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1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of this lecture is to give an insight into the fabrication aspects of steel structures. Optimum design of steel structures can only be achieved if fabrication and erection are considered together with the functional, architectural and structural requirements. To minimize total costs and optimise the design of the steel structure, it is important that the various disciplines involved work in a coordinated way as a project team during the various stages. Fabrication costs do not depend only on the fabrication itself but are also influenced by the contract scope, contracting procedures and organisation. Costs are very sensitive to the labour involved in the fabrication. Good design concentrates on minimising material handling and preparation; in this regard it should be noted that fabrication procedures and sequencing may be influenced by the protection required to the steelwork. Careful attention should also be given to other aspects such as material characteristics, distortions and tolerances.
2.3 Planning
The success of any contract generally depends on compliance with the requirements of the project programme; deviations from the programme can have very serious effects on costs; delays can be traumatic for the other participating trades and subsequently for the client. The programme is usually made out in bar-line format and based on network techniques, including critical path analysis. Essential elements are: Erection sequence; Purchasing the material from the steelmill; Preparation of fabrication drawings;
Material preparation; Fabrication; Assembly; Protective treatment; Delivery to site. Each element is planned to a set timescale, and co-ordinated with parallel actions from other contracts occurring during the same period. If the erection programme imposes demands for shop fabrication in excess of the fabricator's capacity, then sub-letting of work will be necessary, coupled with the requisite QA- and QC-assessment.
3. FABRICATION PROCEDURES
3.1 Workshop Layout
Fabricators range from small general firms to large specialised producers with different facilities at their disposal. In either case the fabrication must always be organised in such a way that the material will pass through a one-way system from receipt to final despatch (Slide 1). A flow chart, as indicated in Slide 2, shows the main areas of activity in a modern fabrication shop; the specific activities for a simple steel beam can also be organised as a production line (Slide 3).
Slide 1
Slide 2
Slide 3 Most fabrication shops are equipped with overhead travelling cranes, sometimes remotely controlled from the shop floor. Mechanised conveyor systems are common in the larger shops. They can greatly reduce handling costs. Special facilities must be provided for the storage of flammable materials; pipelines for gas and oxygen must be installed. Welding areas require a heavy power supply and screening to protect eyes from ultraviolet glare. Some operations are very dusty and noisy, such as mechanical chipping and arc gouging. Where possible, they should be separated, therefore, from the other production areas.
Slide 4
Slide 5 When required, the steel is shot blasted in a separate location, either by hand or automatically. Sometimes the automatic installations can sense the size of the members. Paint-spraying (done either by hand or automatically) may follow directly after blast cleaning, depending on the production programme; if, for example, welding is required then painting will take place after fabrication.
The rolled sections are in most cases sawn to length, the other options being mechanical cutting or flame burning. Three types of saws are available to the fabricator: Circular saw; Band saw; Motor operated hacksaw. By far the most popular choice is the circular cold saw, as its productivity is better than that of the band saw or the hack saw. These saws are, in many cases, integrated in automatic sawing lines, equipped with mechanised longitudinal and transverse conveyors and measuring devices, as shown in Slides 6 and 7.
Slide 6
Slide 7 A saw can perform within an accuracy of a fraction of a millimetre on length and within a squareness of 0,2% of the depth of the cut. The most accurate type is equipped with a swivelling arm enabling the blade to descend onto the bar. The blade speed adjusts itself automatically on its way through the work piece. A fully automated saw system will be operated through a computer program.
The traditional method of drilling involves three operations: Marking the position of the holes to be drilled; Moving the member to the drill by crane, by conveyor, or by other means; The actual drilling of the hole, using for instance, a radial drilling machine (radius about 1,5 metre). The better equipped fabrication shops nowadays have automatic beam-line systems (Slide 8) which are generally linked to the conveyors of the sawing line. The beam (Slide 9) moves by longitudinal conveyors along the Y-axis, denoted V and X for each flange, while the web drilling heads move along the Z-axis.
Slide 8
Slide 9 Like the sawing line, this system is controlled by computer programs; some machines are equipped with multiple drilling heads enabling them to drill several holes simultaneously in each axis (Slides 10 - 12).
Slide 10
Slide 11
Slide 12
New twist drills are currently available which are capable of higher speeds and greater efficiency as follows: Coolant fed drills, giving a threefold increase in drilling speed. Titanium nitride coated drills, enabling a six-fold speed increase. Carbide tipped drills with exceptionally high cutting speeds.
Slide 13 Single head machines can be operated by an optical controlling head, following a one-in-ten or full size outline, drawn on paper. Profile cutting is often performed by numerically controlled machines which also have the capacity to mark hole positions and hardstamp identification marks. For accelerated cutting speeds, where edge hardness is not considered detrimental, other methods, like plasma cutting under water or under an inert powder, are available. Laser cutting is just starting to come into use, but is, for the time being, restricted to thin plates; the resulting edge hardness, however, makes it unsuitable for some applications. The fabricator must be aware that flame cutting will always result in shrinkage, for similar reasons as for welding.
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Symmetrical burning of plates limits distortion. Machining of one side will result in deformation due to the resulting residual stress.
Slide 14
Slide 15
Electric Arc Stud Welding, principally used in composite construction of steel and concrete.
Slide 16
Slide 17
Slide 18
Slide 19
Slide 21 Unacceptable levels of hardness at the edge of the plate, often caused by burning, can be removed by planing. End planing of members is used to get a higher standard of squareness than can be achieved by sawing. Optical laserbeam methods are used to align the axis of the member to the cutting head. Surface machining is only necessary for special bearing surfaces and sometimes for the slab base plates of columns.
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Slide 22
and on the material obtained. The larger fabricators have their own Quality Control Department, which will create and maintain a QC-manual, describing the method of operation throughout the fabrication process. The Quality Control Department will liaise with the shop management to make sure that all workers have the skill required for the job on hand and that welders are qualified to undertake the prescribed welding procedures. Regular checks are necessary to ensure that: All materials can be checked against specifications. Material is checked for laminations. Welding electrodes are identifiable. Welding electrodes are stored in the required conditions. Welding procedures are being followed. Welding is being inspected during the process. Correct procedures are in operation for tightening HSFG bolts. Identification marks are clear and visible. All equipment is maintained correctly. Close liaison should always be maintained between the QC staff and the Drawing Office.
4. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Good design makes efficient use of material and makes proper provisions for tolerances in fabrication and erection. Good interaction between shop floor and drawing office is indispensable for economical and efficient fabrication and erection. Labour should be used as effectively as possible so that labour costs are minimised. Automatic processes should be used where feasible and appropriate. Quality control is essential.
5. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Davies, B. J. and Crawley, E. J., Structural Steelwork Fabrication, British Constructional Steelwork Association (BCSA), London, 1980. 2. Arch, W. H., Structural Steelwork - Erection, British Constructional Steelwork Association (BCSA), London, 1989. 3. Firkins, A., Fabrication Cost of Structural Steelwork, Steel Construction, Vol. 24, No. 2, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1990. 4. Wardenier, J., Design and Fabrication of Steel Structures, Engineering Design of Welded Construction, IIW 1992, Houdremont lecture, Pergamon Press, 1992. 5. Various authors, Steel Construction Today, Vol. 5, No 3, Steel Construction Institute, May 1991. 6. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992. Previous | Next | Contents