The military revolution:

Military innovation and the rise of the West, 1500 1800 Chapter I.: The Military revolution revisited (emphasis on tactics and military engineering)
In 15th century, the development of the society is accompanied by the development of military technology. The domination of classical fortification design, with conventional high walls and round towers effective against infantry and cavalry, is over. At first, the appearance of only one siege gun might lead to the immediate surrender of a garrison. First siege guns were simply too large and therefore had limited use. Over time, smaller siege guns with more maneuverability have been developed. The French in the late 15th century use horse drawn siege guns and this use of artillery demanded a new way of building the fortification walls. Architects argued that defensive fortifications would be more effective if they were built in uneven lines but only few rulers paid heed. Walls were made both lower and thicker but defenders could no longer watch the ground immediately below them and so became more vulnerable to a surprise assault. Therefore, gun towers are built on the edges to cover blind spots and prevent the attacks. It was found that the addition of a wide and deep ditch both helped to keep the enemy's artillery at a greater distance and made it more difficult to approach the walls by enemy soldiers. Fortification systems were expensive to build. Their construction would often empty the budget and it was not rare to leave them unfinished. Therefore, a small number of towns have been fortified in this way. In the 16th and 17th century the defense is further developed, deeper ditches and smaller walls, presenting smaller targets, are built. The capture of that kind of stronghold required months, sometimes years (defenders starved out, tunnels excavated under a bastion where gun powder could be planted). During the 17th century there werent any more significant advancements in the wall construction techniques. Along with the development of siege weapons and fortifications, the field artillery is also being developed. Tactics which relied on the direct use of brute force gave way to the use of firepower. For example, more advanced archers helped the English in the 14th century to dominate the battlefields. In the 14th century small-calibre firearms appear, but in the beginning they have short range and low accuracy so the archers still have the leverage. A well trained archer could discharge ten arrows a minute but the arquebus of the earlier 16th century took several minutes to reload and was accurate only up to 100 metres, however the gun remained attractive because it required virtually no training for use.

During the time new weapon, musket, could throw lead shot with sufficient force to penetrate even plate armour 100 metres away. In the 16th century the development of handguns gradually obsoletes heavy swords, halberds and, in England, longbows. As a very effective infantry, pikemen still stand beside musketeers, in close ranks successful against both infantry and cavalry, thus protecting the musketeers. At the end of 16th century, commanders of the Dutch army find another way of increasing the musketeers' rate of fire: if their men were drawn up in a series of long lines, the first rank firing together and then retiring to reload while the following ranks came forward and did the same. To decrease the number of targets, the lines are becoming slimmer and longer, the battlefields larger and professional soldiers are in high demand. Troops had to be trained to fire, countermarch, load and maneuver all together. Various tactics and ways of use of such units are developed and the need arises for more advanced military schools and war textbooks. Swedes further improve on the Dutch tactics. Thanks to constant drill and practice, they increased reloading speed and in the Swedish army only six ranks of musketeers could maintain a continuous barrage. Firepower was greatly increased by the addition of a copious field artillery that is now used both, to attack and defend. Combination of perfectly trained infantry and advanced use of easily maneuverable artillery is shown to be a winning combination and other countries soon start to copy the Swedish model. This system of warfare is used throughout the whole new age and later ages will bring new, more effective techniques of attack and defense.

Key words: - military, military tactics, military technology, military engineering - siege gun, musketeers, cavalry, fortification, fortification design, walls , towers, ditches - artillery, field guns, infantry

Literature: Geofrey Parker, The military revolution : military innovation and the rise of the West, 15001800 , Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2004