2004, 5th IFAC/EURON Symposium on Intelligent Autonomous Vehicles, (Lisbon, Portugal), 2004. [19] A. P. Aguiar, J. P. Hespanha, and P. V. Kokotovic, Path-following for nonminimum phase systems removes performance limitations, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 50, pp. 234238, February 2005. [20] J. Hauser and R. Hindman, Maneuver regulation from trajectory tracking: Feedback linearizable systems, in Proceedings of the IFAC Symposium on Nonlinear Control Systems Design, (Tahoe City, CA), pp. 595600, June 1995. o and A. Pascoal, Combined trajectory tracking and path following: An appli[21] P. Encarnac a cation to the coordinated control of marine craft, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, (Orlando, FL), pp. 964969, 2001. [22] R. Skjetne, T. Fossen, and P. Kokotovi c, Robust output maneuvering for a class of nonlinear systems, Automatica, vol. 40, pp. 373383, 2004.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

233

[23] R. Rysdyk, UAV path following for constant line-of-sight, in Proceedings of the AIAA 2nd Unmanned Unlimited Conference, AIAA, September 2003. Paper no. AIAA-2003-6626. [24] O. Khatib, Real-time obstacle avoidance for manipulators and mobile robots, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, vol. 2, pp. 500505, 1985. [25] K. Sigurd and J. P. How, UAV trajectory design using total eld collision avoidance, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, August 2003. [26] H. K. Khalil, Nonlinear Systems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 3rd ed., 2002. [27] E. P. Anderson, R. W. Beard, and T. W. McLain, Real time dynamic trajectory smoothing for uninhabited aerial vehicles, IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, vol. 13, pp. 471477, May 2005. [28] D. Hsu, R. Kindel, J.-C. Latombe, and S. Rock, Randomized kinodynamic motion planning with moving obstacles, in Algorithmic and Computational Robotics: New Directions, pp. 247264f, A. K. Peters, 2001. [29] F. Lamiraux, S. Sekhavat, and J.-P. Laumond, Motion planning and control for Hilare pulling a trailer, IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, vol. 15, pp. 640652, August 1999. [30] R. M. Murray and S. S. Sastry, Nonholonomic motion planning: Steering using sinusoids, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 38, pp. 700716, May 1993. [31] T. Balch and R. C. Arkin, Behavior-based formation control for multirobot teams, IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, vol. 14, pp. 926939, December 1998. [32] R. C. Arkin, Behavior-based Robotics. MIT Press, 1998. [33] L. E. Dubins, On curves of minimal length with a constraint on average curvature, and with prescribed initial and terminal positions and tangents, American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 79, pp. 497516, 1957. [34] E. P. Anderson and R. W. Beard, An algorithmic implementation of constrained extremal control for UAVs, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, (Monterey, CA), August 2002. AIAA Paper No. 2002-4470.

234

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[35] D. R. Nelson, D. B. Barber, T. W. McLain, and R. W. Beard, Vector eld path following for miniature air vehicles, IEEE Transactions on Robotics, vol. 37, pp. 519529, June 2007. [36] D. R. Nelson, D. B. Barber, T. W. McLain, and R. W. Beard, Vector eld path following for small unmanned air vehicles, in American Control Conference, (Minneapolis, Minnesota), pp. 57885794, June 2006. [37] R. Sedgewick, Algorithms. Addison-Wesley, 2nd ed., 1988. [38] F. Aurenhammer, Voronoi diagrams - a survey of fundamental geometric data struct, ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 23, pp. 345405, September 1991. [39] T. H. Cormen, C. E. Leiserson, and R. L. Rivest, Introduction to Algorithms. McGraw-Hill, 1993. [40] M. Pachter and P. R. Chandler, Challenges of autonomous control, IEEE Control Systems Magazine, vol. 18, pp. 9297, August 1998. [41] P. Chandler, S. Rasumussen, and M. Pachter, UAV cooperative path planning, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference, (Denver, CO), August 2000. AIAA Paper No. AIAA-2000-4370. [42] T. McLain and R. Beard, Cooperative rendezvous of multiple unmanned air vehicles, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, (Denver, CO), August 2000. Paper no. AIAA-2000-4369. [43] R. W. Beard, T. W. McLain, and M. Goodrich, Coordinated target assignment and intercept for unmanned air vehicles, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, (Washington DC), pp. 25812586, May 2002. [44] P. R. Chandler, M. Pachter, D. Swaroop, J. M. Fowler, J. K. Howlett, S. Rasmussen, C. Schumacher, and K. Nygard, Complexity in UAV cooperative control, in Proceedings of the American Control Conference, (Anchorage, AK), pp. 18311836, May 2002. [45] G. Yang and V. Kapila, Optimal path planning for unmanned air vehicles with kinematic and tactical constraints, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, (Las Vegas, NV), pp. 13011306, 2002. [46] E. Frazzoli, M. A. Dahleh, and E. Feron, Real-time motion planning for agile autonomous vehicles, Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, vol. 25, pp. 116129, JanuaryFebruary 2002.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

235

[47] N. Faiz, S. K. Agrawal, and R. M. Murray, Trajectory planning of differentially at systems with dynamics and inequalities, AIAA Journal of Guidance, Control and Dynamics, vol. 24, pp. 219227, MarchApril 2001. [48] R. K. Prasanth, J. D. Boskovic, S.-M. Li, and R. K. Mehra, Initial study of autonomous trajectory generation for unmanned aerial vehicles, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, (Orlando, FL), pp. 640645, December 2001. [49] O. A. Yakimenko, Direct method for rapid prototyping of near-optimal aircraft trajectories, AIAA Journal of Guidance, Control and Dynamics, vol. 23, pp. 865875, September-October 2000. [50] S. Sun, M. B. Egerstedt, and C. F. Martin, Control theoretic smoothing splines, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 45, pp. 22712279, December 2000. [51] A. W. Proud, M. Pachter, and J. J. DAzzo, Close formation ight control, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference and Exhibit, (Portland, OR), pp. 12311246, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, August 1999. Paper no. AIAA-99-4207. [52] R. L. Burden and J. D. Faires, Numerical Analysis. Boston: PWS-KENT Publishing Company, fourth ed., 1988. [53] T. L. Vincent and W. J. Grantham, Nonlinear and Optimal Control Systems. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997. [54] E. P. Anderson, Constrained extremal trajectories and unmanned air vehicle trajectory generation, Masters thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, April 2002. Available at http://www.ee.byu.edu/magicc/publications/thesis/ ErikAnderson.ps. [55] E. P. Anderson, R. W. Beard, and T. W. McLain, Dynamic trajectory smoothing for UAVs, Tech. Rep. MAGICC-2003-01, Brigham Young University, February 2003. Available at http://www.ee.byu.edu/magicc/tr/2003-01.pdf. [56] J. H. Evers, Biological inspiration for agile autonomous air vehicles, in Symposium on Platform Innovations and System Integration for Unmanned Air, Land, and Sea Vehicles, (Florence, Italy), NATO Research and Technology Organization AVT-146, May 2007. Paper no. 15.

236

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[57] S. Ettinger, M. Nechyba, P. Ifju, and M. Waszak, Vision-guided ight stability and control for micro air vehicles, Advanced Robotics, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 617640, 2003. [58] E. Frew and S. Rock, Trajectory generation for monocular-vision based tracking of a constant-velocity target, in Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2003. [59] R. Kumar, S. Samarasekera, S. Hsu, and K. Hanna, Registration of highly-oblique and zoomed in aerial video to reference imagery, in Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Conference, Barcelona, Spain, 2000. [60] D. Lee, K. Lillywhite, S. Fowers, B. Nelson, and J. Archibald, An embedded vision system for an unmanned four-rotor helicopter, in SPIE Optics East, Intelligent Robots and Computer Vision XXIV: Algorithms, Techniques, and Active Vision, vol. vol. 6382-24, 63840G, (Boston, MA, USA), October 2006. [61] J. Lopez, M. Markel, N. Siddiqi, G. Gebert, and J. Evers, Performance of passive ranging from image ow, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, vol. 1, pp. I929I932, September 2003. [62] M. Pachter, N. Ceccarelli, and P. R. Chandler, Vision-based target geo-location using camera equipped mavs, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, (New Orleans, LA), December 2007. (to appear). [63] R. J. Prazenica, A. J. Kurdila, R. C. Sharpley, P. Binev, M. H. Hielsberg, J. Lane, and J. Evers, Vision-based receding horizon control for micro air vehicles in urban environments, AIAA Journal of Guidance, Dynamics, and Control, (in review). [64] I. Wang, V. Dobrokhodov, I. Kaminer, and K. Jones, On vision-based target tracking and range estimation for small UAVs, in 2005 AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference and Exhibit, pp. 111, 2005. [65] Y. Watanabe, A. J. Calise, E. N. Johnson, and J. H. Evers, Minimum-effort guidance for vision-based collision avoidance, in Proceedings of the AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference and Exhibit, (Keystone, Colorado), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, August 2006. Paper no. AIAA-2006-6608. [66] Y. Watanabe, E. N. Johnson, and A. J. Calise, Optimal 3-D guidance from a 2-D vision sensor, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference, (Prov-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

237

idence, Rhode Island), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, August 2004. Paper no. AIAA-2004-4779. [67] I. H. Whang, V. N. Dobrokhodov, I. I. Kaminer, and K. D. Jones, On vision-based tracking and range estimation for small uavs, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference and Exhibit, (San Francisco, CA), August 2005. [68] R. A. Horn and C. R. Johnson, Matrix Analysis. Cambridge University, 1985. [69] Y. Ma, S. Soatto, J. Kosecka, and S. Sastry, An Invitation to 3-D Vision: From Images to Geometric Models. Springer-Verlag, 2003. [70] R. W. Beard, J. W. Curtis, M. Eilders, J. Evers, and J. R. Cloutier, Vision aided proportional navigation for micro air vehicles, in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, (Hilton Head, North Carolina), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, August 2007. Paper number AIAA-2007-****. [71] P. Zarchan, Tactical and Strategic Missile Guidance, vol. 124 of Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics. Washington DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1990. [72] A. E. Bryson and Y. C. Ho, Applied Optimal Control. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell Publishing Company, 1969. [73] M. Guelman, Proportional navigation with a maneuvering target, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 8, pp. 364371, May 1972. [74] C. F. Lin, Modern Navigation, Guidance, and Control Processing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1991. [75] M. Guelman, M. Idan, and O. M. Golan, Three-dimensional minimum energy guidance, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 31, pp. 835841, April 1995. [76] R. Beard, D. Kingston, M. Quigley, D. Snyder, R. Christiansen, W. Johnson, T. McLain, and M. Goodrich, Autonomous vehicle technologies for small xed wing UAVs, AIAA Journal of Aerospace, Computing, Information, and Communication, vol. 2, pp. 92108, January 2005. [77] P. G. Ifju, D. A. Jenkins, S. Ettinger, Y. Lian, W. Shyy, and M. R. Waszak, Flexible wing based micro air vehicles, in AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, (Reno, NV), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, January 2002. Paper no. AIAA-20020705.

238

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[78] J. G. Lee, H. S. Han, and Y. J. Kim, Guidance performance analysis of bank-to-turn (BTT) missiles, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Control Applications, (Kohala, Hawaii), pp. 991996, August 1999.