Lecture Rome 2013

Vitruvius was a Roman writer, architect and engineer, active in the 1st centuryBC.
He is best known as the author of the multi-volume work De Architectura ("On Architecture"). Vitruvius is the author of De architectura, known today as The Ten Books on Architecture,[20] a treatise written in Latin and Greek on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. In the preface of Book I, Vitruvius dedicates his writings so to give personal knowledge of the quality of buildings to the emperor. Likely Vitruvius is referring to Marcus Agrippa's campaign of public repairs and improvements. This work is the only surviving major book on architecture from classical antiquity. This text "inuenced deeply from the Early Renaissance onwards artists, thinkers, and architects, among them Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519), and Michelangelo (1475-1564)."[21] The next major book on architecture, Alberti's reformulation of Ten Books, was not written until 1452. Vitruvius is famous for asserting in his book De architectura that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of rmitas, utilitas, venustas that is, it must be solid, useful, beautiful. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad. According to Vitruvius, architecture is an imitation of nature. As birds and bees built their nests, so humans constructed housing from natural materials, that gave them shelter against the elements. When perfecting this art of building, the Greek () invented the architectural orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. It gave them a sense of proportion, culminating in understanding the proportions of the greatest work of art: the human body. This led Vitruvius in dening his Vitruvian Man, as drawn later by Leonardo da Vinci: the human body inscribed in the circle and the square (the fundamental geometric patterns of the cosmic order). Vitruvius is sometimes loosely referred to as the rst architect, but it is more accurate to describe him as the rst Roman architect to have written surviving records of his eld. He himself cites older but less complete works. He was less an original thinker or creative intellect than a codier of existing architectural practice. It should also be noted that Vitruvius had a much wider scope than modern architects. Roman architects practised a
wide variety of disciplines; in modern terms, they could be described as being engineers, architects, landscape architects, artists, and craftsmen combined. Etymologically the word architect derives from Greek words meaning 'master' and 'builder'. The rst of the Ten Books deals with many subjects which now come within the scope of landscape architecture. Materials He describes many different construction materials used for a wide variety of different structures, as well as such details as stucco painting. Concrete and lime receive in-depth descriptions, the longevity of many Roman structures being mute testimony to the Romans' skill in building materials and design. Vitruvius is well known and often cited as one of the earliest surviving sources to have advised that lead should not be used to conduct drinking water, recommending clay pipes or masonry channels. He comes to this conclusion in Book VIII of De Architectura after empirical observation of the apparent laborer illnesses in the lead foundries of his time.[22] Vitruvius gives us the famous story about Archimedes and his detection of adulterated gold in a royal crown. When Archimedes realised that the volume of the crown could be measured exactly by the displacement created in a bath of water, he ran into the street with the cry of Eureka!, and the discovery enabled him to compare the density of the crown with pure gold. He showed that the crown had been alloyed with silver, and the king defrauded. Central Heating He describes the many innovations made in building design to improve the living conditions of the inhabitants. Foremost among them is the development of the hypocaust, a type of central heating where hot air developed by a re was channelled under the oor and inside the walls of public baths and villas. He gives explicit instructions how to design such buildings so that fuel efciency is maximised, so that for example, the caldarium is next to the tepidarium followed by the frigidarium. He also advises on using a type of regulator to control the heat in the hot rooms, a bronze disc set into the roof under a circular aperture which could be raised or lowered by a pulley to adjust the ventilation. Although he does
not suggest it himself, it is likely that his dewatering devices such as the reverse overshot water-wheel was used in the larger baths to lift water to header tanks at the top of the larger thermae, such as the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla.
The Forum Romanus Unlike the later imperial fora in Romewhich were self-consciously modeled on the ancient Greek plateia () public plaza or town squarethe Roman Forum developed gradually, organically and piecemeal over many centuries.[2] This is so despite the tidying up of men like Sulla, Caesar and Augustus who attempted, with some success, to impose a degree of order there. By the Imperial period the large public buildings that crowded around the central square had reduced the open area to a rectangle of about 130 by 50 meters An important function of the Forum, during both Republican and Imperial times, was to serve as the culminating venue for the celebratory military processions known as Triumphs. Victorious generals entered the city by the western Triumphal Gate (Porta Triumphalis) and circumnavigated the Palatine Hill (counterclockwise) before proceeding from the Velian Hill down the Via Sacra and into the Forum During the Republican period the Comitium continued to be the central location for all judicial and political life in the city.[9] However, in order to create a larger gathering place, the Senate began expanding the open area between the Comitium and the Temple of Vesta by purchasing existing private homes and removing them for public use. Building projects of several consuls repaved and built onto both the Comitium and the adjac. ent central plaza that was becoming the Forum.[10] The 5th century BC witnessed the construction of the earliest Forum temples with known dates of construction: the Temple of Saturn (497 BC) and the Temple of Castor and Pollux (484 BC) This began the tradition of locus popularis, in which even young nobles were expected to speak to the people from the Rostra. Gracchus was thus
credited with (or accused of) disturbing the mos maiorum ("custom of the fathers/ancestors") in ancient Rome. The earliest basilicas (large, aisled halls) were introduced to the Forum in 184 BC by Marcus Portius Cato, which began the process of "monumentalizing" the site. The white marble Arch of Septimius Severus was added the northwest end of the Forum close to the foot of the Capitoline Hill and adjacent to the old, vanishing Comitium. It was dedicated in 203 AD to commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons, and is one of the most visible landmarks there today. The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305) was the last of the great builders of Rome's city infrastructure and he did not omit the Forum from his program. By his day it had become highly cluttered with honoric memorials. He refurbished and reorganized it, building anew the Temple of Saturn, Temple of Vesta and the Curia.[19] The last had recently burned and Diocletian's version is the one that can still be visited today. The reign of Constantine the Great saw the division of the Empire into its Eastern and Western halves, as well as the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD), the last signicant expansion of the Forum complex. This restored much of the political focus to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later. The Colosseum The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started in 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modications being made during Domitian's reign (8196).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine. The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofcial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic [8][9] as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10] The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby[3] (the statue of Nero was named after the Colossus of Rhodes)[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
Maison Carre It was built c. 16 BC,[1] and reconstructed in the following years,[2] by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, who was also the original patron of the Pantheon in Rome he Maison Carre is an example of Vitruvian architecture.[4] Raised on a 2.85 m high podium, the temple dominated the forum of the Roman city, forming a rectangle almost twice as long as it is wide, measuring 26.42 m
by 13.54 m. The faade is dominated by a deep portico or pronaos almost a third of the building's length. It is a hexastyle design with six Corinthian columns under the Pediment at either end,[5] and pseudoperipteral in that twenty engaged columns are embedded along the walls of the cella. Above the columns, the architrave is divided by two recessed rows of petried water drips into three levels with ratios of 1:2:3. Egg-and-dart decoration divides the architrave from the frieze. The frieze is decorated with ne ornamental relief carvings of rosettes and acanthus leaves beneath a row of very ne dentils. A large door (6.87 m high by 3.27 m wide) leads to the surprisingly small and windowless interior, where the shrine was originally housed. This is now used to house a tourist oriented 3-D lm on a series of heroes that arose through Nmes' history. No ancient decoration remains inside the cella.
Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between AD 212 and 216, during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla. They would have had to install over 2,000 tons of material every day for 6 years in order to complete it in this time period. Records show that the idea for the baths were drawn up by Septimius Severus, and merely completed or opened in the lifetime of Caracalla.[2] This would allow for a longer construction time frame. The bath complex covered approximately 25 hectares (33ac). The bath building was 228 metres (750ft) long, 116 metres (380ft) wide and 38.5 metres (125ft) estimated height, and could hold an estimated 1,600 bathers.[5] The Caracalla bath complex of buildings was more a leisure centre than just a series of baths. The "baths" were the second to have a public library
within the complex. Like other public libraries in Rome, there were two separate and equal sized rooms or buildings; one for Greek language texts and one for Latin language texts. The baths consisted of a central 55.7 by 24 metre (183x79ft) frigidarium (cold room) under three 32.9 meter (108ft) high groin vaults, a double pool tepidarium (medium), and a 35 meter (115ft) diameter caldarium (hot room), as well as two palaestras (gyms where wrestling and boxing was practised). The north end of the bath building contained a natatio or swimming pool. The natatio was rooess with bronze mirrors mounted overhead to direct sunlight into the pool area. The entire bath building was on a 6 metre (20ft) high raised platform to allow for storage and furnaces under the building.[5] The libraries were located in exedrae on the east and west sides of the bath complex. The entire north wall of the complex was devoted to shops. The reservoirs on the south wall of the complex were fed with water from the Marcian Aqueduct.[5]
Pont du Gard The Pont du Gard is a notable ancient Roman aqueduct bridge that crosses the Gard River in southern France. It is part of a 50km (31mi) long aqueduct that runs between Uzs and Nmes in the South of France. It is located in Vers-Pont-du-Gard near Remoulins, in the Gard dpartement. The aqueduct was constructed by the Romans in the 1st century AD and was added to UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1985. It is the highest of all Roman aqueduct bridges and is the best preserved after the Aqueduct of Segovia. The bridge has three tiers of arches, standing 48.8m (160ft) high, and formerly carried an estimated 200 million liters (44 million gallons) of water a day to the fountains, baths and homes of the citizens of Nmes. The aqueduct descends in height by only 17m (56ft) over its entire length, while the bridge itself descends by a mere 2.5 cm, indicative of the great precision that Roman engineers were able to achieve using only simple technology. It was possibly used until as late as the 9th century, well after
the fall of Rome. However, lack of maintenance after the 4th century meant that it became increasingly clogged by mineral deposits and debris that eventually choked off the ow of water. The rst level of the Pont du Gard adjoins a road bridge that was added in the 18th century. The water conduit or specus, which is about 1.8m (5.9ft) high and 1.2m (3.9ft) wide, is carried at the top of the third level. The upper levels of the bridge are slightly curved in the upstream directions, a fact long attributed to the engineers wanting to strengthen it against the ow of water, like a dam wall. However, a microtopographic survey carried out in 1989 showed that the bend is caused by the daily expansion and contraction of stones under the heat of the sun, by about 5mm (0.20in). Over the centuries, this process has produced the deformation witnessed now.[11] The Pont du Gard was constructed largely without the use of mortar or clamps. It contains an estimated 50,400 tons of stone with a volume of some 21,000 m; some of the individual blocks weigh up to 6 tons.[12] They were precisely cut to t perfectly together by friction alone, eliminating the need for mortar.[3] The builders also left inscriptions on the stonework conveying various messages and instructions. Many blocks were numbered and inscribed with the required locations, such as fronte dextra or fronte sinistra (front right or front left), to guide the builders.[13] The architect is Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and his method of construction is fairly well understood. The patron of the aqueduct a rich individual or the city of Nmes itself would have hired a large team of contractors and skilled labourers. The route would have been planned by a surveyor or mensor, using a groma for sighting, the chorobates for levelling, and a set of measuring poles ve or ten Roman feet long. He would have recorded gures and perhaps drawn plans on wax tablets, later to be written up on scrolls. The builders may have used templates to guide them with tasks that required a high degree of precision, such as carving the standardised blocks from which the water conduit was constructed.[14]
Hadrian (Latin: Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus[1][2][3] 24 January 76 10 July 138), was a Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in all his tastes. He was the third of the socalled Five Good Emperors. Hadrian was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus to an ethnically Italian family in Italica near Seville. His predecessor Trajan was a maternal cousin of Hadrian's father.[4] Trajan never ofcially designated an heir, but according to his wife Pompeia Plotina, Trajan named Hadrian emperor immediately before his death. Trajan's wife and his friend Licinius Sura were well-disposed towards Hadrian, and he may well have owed his succession to them.[5] During his reign, Hadrian traveled to nearly every province of the Empire. An ardent admirer of Greece, he sought to make Athens the cultural capital of the Empire and ordered the construction of many opulent temples in the city. He used his relationship with his Greek favorite Antinous to underline his philhellenism and led to the creation of one of the most popular cults of ancient times. He spent extensive amounts of his time with the military; he usually wore military attire and even dined and slept amongst the soldiers. He ordered military training and drilling to be more rigorous and even made use of false reports of attack to keep the army alert. Upon his ascension to the throne, Hadrian withdrew from Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia and Armenia, and even considered abandoning Dacia. Late in his reign he suppressed the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judaea, renaming the province Syria Palaestina. In 136 an ailing Hadrian adopted Lucius Aelius as his heir, but the latter died suddenly two years later. Hadrian has been described, by Ronald Syme among others, as the most versatile of all the Roman Emperors. He also liked to demonstrate knowledge of all intellectual and artistic elds. Above all, Hadrian patronized the arts: Hadrian's Villa at Tibur (Tivoli) was the greatest Roman example of an Alexandrian garden, recreating a sacred landscape, lost in large part to the despoliation of the ruins by the Cardinal d'Este who had much of the marble removed to build Villa d'Este. In Rome, the Pantheon, originally built by Agrippa but destroyed by re in 80, was
rebuilt under Hadrian in the domed form it retains to this day. It is among the best preserved of Rome's ancient buildings and was highly inuential to many of the great architects of the Italian Renaissance and Baroque periods.[citation needed] From well before his reign, Hadrian displayed a keen interest in architecture, but it seems that his eagerness was not always well received. For example, Apollodorus of Damascus, famed architect of the Forum of Trajan, dismissed his designs. When Trajan, predecessor to Hadrian, consulted Apollodorus about an architectural problem, Hadrian interrupted to give advice, to which Apollodorus replied, "Go away and draw your pumpkins. You know nothing about these problems." "Pumpkins" refers to Hadrian's drawings of domes like the Serapeum in his villa. It is rumoured that once Hadrian succeeded Trajan to become emperor, he had Apollodorus exiled and later put to death. It is very possible that this later story was a later attempt to defame his character, as Hadrian, though popular among a great many across the Empire, was not universally admired, either in his lifetime or afterwards Ancient The Pantheon In the aftermath of the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Marcus Agrippa built and dedicated the original Pantheon during his third consulship (27BC). [7] Located in the Campus Martius, at the time of its construction, the area of the Pantheon was on the outskirts of Rome, and the area had a rural appearance. Under the Roman Republic the Campus Martius had served as a gathering place for elections and the army. However, under Augustus and the new Principate both institutions were deemed to be unnecessary within the city.[8][9] The construction of the Pantheon was part of a program of construction that was undertaken by Augustus Caesar and his supporters. They built more than twenty structures on the Campus Martius, including the Baths of Agrippa and the Saepta Julia.[10] It had long been thought that the current building was built by Agrippa, with later alterations undertaken, and this was in part because of the inscription on the front of the temple. [11]
The Pantheon dome. The coffers for the concrete dome were poured in molds, probably on the temporary scaffolding; the oculus admits the only light. The inscription across the front of the Pantheon says: MAGRIPPALFCOSTERTIVMFECIT or in full, "M[arcus] Agrippa L[ucii] f[ilius] co[n] s[ul] tertium fecit," meaning "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, made this building when consul for the third time."[12] However, archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been completely destroyed except for the facade, and Emperor Hadrian was responsible for rebuilding the Pantheon on the site of Agrippa's original temple.[13] There had been two earlier buildings on the same spot, for which the new Pantheon was a replacement.[14] The form of Agrippa's Pantheon is debated.[7] As a result of excavations in the late 19th century, archaeologist Rodolfo Lanciani concluded that Agrippa's Pantheon was oriented so that it faced south, in contrast with the current layout that faces northwards, and that it had a shortened T-shaped plan with the entrance at the base of the "T". This description was widely accepted until the late 20th century. However, more recent archaeological diggings suggest that the building might have taken a different form. Agrippa's Pantheon might have had a circular form with a triangular porch, and it might have also faced north, much like the later rebuildings.[15] The Augustan Pantheon was destroyed along with other buildings in a huge re in 80AD. Domitian rebuilt the Pantheon, which burned again in 110AD.[16] Not long after the second re, construction started again, according to a recent re-evaluation of the bricks dated with manufacturer stamps.[17] Therefore, the design of the building should not be credited to Hadrian or his architects. Instead, the design of the existent building might belong to Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damascus.[17] The degree to which the decorative scheme should be credited to Hadrian's architects is uncertain. Finished by Hadrian but not claimed as one of his works, it used the text of the original inscription on the new facade (a common practice in Hadrian's rebuilding projects all over Rome; the only building on which Hadrian put his own name was the Temple to the Deied Trajan).[18] How the building was actually used is not known.
Agrippa nished the construction of the building called the Pantheon. It has this name, perhaps because it received among the images which decorated it the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own opinion of the name is that, because of its vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens. Hadrians Villa The villa was constructed at Tibur (modern-day Tivoli) as a retreat from Rome for Roman Emperor Hadrian during the second and third decades of the 2nd century AD. Hadrian was said to dislike the palace on the Palatine Hill in Rome, leading to the construction of the retreat. During the later years of his reign, he actually governed the empire from the villa. A large court therefore lived there permanently. The postal service kept it in contact with Rome 18 miles (29km) away. After Hadrian, the villa was used by his various successors. During the decline of the Roman Empire the villa fell into disuse and was partially ruined. In the 16th century Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este had much of the marble and statues in Hadrian's villa removed to decorate his own Villa d'Este located nearby. Structure and architecture Hadrian's villa was a complex of over 30 buildings, covering an area of at least 1 square kilometre (c. 250 acres) of which much is still unexcavated. The villa was the greatest Roman example of an Alexandrian garden, recreating a sacred landscape. The complex included palaces, several thermae, theatre, temples, libraries, state rooms and quarters for courtiers, praetorians and slaves.
The ruins of Hadrian's Villa in their present state The Villa shows echoes of many different architectural orders, mostly Greek and Egyptian. Hadrian, a very well travelled emperor, borrowed these designs, such as the caryatids by the Canopus, along with the statues beside them depicting the Egyptian dwarf and fertility god, Bes. A Greek so called "Maritime Theatre" exhibits classical ionic style, whereas the
domes of the main buildings as well as the corinthian arches of the Canopus and Serapeum show clear Roman architecture. Hadrian's biography states that areas in the villa were named after places Hadrian saw during his travels. Only a few places mentioned in the biography can be accurately correlated with the present-day ruins. One of the most striking and best preserved parts of the Villa are a pool and an articial grotto which were named Canopus and Serapeum, respectively. Canopus was an Egyptian city where a temple (Serapeum) was dedicated to the god Serapis. However, the architecture is Greek inuenced (typical in Roman architecture of the High and Late Empire) as seen in the Corinthian columns and the copies of famous Greek statues that surround the pool. One anecdote involves the Serapeum and its peculiarly-shaped dome. A prominent architect of the day, Apollodorus of Damascus, dismisses Hadrian's designs, comparing the dome on Serapeum to a "pumpkin". The full quote is "Go away and draw your pumpkins. You know nothing about these [architectural] matters." Once Hadrian became emperor, Apollodorus was exiled and later put to death. An interesting structure in the Villa is the so-called "Maritime Theatre". It consists of a round portico with a barrel vault supported by pillars. Inside the portico was a ring-shaped pool with a central island. During the ancient times the island was connected to the portico by two drawbridges. On the island sits a small Roman house complete with an atrium, a library, a triclinium and small baths. The area was probably used by the emperor as a retreat from the busy life at the court. The villa utilizes numerous architectural styles and innovations. The area has an extensive network of underground tunnels. The tunnels were mostly used to transport servants and goods from one area to another. The paths and roads above ground were reserved for more high-ranking residents of the Villa. Domes and barrel vaults are used extensively. The domes of the steam baths have circular holes on the apex to allow steam to escape. This is reminiscent of the Pantheon, also built by Hadrian.
Treasury at Petra History Evidence suggests that settlements had begun in and around Petra in the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550-1292 BC). It is listed in Egyptian campaign accounts and the Amarna letters as Pel, Sela or Seir. Though the city was founded relatively late, a sanctuary existed there since very ancient times. Stations 19 through 26 of the stations list of Exodus are places associated with Petra.[8] This part of the country was Biblically assigned to the Horites, the predecessors of the Edomites.[9] The habits of the original natives may have inuenced the Nabataean custom of burying the dead and offering worship in half-excavated caves. Although Petra is usually identied with Sela which means a rock, the Biblical references [10] refer to it as "the cleft in the rock", referring to its entrance. The second book of Kings xiv. 7 seems to be more specic. In the parallel passage, however, Sela is understood to mean simply "the rock" (2 Chronicles xxv. 12, see LXX). On the authority of Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews iv. 7, 1~ 4, 7) Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. sacr. 286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55. 287, 94) assert that Rekem was the native name and Rekem appears in the Dead Sea Scrolls[11] as a prominent Edom site most closely describing Petra and associated with Mount Seir. But in the Aramaic versions Rekem is the name of Kadesh, implying that Josephus may have confused the two places. Sometimes the Aramaic versions give the form Rekem-Geya which recalls the name of the village El-ji, southeast of Petra.[citation needed] The Semitic name of the city, if not Sela, remains unknown. The passage in Diodorus Siculus (xix. 9497) which describes the expeditions which Antigonus sent against the Nabataeans in 312 BC is understood to throw some light upon the history of Petra, but the "petra" referred to as a natural fortress and place of refuge cannot be a proper name and the description implies that the town was not yet in existence. Finally come the elaborate faades copied from the front of a Roman temple; however, all traces of native style have vanished. The exact dates of the stages in this development cannot be xed. Few inscriptions of any
length have been found at Petra, perhaps because they have perished with the stucco or cement which was used upon many of the buildings. Roman rule In 106 AD, when Cornelius Palma was governor of Syria, that part of Arabia under the rule of Petra was absorbed into the Roman Empire as part of Arabia Petraea, becoming capital. The native dynasty came to an end, but the city continued to ourish. It was around this time that the Petra Roman Road was built. A century later, in the time of Alexander Severus, when the city was at the height of its splendor, the issue of coinage comes to an end. There is no more building of sumptuous tombs, owing apparently to some sudden catastrophe, such as an invasion by the neoPersian power under the Sassanid Empire. Meanwhile, as Palmyra (. 130270) grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra, the latter declined. It seems, however, to have lingered on as a religious centre. A Roman road was constructed at the site. Epiphanius of Salamis (c.315403) writes that in his time a feast was held there on December 25 in honor of the virgin Khaabou (Chaabou) and her offspring Dushara (Haer. 51).[citation needed]
Baalbek (Greek: ; Arabic: !"#$% / ALA-LC: Baalbak) is a town in the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon situated east of the Litani River. It is famous for its exquisitely detailed yet monumentally scaled temple ruins of the Roman period, when Baalbek, then known as Heliopolis, was one of the largest sanctuaries in the empire. It is Lebanon's greatest Roman treasure, and it can be counted among the wonders of the ancient world, containing some of the largest and best preserved Roman ruins. Towering high above the Beqaa plain, their monumental proportions proclaimed the power and wealth of Imperial Rome. The gods worshiped there, the triad of Jupiter, Venus and Bacchus, were grafted onto the indigenous deities of Hadad, Atargatis and a young male god of fertility. Local inuences are seen in the planning and layout of the temples, which vary from the classic Roman design.
After Alexander the Great conquered the Near East in 334 BCE, the existing settlement was named Heliopolis () from helios, Greek for sun, and polis, Greek for city. The city retained its religious function during Greco-Roman times, when the sanctuary of the Heliopolitan Jupiter-Baal was a pilgrimage site. Trajan's biographer records that the emperor consulted the oracle there. Trajan inquired of the Heliopolitan Jupiter whether he would return alive from his wars against the Parthians. In reply, the god presented him with a vine shoot cut into pieces. Macrobius, a Latin grammarian of the 5th century, mentioned Zeus Heliopolitanus and the temple, a place of oracular divination. Starting in the last quarter of the 1st century BCE (reign of Augustus) and over a period of two centuries (reign of Philip the Arab), the Romans had built a temple complex in Baalbek consisting of three temples: Jupiter, Bacchus and Venus. On a nearby hill, they built a fourth temple dedicated to Mercury. The city, then known as Heliopolis (there was another Heliopolis in Egypt), was made a colonia by Septimius Severus in 193, having been part of the territory of Berytus on the Phoenician coast since 15 BCE. Work on the religious complex there lasted over a century and a half and was never completed. The dedication of the present temple ruins, the largest religious building in the entire Roman empire, dates from the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211 CE), whose coins rst show the two temples. In commemoration, no doubt, of the dedication of the new sanctuaries, Severus conferred the rights of the ius Italicum on the city. Today, only six Corinthian columns remain standing. Eight more were disassembled and shipped to Constantinople under Justinian's orders circa 532-537 CE, for his basilica of Hagia Sophia. The greatest of the three temples was sacred to Jupiter Baal, ("Heliopolitan Zeus"), identied here with the sun, and was constructed during the rst century CE (completed circa 60 CE).[5] With it were associated a temple to Venus and a lesser temple in honor of Bacchus (though it was traditionally referred to as the "Temple of the Sun" by Neoclassical visitors, who saw it as the best-preserved Roman temple in the world it is surrounded by forty-two columns nearly 20 meters in height). Thus three Eastern deities were worshipped in Roman guise: thundering Jove, the god
of storms, stood in for Baal-Hadad, Venus for Ashtart and Bacchus for Anatolian Dionysus. The original number of Jupiter columns was 54 columns. The architrave and frieze blocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and one corner block over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of 19m (62.34ft) above the ground.[6] This was thought to have been done using Roman cranes. Roman cranes were not capable of lifting stones this heavy; however, by combining multiple cranes they may have been able to lift them to this height. If necessary they may have used the cranes to lever one side up a little at a time and use shims to hold it while they did the other side. The Roman construction was built on top of earlier ruins and involved the creation of an immense raised plaza onto which the actual buildings were placed. The sloping terrain necessitated the creation of retaining walls on the north, south and west sides of the plaza. These walls are built of about 24 monoliths at their lowest level each weighing approximately 300 tons. The western, tallest retaining wall has a second course of monoliths containg the famous trilithon: a row of three stones, each over 19 metres long, 4.3 metres high and 3.6 metres broad, cut from limestone. They weigh approximately 800 tons each.[7] Other emperors enriched the sanctuary of Heliopolitan Jupiter each in turn. Nero (5468 CE) built the tower-altar opposite the Temple of Jupiter; Trajan (98-117) added the forecourt to the Temple of Jupiter, with porticos of pink granite brought from Aswan in Egypt. Antoninus Pius (138-161) built the Temple of Bacchus, the best preserved of the sanctuary's structures, for it was protected by the rubble of the site's ruins. It is enriched with rened reliefs and sculpture. Septimius Severus (193-211) added a pentagonal temple of Venus, who as Aphrodite had enjoyed an early Syrian role with her consort Adonis ("Lord", the Aramaic translation of "Baal."). Emperor Philip the Arab (244249) was the last to add a monument at Heliopolis: the hexagonal forecourt. When he was nished Heliopolis and Praeneste in Italy were the two largest sanctuaries in the Western world.
Lecture 8: Rome I
Rome
Vitruvian Architecture Principles Roman Inuence on Urban Planning Roman as Innovators Rome as a Constructors Extensive Use of Concrete and the Arch
Wednesday, May 29, 2013
Lecture 8: Rome I Beginnings of the Roman Empire
Lecture 8: Rome I
Rome was founded by Romulus and 758 738 BC. Located close to the Sea for trade, but far enough away for safety. Planned according to the topography, with a grid imposed.
Map of Rome and Italy
Map of Rome
Map of Ancient Rome
Map of Florentia Cardo and Decumanus

Map of Pompeii 300 BC
Map of Ancient Rome
Lecture 8: Rome I
Rome as Innovators
The Use of the Arch The Development of the Vault and the Dome The Use of the Grid
Lecture 8: Rome I
The Arch became the fundamental architectural element in Roman construction. The arch developed into the vault. The Romans used the Greek ideas of Temple planning. The Romans used the Greek ideas of the orders.
Lecture 8: Rome I
The Orders of Greek Columns and Temples
Doric - Developed in Western Greece Ionic - Developed in Eastern Greece Corinthian - Developed 100 BC at the end of Greek Empire
The Greek Orders
Doric
Ionic
Corinthian
Lecture 8: Rome I
The Arch and the Development of the vault.
Mycenea
Date: 1500 BC
Lecture 8: Rome I
The Arch and the Development of the vault
Lecture 8: Rome I
Lecture 8: Rome I
The Roman Forum The Baths of Caracalla The Colosseum Pont du Gard Maison Carre
The Roman Forum, Rome

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD
Map of Ancient Rome
The Roman Forum, Rome (Arch of Titus)

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD
Map of Ancient Rome
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
The Colosseum, Rome

Date: 72 - 80 AD
Pont du Gard, Nimes, France

Date: 80 - 95 BC Architect:Marcus Agrippa






Date: 80 - 95 BC Architect:Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
The Parthenon - Plan: Iktinos & Kallikrates

Athens, Greece 550 - 400 BC
The Parthenon: Iktinos & Kallikrates

Athens, Greece 550 - 400 BC
Maison Carre, Nimes, France

Date: 19 BC Architect: Marcus Agrippa







The Baths of Caracalla, Rome

Date: 212 - 216 AD Architect: Septimius Severus














Basilica of Constantine
Date: 308 - 312
Date: 308 - 312
Lecture 9: Rome II
Rome
Vitruvian Architecture Principles Outside Inuence on Roman Ideas Vernacular Roman Architecture Pompeii
Lecture 9: Rome II Beginnings of the Roman Empire
Lecture 9: Rome II
Rome was founded by Romulus and 758 738 BC. Located close to the Sea for trade, but far enough away for safety. Planned according to the topography, with a grid imposed.
Map of Ancient Rome
Map of Florentia Cardo and Decumanus

Map of Ancient Rome
Lecture 9: Rome II
Rome as Innovators
The Use of the Arch The Development of the Vault and the Dome The Use of the Grid
Lecture 9: Rome II
The Arch became the fundamental architectural element in Roman construction. The arch developed into the vault. The Romans used the Greek ideas of Temple planning. The Romans used the Greek ideas of the orders.

Lecture 9: Rome II
The Orders of Greek Columns and Temples
Doric - Developed in Western Greece Ionic - Developed in Eastern Greece Corinthian - Developed 100 BC at the end of Greek Empire
The Greek Orders
Doric
Ionic
Corinthian
Lecture 9: Rome II
The Arch and the Development of the vault.
Mycenea
Date: 1500 BC
Lecture 9: Rome II


Aqueduct, Spain
Aqueduct Diagram

Rome Aqueduct Diagram
Roman Brick Work
Ostia - Public Toilets

Date: 1 Century

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD

Date: 497 BC - 312 AD
Date: 308 - 312

Lecture 8: Rome I
The Pantheon Hadrians Villa at Tivoli The Treasury at Petra The Temples at Baalbek Pompeii and Ostia
Roman Empire 1 Century AD
The Pantheon, Rome

Date: 120 -127 AD Architect: Hadrian
The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

The Pantheon, Rome

Hadrians Villa at Tivoli

Date: 118 - 134 AD Architect: Hadrian


Hadrians Villa at Tivoli Piazza dOro











The Treasury at Petra

Date: 110 AD

Date: 110 AD

Date: 110 AD

Date: 110 AD

Date: 110 AD

Date: 110 AD

Date: 110 AD

Date: 110 AD
The Ampitheater Petra

Date: 110 AD
The Temple Complex at Baalbek

Date: 54 - 117 AD

Date: 54 - 117 AD
The Temple of Venus at Baalbek

Date: 60AD
The Temple of Venus at Baalbek

Date: 60AD
The Temple of Jupiter at Baalbek

Date: 54 - 68 AD

Date: 54 - 68 AD

Date: 54 - 68 AD

Date: 54 - 117 AD
Map of Rome and Italy
Map of Rome
Map of Pompeii 300 BC
Pompeii
Date: 79 AD
Pompeii
Date: 79 AD
Pompeii
Date: 79 AD
Pompeii - Decumanus Maximus

Date: 79 AD
Pompeii - Decumanus Maximus

Date: 79 AD
Ostia Temple of Rome and Augustus

Date: 100 AD
Ostia Building on the Cardo Maximus

Date: 100 AD
Ostia Building on the Cardo Maximus

Date: 100 AD
Ostia Building Column Detail on the Cardo Maximus

Date: 100 AD
Ostia Thermopolium (Restaurant)

Date: 100 AD

Lecture Rome 2013

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Lecture Rome 2013

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Vitruvius was a Roman writer, architect and engineer, active in the 1st centuryBC.

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Lecture 8: Rome I Beginnings of the Roman Empire

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Map of Rome and Italy

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Map of Ancient Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Map of Florentia Cardo and Decumanus

Map of Pompeii 300 BC

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Map of Ancient Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Orders of Greek Columns and Temples

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Greek Orders

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Arch and the Development of the vault.

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Map of Ancient Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome (Arch of Titus)

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Roman Forum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Map of Ancient Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

The Colosseum, Rome