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I M P R I N T
C O N T E N T S
Page
50 YEARS OF KRAUTKRMER
A word of greeting from the company founders ..................................... 3 A word of greeting from the General Management ................................ 3
TESTING YESTERDAY
The Krautkrmer Story ........................................................................ 4 Reminiscenses of the early years with Krautkrmer .............................. 8
Cover photo Weld testing on a pipeline using portable flaw detectors from the past and present: the USK 2 with separate power unit (1956) and the USM 25 (1999) Other photos and pictures p. 38: Zeppelin Silo- und Apparatebau GmbH, Friedrichshafen p. 42: Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, Munic p. 46: Published in FACTS (Switzerland) 39/1998 all other photos: Krautkrmer echo Published by: Krautkrmer GmbH & Co. oHG Rober t-Bosch-Str. 3 - D-50354 Hrth P.O. Box 1363 - D-50330 Hrth Tel.: +49-2233-601 0 Fax: +49-2233-601 402 E-Mail: MReuter@krautkramer.de Internet: www.krautkramer.com Editorial team: Paul Buschke Ulrich Huhn Roland Kierspel Brigitte Krause Harald Neuhaus Monika Reuter Other authors from Krautkrmer M. Berke, H.-E. Grefenberg, W. Hansen, U. Hoppenkamps, B. Karbach, T. Pagel, P. Renzel, W. Roggendor f, Dr. W. Roye, U. Schlengermann, S. Schulz, Dr. J. Sommer, Dr. G. Splitt, B. Waldron Layout Brigitte Krause Monika Reuter Printed by: der springende punkt Kommunikation GmbH, Kln Total distribution: 18.000 No subscription charge. Reproduction must include mention of the source, and a specimen copy is requested to be sent to our editorial office. Contributions from readers are welcome. 7/99
All safe and (ultra)sound, play it safe with ultrasound ......................... 11
TESTING TODAY
News about DM 4 ............................................................................. 16 State of the art in coating thickness measurement ............................ 17 The invasion of the smallest ones ..................................................... 19 Ever ything about scanners ................................................................ 22 Wall thickness measurement on components having unknown sound velocities ....................................................... 23 An ultrasonic instrument for all eventualities ..................................... 24 Tube testing - on a large scale, off-the-peg design .............................. 26 Immersion testing with the UPR family ............................................... 26
TESTING TOMORROW
True or not true? .............................................................................. 28 Quick hardness testing, quick documentation .................................... 29 Array transducers with integrated electronics for industrial applications .................................................................. 30 Joined together by welding ................................................................ 33
REPORTS AND OPINIONS

The Krautkrmer training system ....................................................... 36 Probes for the DM 4 ......................................................................... 37 Another step forward in ultrasonic testing .......................................... 38 Steps in ultrasonic testing ................................................................ 39 Ser vice in changing times ................................................................. 40
ECHO PULSES
Checking of resistance spot welds .................................................... 42 Well armed for the year 2000 ........................................................... 43 The Krautkrmer Ultrasonic Booklet .................................................. 44 With small and large calibre .............................................................. 45 Tracking down the holes ................................................................... 46 Nothing but a cheesy story? Luckily a fat profit! ................................. 47
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50 Y E A R S O F K R A U T K R M E R
A word of greeting from the company founders

We would like to send our greetings to the Krautkrmer company and congratulate the company on the occasion of its 50th anniversary. Thanks are due to the General Management, to all members of the staff, to customers as well as to suppliers and representatives all over the world, who have so successfully continued to manage and suppor t the company founded by us. We would also like to send our greetings to those who have retired and who in their time were comrades-in-arms for an increased safety through ultrasonic testing, and who transmitted knowledge and motivation. We wish ever ybody a lot of creativity, ever y success in new markets, and a sound profit line for the future!
Josef Krautkrmer Dr. rer.nat. habil. Dr.-Ing. h.c.
Herbert Krautkrmer Dr. rer.nat. Honorar y senator at the WHU (Wissenschaftliche Hochschule fr Unternehmensfhrung / Scientific College for Business Management)
A word of greeting from the General Management

Krautkrmer has shaped the histor y of ultrasonic testing in Germany and around the world from the very beginning. The founders of the company have focused their product developments on the solution of essential test problems, and we are proud of the fact that we continue writing this histor y of innovations. Our latest products supply impressive proof of this. We are likewise proud of the fact that we always apply the technically feasible for the benefit of our customers. This is the reason why we keep up the dialog with our customers in order to incorporate the experiences and ideas from the field into the development of our products and into ever ything we do. Application lab, sales, ser vice, training courses and information offered are examples of this, and their impor tance will also determine our future. Our work was and still is focused on the quality of our products and on the dialog with our customers. We are sure that the members of our staff will continue to follow this path in the years to come. The customer service is our highest principle. Werner Demmig General Manager
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T E S T I N G Y E S T E R D A Y
The Krautkrmer Story

The way it all began.
The legendary garage
The history of Krautkrmer begins as so often in those days - in a garage. Its the year 1946: The university of Cologne, where Dr. Josef Krautkrmer is lecturer and Herber t Krautkrmer a student, is in ruins. The two brothers want to tr y and earn some money until the university reopens naturally with something they know how to do best: physics. So they hire a garage, set up a laborator y in it, and nail a sign beside the door: Dr. Josef and Herber t Krautkrmer, Company for Electrophysics. They hope to get a few orders for the repair or development of all types of physical measuring instruments. tecting even the largest accumulation of pores. Clearly, this is a challenge for passionate physicists like the two Krautkrmer brothers. Their answer: the development of an ultrasonic instrument that operates according to the throughtransmission method - a principle which, though already described in scientific publications, had not yet been applied successfully in field conditions. However it works, but is not the thing needed because the tests take by far too long. Its only a sort of warm-up round in ultrasonics, the real breakthrough is yet to come. sails since they had used the advance money paid but not carried out the order. But they did develop an instrument able to do something else, viz. to nondestructively detect material flaws in components made of steel. Nobody at that time had the slightest idea of the possibilities opened up by this black box. Not even the Krautkrmer brothers themselves, although they are convinced of their own development. In August 1949, a meeting of the Verein Deutscher Eisenhttenleute - Association of German Ironworkers takes place in Dsseldorf, on which occasion they aim to present their meanwhile advanced ultrasonic flaw detector the first German instrument of this type, and already a typical Krautkrmer product with all the bits and pieces, that means with all the features pointing the way ahead for the later development: highly sensitive, high resolution, display of flaws measuring only one millimeter at a depth of less than ten millimeters (radio-frequency display with a 50-millimeter range), pulse repetition frequency up to 1000 Her tz, and por table with its weight of around 20 kilograms. This makes 1949 the year when the ultrasonic flaw detectors from Krautkrmer were born.
The challenge
One day they are faced with problems of a different type from industr y: the Krupp-WIDIA company is looking for a nondestructive test method that would help reduce the reject rate of their products. This concerns wire drawing dies made of metal carbide which in many cases show blowholes and pores just underneath the material sur face. As these defects are not revealed till the grinding process, the work done here is quite uneconomic involving a lot of wasted time. How is it possible to detect such material flaws before any further processing of the components? X-rays are not suitable anyhow, theyre no use for de-
1949: the first real Krautkrmer instrument

Were in 1949. The Krautkrmer brothers have discovered the fascinating world of echoes as they have further developed their idea and built an ultrasonic flaw detector in which the ultrasonic signals transmitted into the component are displayed on an oscilloscope. Its true that this instrument does not solve the actual problem because, due to unsufficient resolution, it cannot deliver proof of the detected porosity just below the surface. Its also true that the disappointed customer therefore shelves this new development. Its likewise true that this took a good bit of wind out of Josef and Herbert Krautkrmers
The beginning of a wonderful (business) friendship

A few hundred people are present at the meeting in Dsseldor f when Josef Krautkrmer begins to read his paper titled Nondestructive Ultrasonic Testing. Herber t Krautkrmer operates the projector. When the lights are switched on again after the per formance, only three members of the whole audience are left. One of them is the head of quality assurance at the Federal German Railways.
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The ultrasonic instruments are being continuously improved along with the experiences gathered in the field; orders also star t to come in slowly but continuously. From Januar y 1951 onward, all engines belonging to German Rail are tested using Krautkrmer equipment; a number of more or less impor tant cracks are detected in the axles in this connection. Express train ser vices can now be continued without risks thanks to ultrasonic testing.
left: Axle testing at the Federal German Railways
The people at the German Rail are interested. They have a few problems with their sur viving cars and engines after 1945. The readiness for service is not guaranteed, axle breakage and rail failures are to be expected. X-ray devices, whose introduction has been promoted by the German Rail itself, are not available. In addition, this new method presented by Josef and Herbert Krautkrmer involves other promising possibilities for easy field application. The German Rail is ver y soon to be one of the first and, all through the Krautkrmer histor y, one of the companys most important customers.
Starting off
For the time being, however, the Krautkrmer brothers are unceasingly traveling around everywhere in order to demonstrate the usefulness of their development on site. And it works: it is possible to use ultrasonics to demonstrate whether there are material flaws inside a component or not. Ever y time a component is identified as defective using ultrasonics, the defect becomes a fact when the workpiece is subsequently cut open. It is then that another step towards convincing people has been taken. Sometimes there are discussions as to whether an expensive component should really be destroyed in order to confirm the defect, sometimes it takes hours until the component breaks apart; but the tests are always successful.
A truly por table USIP
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From the garage on tour around the world

The feeling of star ting off changes into euphoria. Since the university of Cologne has reopened, Dr. Josef Krautkrmer continues his teaching activities, and Herber t Krautkrmer completes his studies of physics. They commute between the university and the garage which is still the companys headquar ters. In the meantime, this place has become a wellknown meeting point for students of physics who are infected by the enthusiasm and become both cheap and effective helpers. At the same time, the companys activities expand. In 1952, the point is reached when the first two employees are hired: Dr. Ludwig Niklas and Dr. Werner Grabendrfer, both of them likewise physicists and form Krautkrmers first depar tment Research and Development. Not that we could speak here of any specialized jobs: ever ybody is still doing ever ything. The first foreign representatives
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offices of the young company are likewise already founded in Belgium and France in the early 50s. Representatives in almost all European countries and in numerous countries outside Europe are added to this during the years that follow. The triumphal march of Krautkrmer test equipment around the world cannot be stopped. You think youre the driving force, and its you who are driven by the continuously growing demand from all corners of the world thats how Dr. Josef and Dr. Herber t Krautkrmer put it 20 years later.
Another trade mark: the transfer of know-how

With all the worldwide activities, sales figures shooting up, growing number of employees and building activities star ting from the mid fifties: from the ver y beginning, Krautkrmer is not only interested in products and in the implementation of the technically feasible. The inspector or test operator and his experience as well as the knowledge acquired in the field are always incorporated into the work. Looking at it the other way round, its also par t of the companys philosophy to impar t company know-how to the inspector. The fact is that the first major successes of ultrasonic technology established that in his work the user profits from his knowledge of the theor y of test methods and of the way to handle the equipment. Consequently, the first of the monthly training courses titled Introduction to Ultrasonic Test Methods is held in the new building on the Luxemburger Strasse in Colognes city quarter Klettenberg as early as in 1955. Many thousand will follow. The participants come from all economic sectors. Starting from 1956, the customer magazine the echo is published, a forum that has always been, and still is, aimed at presenting substantiated information from the ultrasonic world. Moreover, a forum that has accompanied us also as a thank-you to our customers - through 50 years of Krautkrmer history. Up to this very day.
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Reminiscenses of the early years with Krautkrmer

C. D. Wells, Wells Krautkramer, Great Britain
I first became involved with ultrasonic testing in 1952, using Krautkrmer equipment (an USIP 9) about 1954/55. My association with the Krautkrmer company started in 1957 and so I was very much involved in those early pioneering days. It was pioneering in the sense that it was a completely new technology, relatively unknown in industr y and often referred to as a black ar t. We were all ver y busy at that time speaking at seminars, conferences and running training courses as par t of the process - to spread the word. In those early years a demonstration of the equipment at a potential customer, had to star t with an explanation of ultrasound, piezoelectricity and the two axes of an oscilloscope, before showing its capacity on some faulty specimens. Those were the early days of television and to see a small CRT on a factory floor invariably drew a small crowd and some wisecrack such as What won the 30 clock race today?!!! Covering the whole spread of industry with site work and representation for Krautkrmer, raised many testing and often fundamental questions and I was a frequent visitor to Kln. I found it a great strength to be able to go to this fount of ultrasonic knowledge with my problems. Having dealt with the commercial business at the offices in the Luxemburger Strae we invariably visited Works II fur ther down the road, the restaurant Unkelbach, and there together with one of the Drs Krautkrmer, or Niklas or Grabendrfer would try to solve the latest technical problem, leaving all our technical secrets scribbled on the paper table serviette!! In December 1959 I went with Josef Krautkrmer to the institute of Physics in London, where he gave the first representation of his paper on the DGS (AVG) diagrams for the variation of amplitude with distance from disc shaped reflectors. The amplitude was measured for the first time in Decibels and this was also the introduction of the calibrated attenuator to ultrasonic testing. This original work took the black art out of echo amplitude and gave ultrasonic testing a clear amplitude reference unit which was adopted immediately by all the workers in this field. I believe that this was the most important milestone we have seen in the history of ultrasonic testing. Those were the days, as the oldies would say, they cer tainly have given me many happy memories, lifelong friends, and I feel privileged to have been a part of that historical period of ultrasonic testing, which was synonymous with the name Krautkrmer.
The Krautkrmer staff in 1969 with C. D. Wells (first row, the sixth from the right). At the far right, Dr. Josef and Dr. Herber t Krautkrmer.
Yoji Kobayashi, Krautkramer Japan

My first contact with Krautkrmer happened in 1963. At that time I was working with a German trading firm in Japan and responsible for impor ted NDT-products. X-Ray and Eddy Current instruments were well known even at that time, but Ultrasonics was a lesser known factor. Of course, I did not know anything about this method and was sent to Germany to get trained at this company. I remember
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Dr. Herber t Krautkrmer being displeased with my non-professional questions.... All parties had to learn from each other. Krautkrmer had to learn that the voltage in Japan was 100 Volt - not 115 Volt as in America, or 220 Volt as in Germany - and I had to learn, what ultrasonic testing of materials was all about.
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Back in Japan I was sent to carr y out demonstrations with the heavy, mains-operated best seller USIP 10. Once I had five of these instruments in the boot of my car, when somebody hit the rear and seriously damaged my car. The outcome of this stor y was that I had to demonstrate and give information to the police at their headquar ters in Tokyo. Needless to say, up until now we have not received any instrument orders from them... In 1971 I founded my own company, Krautkrmer Japan Ltd., thanks to the kind understanding and suppor t of
many people at Krautkrmer. This company now exists for also almost 30 years - so as you can see this is a par tnership which has been going steady for quite some time! Now I am preparing to join the Krautkr mer old boys club . I trust that the younger generation will further develop the next half century of Krautkrmers successful history.
Manfred Mller, Krautkramer Forster Espaola, Spain

Stand at a fair in Madrid in 1967: Manfred Mller (center) talking with the Minister of Industr y, Mr. Lopez Bravo.
took over representations of other German companies for example, of the institute Dr. Frster in Reutlingen and the Tiede GmbH in Aalen. In the course of this, the name of our company was also changed to Krautkramer Forster Espaola. The staff also grew along. At the beginning, the team consisted of three persons - a service electronician, a secretary and myself; in 1997, we had come so far that our staff numbered 20 persons. We managed to achieve this boom thanks to our consistent customer-oriented work: individual problem solutions and a good after-sales service for our customers were always in the centre of our attention. We have achieved in our country that the name Krautkrmer or Krautkramer Forster Espaola came to be identified with the term ultrasonic testing (just as stock-cubes and Maggi were at that time...). What more could one wish for the image of a company?
The first time I had contact with Krautkrmer was in 1963 I was in charge of destructive and nondestructive testing at Siaisa in Madrid at that time. Having demonstrated Krautkrmer instruments at several customers for some years, I received the offer to set up a Spanish branch office for Krautkrmer in 1966. Thats the way Krautkramer Espaola was established in the middle of the year 1966.
The first years were very much characterized by travelling; we were constantly away on business dealing with ultrasonics. One week on the road at the customers, one week in Madrid to do the work there that was the rhythm of our life. Free weekends? A rarity. Nevertheless, we were successful in our operations. The business developed continuously, and in 1971, we
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Rudolf Brutsaert, the Brutsaert company, Belgium

The companies Brutsaer t and Krautkrmer are united by a really long history. It must have been in 1951 when my father heard of Krautkrmer for the first time to be more precise, the occasion was a contact with a German manufacturer of medical instruments: this manufacturer had just received an order from Dr. Josef Krautkrmer to make a series of printed circuit boards for an industrial ultrasonic instrument. I remember that my father talked about it at home and that he thought about possibly accepting the representation of this instrument whatever it might exactly be - in Belgium. A little later, all uncertainties as to the type and significance of this ultrasonic instrument were dispelled; and as early as in 1952, the official cooperation between Brutsaert and Krautkrmer started. This decision turned out to be just the right one soon enough. The breakthrough with the new method was already achieved with one of the first customers the Kuhlmann chemical works. All of a sudden, it was possible to measure wall thicknesses on sulphuric acid cisterns nondestructively and quickly! As this news very soon reached the customers headquarters in Paris, the future of Brutsaert was sealed: all other activities were stopped, ultrasonic testing was immediately in the centre of attention. And so it came that a lot of pioneer work was done in Belgium and France in the years that followed. This shows that Brutsaer t was one of the par ty to make the ultrasonic method known and to disseminate it in Europe almost right from the beginning - and thus likewise looks back on almost 50 years of company history.
left: Rudolf Brutsaer t in the fall of 1960 on the Severin bridge in Cologne. below: Rudolf Brutsaert, this time without hair, approx. 1970, at Krautkr mer in Cologne-Klettenberg
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All safe and (ultra)sound, play it safe with ultrasound

The past and present of ultrasonic test applications.
The histor y of materials and quality testing has always been a quite inconspicuous one. Its in the nature of these things. However, if we consider that in many respects material testing is the ver y thing that makes life safe, it should have deser ved a bit more attention. Sad enough, its mostly not talked about unless it has not been carried out - or not been carried out properly - and damages or even accidents could not be prevented. The result that documents no flaws is seldom wor th mentioning. We would therefore like to seize this oppor tunity and for once do something for it in order to devote to ultrasonic testing largely unnoticed in public the space due to it. A few application examples are meant to ser ve this purpose, chosen from the great variety of field applications. In this regard, the history of Krautkrmer is inseparably connected with the ever increasing possibilities of solving test problems over the course of the past 50 years.
Nothing done by halves with semifinished products

Metal sheets or plates, tubes, rods or bars, billets a great variety of fabricated materials are ultrasonically tested before being further processed or finished; this often enables optimizing the manufacturing process itself. The first case of the Krautkrmer brothers blowholes or pores lying close below the material surface in wire drawing dies made of metal carbide already involved the task of reducing the reject rates within the manufacturing process, that means of detecting material flaws as early as possible during the working process. It turned out very soon that the testing of semifinished products would be a domain of the automatic testing because it deals with large piece numbers having identical geometries and with the integration into the
top: Mechanized weld testing using USIP below: Heavy plate testing using free water jets
production process. So it came that an automation project for plate testing in a rolling mill was already worked on in the 50s. The idea developed at Krautkrmer of coupling via free water jets in through-transmission technique in or- 11 -
der to avoid probe wear contributed to the construction of the first heavy plate testing machine. As early as in 1960, a tube testing machine using rotating probes was developed, the first of its type.
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Automatic testing machines have always been and will always be designed in close cooperation with the end user. A recent example includes the technical progress on the one hand, but on the other hand, it also shows that the principle hasnt changed: this system performs a 100 % volume test on a wire having a maximum temperature of 1000 C, and it does it at rolling speeds ranging from 10 to 45 m/s. Both internal flaws and surface flaws are detected and evaluated ultrasonically in this case using so-called rod waves which are excited electrodynamically in the test material, that means without any couplant.
top: Weld testing left: Ultrasonic testing of an axle shaft right: DGS scale as of 1967; developed on the basis of the General DGS Diagram from 1958
Smooth transition: weld testing

In the early 50s, the inspection of welds was already a matter of great interest to the industry. Welds always were and still are something that cause problems, for example in the individual components of chemical and power plants, and also in tank construction, shipbuilding and bridge construction. Inspection of welds was already prescribed in those days due to the obvious safety relevance. The newly appeared ultrasonic method stepped beside the previously used radiographic method and complemented it as it could be carried out faster and without expenditure for ray protection. For the Krautkrmer brothers as pioneers in the field of ultrasonic testing, weld testing was of course something they took up at once: in 1952, a USIP 5 was already used for testing the large-diameter, longitudinally welded pressure pipes of the Schluchsee power plant in the Black Forest.
At this stage, the position of each flaw had to be determined by measuring and calculating; location aids were still unknown. A true evaluation of flaws with reference to their position, type and size essential factors in terms of any possible impairment of the weld wasnt possible till Dr. Josef Krautkrmer developed the DGS diagram in 1958. In modern instruments, such as the USLT 2000 or the USM 25, DGS diagrams and trigonometric functions (display of sound path, projection distance and flaw depth) for flaw evaluation are integrated into the instrument by means of software.
The way is clear for the German Rail

The first truly usable ultrasonic flaw detector in Germany, which the Krautkrmer brothers had developed in 1949, was suitable for detecting material flaws in components made of steel. One of the first beneficiaries of the new method was the Federal German Railways who had big problems after
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1945 with the axle breakage on express engines due to war damage. Par t of the wheelset axles showed more or less large cracks that could not be recognized from the outside. It was possible for the first time to use the ultrasonic method to nondestructively detect the par tly extensive fatigue fractures in the wheelset axles. The extent of the cracks could be estimated with astonishing accuracy on the basis of the flaw echo sequence. A systematic test of all locomotive engine wheelsets was carried out, on which occasion a lot of engines had to be put out of ser vice. This was the only way to ensure that the train service could be safely continued. The guaranteed safe operation of means of communication and transpor tation is still one of the most impor tant tasks of ultrasonic testing today. Even if manufacturing technology has advanced fur ther and fur ther theres always a risk left due to material defects, unrecognized errors and flaws produced during the manufac-
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turing process, unforeseeable stresses, or a combination of several causes which cannot be fully excluded by the usual safety precautions. Shafts and axles of trains and trams or streetcars must continue to be systematically checked for any fatigue cracks at regular inter vals.
Tales of layers
Coatings are not only important in wall thickness measurements. In many branches of industry, the assessment of the coatings themselves is an integral part of quality assurance. Whats at stake here is also the exact control and monitoring of coating material quantities, which in the end aims at material saving and cost reduction. The measurement of coatings is required for example at automobile-body works for the paint coating layers on metal sheet base material, or within the wood working industry for sealing varnish or protecting lacquer layers on wooden base material. These applications are nowadays also part of ultrasonic test repertoire, and the innovative technology from Krautkrmer is decisive here. In this regard, it was possible to implement an ultrasonic measurement resolution in the micrometer range - which was previously unattained.
Not a bad move: NDT on all routes

Ultrasonic testing plays a part in safety and reliability in many different ways within the automotive industry - and again, its almost unnoticeable in the background. Who could really claim that he knows that valves, pistons, cylinders, crankshafts and many other items are not used unless they have passed a material test? Dreaded breaking of axles and cardan shafts, spring and valve fractures of the past are long gone and only very seldom happen today. A particularly high safety relevance makes ultrasonic testing indispensable in the aircraft industry as well. Riveted joints and bondings, for example at critical transition points between fuselage and wing, or at the wing edges, landing gears, turbine blades, vital parts of engines these are all objects liable to be subjected to the most thorough ultrasonic inspection.
Play it safe with ultrasound

In the course of the 50 years ever since 1949, during which time Krautkrmer has been active in ultrasonics, many things have changed. An ever increasing number of test problems could be solved, more and more new requirements from the field could be met. There were quantum leaps in technology, such as digital technology or the miniaturization in electronics, which has led to the present-day systems which are ultrasonic instrument and PC in one and fit into a laptop. Something has never theless also stayed as it has always been: material flaws cannot be excluded, the risks due to them still exist, for example fatigue fractures due to cracks are nowadays just as topical as they were in 1949 when the Krautkrmer brothers started to deal with this problem. The answer to the question concerning a possible solution for all these problems referring to materials testing and quality assurance is today the same as it was yesterday: play it safe with ultrasound.
The application examples mentioned were taken from specialized literature, e. g: Klaus Egelkraut; Werner Grabendrfer: UltraschallPrfung in Deutschland. Erinnerungen an die Anfnge (Ultrasonic testing in Germany. Reminiscences of how it all began). Minden 1993
Though laid on thick: just the remaining wall thicknesses

The first ultrasonic gauge, exclusively meant for measuring wall thicknesses, was developed by Krautkrmer in 1967. The wall thickness measurement became especially important for example on pipelines operated by refineries in terms of safeguarding environmental protection. A reduction of the wall thicknesses, for example due to corrosion, can lead to disastrous damages and accidents here. The ultrasonic method has the special advantage of allowing the wall thickness measurement to be carried out on objects which are only accessible from one side. Wall thicknesses which are too low can be detected in good time using systematic ultrasonic checks. In addition, downtimes and consequently also cost and time expenditure can be reduced. Thickness measurements are carried out on various test objects subject to wear: pressure vessels, gas cylinders,
Wall thickness measurement: two are better than one.
storage tanks, receptacles for chemical processes, material handling systems and pumps, facilities in shipbuilding and structural steelwork. When the D-Meter thickness gauge, no bigger than a camera, was introduced by Krautkrmer in 1971, it signified a spectacular improvement. It was spectacular because it was important in connection with plant supervision tasks, for example within the chemical industry, that small and lightweight equipment be available for the comprehensive climbing exercises. The latest Krautkrmer thickness gauges only weigh around 250 grams, and they offer even more advantages. For example, they enable precision wall thickness measurements even through coatings, without having to remove the coating first.
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T E S T I N G T O D A Y
News about DM 4
Measuring through paint correctly from now on!
A frequent test task consists of measuring the metal wall thickness of pipelines and tanks. The task is to measure these objects accurately and quickly in spite of surface coating such as e.g. adherent paint coatings, plastic coatings or fiber-reinforced plastic sheathings. If these coatings are not taken into consideration in the thickness measurement, the result will show, depending on the coating thickness, considerable measurement errors (approx. 2.5 times the thickness value of the coating due to the lower sound velocity). Up to date, it was absolutely necessary to use ultrasonic instruments equipped with monitor gates to avoid this measurement error. The thickness gauges DM 4 and DM 4DL with their new operating mode DUAL MULTI enable precision measurements of the metal wall thickness under adherent coatings - and whats more, only via digital displays. The measurement is carried out automatically between two successive backwall echoes from the underlying base material; the echoes received from the coating are ignored. Special features of the method: The coating does not have to be removed Measured-value correction is no longer necessary Considerable time saving
Through-coating measurement: DUAL MULTI mode; indication: 0.244 inches thickness
Probes through intelligence

A wide range of probes, customized for different applications and requirements, are available: For the measurement on hot components: medium temperature probes for temperatures up to 200 C and special probes for temperatures up to 800 C. Intelligent dialog probes from the series DA 4.., which are automatically recognized by the instrument and ensure an optimum instrument setup.
The special probe developed for the DM 4DL with integrated remote control key (type FH2E-D-REM) which enables to store measured values directly by pressing a key. The DUAL MULTI operating mode allows the use of numerous standard probes which have proved to be a good investment for the thickness measurement on many occasions. It should be remembered that the measuring range of the probes is reduced because two backwall echoes are always required for the successful thickness measurement through a coating. The measuring range therefore depends on the type and thickness of the coating and on the metal thickness.
What else is new?

Choice between two operating modes for the zero point calibration when using non-dialog probes: continuous with the probe coupled (= DA3 mode, corresponding to the DM 3) or automatic with the probe uncoupled (= Automatic mode, corresponding to the previous DM 4). The
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DA3 mode is the right choice if the temperature of probe and test object differ from each other, and especially well suited with probes from the DA3..series as well as with medium temperature and high temperature probes. The range of probes for high temperature measurements could be widened by this operating mode. The Automatic mode is recommended for test objects having a rough surface and for probes showing nonuniform wear. This mode is carried out automatically for all dialog probes, but it can also be selected for non-dialog probes. Omission of the 2-point calibration, involving a lot of work, for all existing and future special probes as they are recognized by the instrument. The probe zero adjustment is automatically carried out. Extension of the data memory capacity of the DM 4DL: with 5,390 readings divisible into a maximum of 999 files the memory space of the data logger has been doubled.
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State of the art in coating thickness measurement

Innovative ultrasonic technology makes the CTM 20 a coating thickness gauge that opens up totally new application possibilities.
The digital coating thickness gauge CTM 20 enables to measure coating and wall thicknesses on site accurately, reproducibly and quickly. For the first time, its possible to measure up to three coatings of paint, varnish/lacquer, plastic or other insulating coatings on metallic and non-metallic base materials, such as plastics, wood, ceramic, glass, etc., in one single measuring process. This is not possible using the conventional nondestructive methods (eddy current and magnet-inductive method). The CTM 20 enables to achieve a measurement resolution of 1 m, the lower measurement limit for individual coating layers being 10 m for paint coatings and 100 m for wall thickness measurements. The wall thickness can be measured through the coating. A 15-MHz shock-wave probe, like the CLF 4, enables to even resolve coating thicknesses (or wall thicknesses) down to approx. 0.3 mm in plastics. If the acoustic times of flight of the echoes become shorter than the duration of the ultrasonic pulse, the sound waves are superimposed on each other and allow no conclusions to be drawn about existing internal interface echoes (Fig. 1).
400 m The signal processing made it possible to utilize the known pulse-echo method for the coating thickness measurement in a new way. Thanks to the use of powerful state-of-the-art electronics the measuring system has been reduced to a perfectly handy size. The system differs fundamentally from the operating method of conventional ultrasonic instruments. A few important correlations should therefore be dealt with in more detail for a better understanding. and as receiver. If the material is scanned vertically, the known correlation [1] between sound velocity c, sound path d and acoustic time of flight t applies:
d = sound path (coating thickness) c = sound velocity t = acoustic time of flight (round trip)
200 m
d=c
t/2 [1]
Possibilities and limits of conventional ultrasonic technology

Sound waves are excited in the test material by the probe via a couplant, and these sound waves reach the probe again after being reflected from a boundary surface or an internal interface. By a corresponding wiring the probe serves as transmitter (or pulser)
The excitation time of the sound transmitter is so short in this connection that only wave trains (pulses) limited in time are generated. The frequency, shape and number of ultrasonic signal oscillations are decisive factors in this regard for the minimum coating thickness that can still be resolved. Resolution is to be understood here as the minimum distance between the echo pulses that can still be separated or distinguished by means of the usual methods in the present-day technology.
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100 m
50 m
Fig. 1: Echo signals from a polystyrene coating layer having different thicknesses, probe CLF 4
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The sound would take 8.33 ns for the round trip on a layer of lacquer/varnish coating of 10 m at a sound velocity of 2,400 m/s. The above mentioned probe has a wavelength of 160 ns and is thus many times the time of flight in the coating layer. Up until now, time-of-flight differences shorter than their wavelength could not be evaluated.
Increase of resolution by the pulse shape

Another possibility for increasing the resolution is offered by the echo shape and its time dimension. The so-called triangular pulse is obtained as an optimum from theoretical considerations with a corresponding excitation by the transmitter (or pulser). With a correspondingly narrow base width, it becomes apparent that this echo shape brings about a considerable improvement of the resolution in comparison with the usual probe signals (Fig. 2).
nevertheless relatively small compared with ceramic elements. On the other hand, they match paint and plastic coatings better (similar impedance).The losses of the ultrasonic wave at the transition point from the transducer element to the test material (or delay line) are therefore smaller than with ceramic elements; this partly compensates for the smaller sensitivity. Such a broadband PVDF probe was developed for the CTM 20. In order to attain an optimum signal quality, both the ultrasonic transmitter (or pulser) and the receiver preamplifier were integrated into the probe. Though this probe makes it possible to obtain higher resolutions, coatings smaller than approx. 30 m lead to superimpositions of the sound waves travelling to and fro in this case as well, and thus to the limits of resolution mentioned.
es thus calculated contain the sound path up to the corresponding boundary layer or internal interface. Besides the measurement of the echo indication, a prerequisite for these calculations is also the measurement of the reference echo (probe without couplant against air). The special development for the coating thickness gauge described here consists in finding a suitable deconvolution algorithm. The latter must produce correct and reproducible results and must be flexible for different applications.
Field tests
Shown below is the A-scan of a threelayer varnish/lacquer coating on a plastic base material (Fig. 3). This can be read from the instrument and displayed for any measurement via the Windows software CSOFT. A microsection (Fig. 4) was made as comparison. The display shows the measured signal, the calculated signal as well as the deviation of both curves. The following five echoes are recognized from the left to the right: inter face echo at sound entry (probe delay line - couplant) coupling echo (couplant - layer 1) internal interface or boundary layer echo 1 (layer 1 - layer 2) internal interface or boundary layer echo 2 (layer 2 - layer 3) internal interface or boundary layer echo 3 (layer 3 base material) The end of the probe delay line is indicated above the A-scan, and the corresponding readings for each layer, as well as the total coating thickness.
Ultrasonic evaluation with signal processing

A further step toward solving the problem with high-resolution time-of-flight measurement is taken by means of the signal processing:
400 m
200 m
100 m
The ultrasonic pulse-echo response can be observed as the convolution of the material response with the initial acoustic wave. The individual times of flight which are inseparable or cannot be distinguished in the superimposed echo display can be resolved by means of a deconvolution operation. The echo indication reaching the receiver can be illustrated by a superimposition of timeshifted and scaled reference echoes. This superimposition can be separated to form individual pulses by means of suitable algorithms. The individual puls-
50 m
Fig.2: Echo signals from a polystyrene coating layer having different thicknesses (pulse shape), probe CTF 1
The requirements for generating this pulse with a corresponding excitation are met in good approximation by the transducer element material PVDF (polyvinylidenefluoride). The sensitivity of such transducer element systems is
Fig. 3: A-scan from CTM 20
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The bars represent the calculated echo positions and amplitudes. If the correspondingly scaled reference echoes are placed at these positions, the result is the calculated signal. If the echo positions are correctly determined, the deviation between the measured and the calculated signal reaches a minimum.
The calculated coating thicknesses correspond perfectly to the results of the microsection. Any deviations possibly detected may be the result of a different measuring position as well as of differences between the preset sound velocities. The same can be adjusted to the material on the instrument if necessary.
ous application fields for the instrument wherever individual coatings on plastics have to be measured: on body parts, bumpers, fittings/instruments, etc. The measurement of paint coatings is also an essential topic for the aircraft industry; the important thing here is to achieve a minimum possible weight by reducing the paint coating thicknesses. Likewise for the wood working industry: on all wooden supports or bases the coating thicknesses of sealing and protecting lacquer can be measured on all wooden bases using the CTM 20. In many cases, its not only the quality assurance which is concerned with coating thickness measurements, but also the optimization of material use. The CTM 20 makes it possible to also reduce cost by accurately checking and controlling coating material quantities.
Nondestructive measurement of coating thicknesses

... is possible using the CTM 20 even in cases which previously did not allow this to be done. The CTM 20 opens up new application fields for nondestructive test methods. It is for example possible to measure the individual layers of priming, undercoat and transparent coatings on the sheet metal base material within car body making - in one single measuring process and without having to remove a paint coating layer. The automotive industry offers numer-
Fig. 4: Microsection
The invasion of the smallest ones

The members of the USM family are lightweight, mobile ultrasonic instruments overshadowing quite a few big ones.
Miniaturization makes it possible: a family of fully-featured ultrasonic flaw detectors in an extremely small, lightweight and rugged housing presenting an exceptional design for the rough ever yday testing conditions and the straightforward operation with the analog feeling. The absolutely new thing about the instruments from the USM family is the fast transflective LCD screen enabling an A-scan refresh rate of 60 Hz for the first time, and really ensuring optimum readability in all ambient light conditions. For the first time, the A-scan can be evaluated at an unusually large viewing angle in bright sunlight without a light screen even from a larger distance. If its dark, the backlight is simply switched on. The remarkable features of all versions of the USM family, in short: Weight and size are the same for all instruments: 1.6 kg including the four NiCad cells, 265 mm wide, 245 mm high and 46 mm deep, including the turning carr ying and prop-up handle. The operating concept is unique: all functions are set using two rotar y knobs (Fig. 1). The left-hand rotary knob allows direct access to the instrument gain at any time. The right-hand rotary knob is always assigned to the function that was activated from the four functions of
Fig. 1: Instrument front view with rotar y knobs
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the selected menu by pressing a key. Pressing the key another time enables an additional fine or coarse adjustment of the values in some cases. Another exceptional feature is the low power consumption: only four standard NiCad baby cells are required to use the instruments for eight hours. As an alternative, AlMn cells which are available around the world can be used. The standard package also includes a universal plug-in power supply unit by means of which the instruments can also be operated on any supply system (85 to 260 VAC) as required. Moreover, the product is provided with a practical transport case made of plastic in attach case design with room not only for the instrument itself but also for all the necessary accessories for testing, e.g. probes, cables, small reference blocks, couplant, the plug-in power supply unit, the operating manual, and the neckstrap which is very practical whenever you need both hands at the same time for a test job. The turning transpor t handle that rotates through 360 is at the same time used as a prop-up stand. It enables a secure opera-
tion on almost any mounting surface, it does not matter if its inclined or curved (Fig. 2). The standard display on the large LCD screen shows the A-scan with a resolution of 220 x 200 pixels, to the right the four selected functions with the momentary adjustment values, below the A-scan the measurement line including the current measurement results of the evaluated echo indication (in the gate). If required, the current reading can additionally be copied in large digits to the A-scan so that its still recognizable even from a larger distance. As soon as all settings of the flaw detector are determined, the function menu is deactivated by pressing a key. The A-scan is then enlarged to 95 mm x 66 mm having 320 x 220 pixels (Fig. 3). All instrument functions, except for the gain, are at the same time blocked to avoid unintentional adjustment. All instruments have a data memor y for filing 100 data sets. One data set contains the complete instrument setup including the corresponding A-scan. It is thus possible to file individual settings for immediate test use as well as all the results in the same way.
Fig. 3: Screen display: standard - zoom demonstrated by the example of USM 25
The RS232 inter face enables the easy output of test repor ts via a connected printer or the bidirectional data exchange using a PC and the UltraDOC software.
Fig. 2: USM 25 in weld testing
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USM 22B
Does the test task only call for the basic functions similar to those on an analog ultrasonic instrument? In that case, the USM 22B is the economic alternative. It can be used on any material (sound velocities from 1,000 m/s to 15,000 m/s), the minimum display range is 2.5 mm, the maximum display range is 1420 mm (with steel), which means that more than 90 % of all workpiece sizes can be covered. The broadband frequency range from 0.5 MHz to 15 MHz (- 3 dB) offers an adequate penetration capacity in workpieces showing higher sound attenuation characteristics, and an excellent resolution when it comes to detecting small reflectors or to carrying out a high-resolution wall thickness measurement. The monitor gate (in bar-type display) is used for the alarm output via an LED, and for all measurement tasks. In this connection, it is also possible to switch over to a dual gate for measuring sound path differences. This enables accurate wall thickness measurements with a resolution of 0.01 mm or 0.001 inches, or measurements through a (paint) coating.
Fig. 4: Detection of a blowhole using a 1 MHz composite probe in a highly sound absorbing workpiece made of gray cast iron
vidual tissue layers. Especially the last echo in the evaluation gate, corresponding to the ultrasonic reflection from the muscular tissue, is interesting for this purpose. This is the reason why the reading is given only from the last echo of a series displayed on the screen. Thanks to its optimum housing data, the easy operation, the long operating time and the large data memory, the USM 22F is therefore the instrument best suited for the fat and tissue layer thickness measurement in stockbreeding.
USM 25
The big brother of the USM 22 is the USM 25. The frequency range was increased to 20 MHz, the function range was also considerably extended. This means that the additional functions of the USM 25 support many more demanding ultrasonic tests. In order to maintain the field-proven, intuitive operating concept, only one more key had to be added to the operators control panel: the new key to the left of the five menu keys activates a second series of function menus. The rest of the operation is identical with that of the USM 22. Which new functions are ready for use with the USM 25? 1. For tests using angle-beam probes: angle of incidence, X-value and thickness of the workpiece to be tested. Additional evaluation results are correspondingly displayed in the measurement line: projection or reduced projection distance and the reflector depth taking the workpiece thickness into account. 2. In addition, the echo amplitude can now also be displayed as a dB-difference with regard to a stored reference echo.
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USM 22L
The USM 22L is especially designed for ultrasonic testing of ver y large workpieces up to a length of 10 m (steel), or workpieces showing especially high sound absorption (e.g. plastics) or sound scattering (e.g. cast materials, nonferrous metals). To improve the penetration depth, the pulser energy was increased. Three frequency filters enable an optimum adaptation of the corresponding probe to the test requirements. The range from 0.1 to 2 MHz in particular enables ultrasonic testing on workpieces having especially high sound attenuation characteristics, par ticularly in combination with the new composite probes (Fig. 4). All other functions of the USM 22L are identical with those of the USM 22B.
3. The echo evaluation is carried out either at the intersection point of the echo flank with the gate or at the echo peak. 4. Besides the full-wave rectification, it is additionally possible to switch over to the positive or negative half-wave rectification. 5. As a standard feature, the USM 25 offers a choice of three frequency filters through a total range from 0.5 MHz to 20 MHz. 6. Thanks to the memo functions, the management of the data memory has become considerably more straightforward: Every data set can be provided with additional alphanumerical identification. Every data set can be assigned to a group of editable fields. The current date and time are an integral part of the memo text. The data sets can also be displayed as a list (directory). The A-scans of all data sets can be viewed using the preview function and loaded back if required. 7. Horn for the acoustic signalling of a gate alarm. 8. I/O interface, e.g. to output the gate alarm or the trigger signal, or to input a test data release signal for controlling the validity of the measured value. The example of a weld inspection illustrates the advantages of the USM 25: all important coordinates and the echo amplitude of the detected reflector appear in the measurement line. Any chosen reading, in this case the dB-difference with regard to the reference echo, is copied in large digits to the A-scan. The result is described in the memo pad (Fig. 5); all data, including the complete instrument setup with A-scan, are stored as data set.
USM 22F
Ultrasonic CRT screen instruments have already been used in stockbreeding of animals for slaughter for many years now in order to be able to get nondestructive qualitative information about the animals condition on the basis of echo indications from the indi-
Fig. 5: Memo pad referring to the result in data set 11
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USM 25 DAC
Finally, this instrument version is the USM 25 extended by the functions for generating and using a Distance-Amplitude-Curve (DAC). The DAC is generated using a maximum of ten reference echoes. The amplitudes of the reference echoes are stored in this connection and used for calculating the recording curve. After activation of the DAC, the curve appears in the A-scan. Echo indications can now be evaluated with reference to this curve. The value dBc is selected as an additional reading for the amplitude evaluation, indicating the dB amount by which the echo indication exceeds or falls below the DAC. Moreover, the use of the DAC functions meets international specifications: three other curves at user-definable dBdistances from the original curve can
likewise be displayed. The curves are automatically recalculated in the case of any gain variations or variations of the display range so that all indications are always evaluated in relation to the recording or response threshold (DAC) (Fig. 6). A function has also been incorporated to take test-related corrections into consideration, e.g. the transfer correction. Standard applications can be evaluated easily and without any problem with the optional DGS method which is programmed in the instrument for the most frequently used probes. Considering the capabilities of the small instruments from the USM family, they certainly dont need to fear comparison with the big ultrasonic instruments. New technologies crystallize
into great advantages in field testing situations with these instruments for example, the LCD screen, or the miniaturization that packs the per formance range of a modern digital ultrasonic instrument into the volume of a cigar-box. This is the state of the art in 1999 which will surely also endure in the next millenium.
Fig. 6: Flaw echo 3 dB above the DAC from a 50 mm thick austenitic weld
Everything about scanners

Automation based on a modular system successfully in use worldwide.
Manual ultrasonic testing only needs the positioning accuracy of the hand; test results are written down, the position on the test object is determined using the measuring tape. If higher demands are set and if the ultrasonic data are visually displayed, the probe position has to be continuously detected. The measuring tape is replaced with path pick-ups or position encoders as is the case with ANDSCAN (ultrasonic system for mapping corrosion profiles, or for bonding tests and flaw detection) and with ISONIC (system for weld inspection). The probe is still guided manually in these cases, however, the probe position is recorded using path potentiometers or airborne sound. Ultrasonic and position data are processed to C-scans. This is the point where the user will notice, at the latest, how much work is required to vir tually scan 100 percent of a test sur face the C-scan mercilessly shows the sur faces still to be scanned, which means: it will all have to be automated! Logically, it has to be modular, universal, adaptable to all test tasks, economic, easy to use.... A universal inter face is offered by scanners driven with stepped motors (Fig. 1). Power amplifier and motor are a compatible unit. Multiaxis-controllers provide the three signals for clock, direction and motor current activation for each axis irrespective of the size of the drive. If linear guides are then added to the modular system, the most different test problems can be solved using only one system! A small, por table scanner for weld inspection (Fig. 2) is operated using the same software as the big brother for testing aircraft components... Aircraft components, constructed in honeycomb design, are tested in through-transmission mode using waterjet probes with a scan sur face of
Fig. 1: Scanner inter face
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Fig. 2: Small scanner for weld inspection
6 m x 4 m and two Z masts which can be controlled independently of each other a car wash would of course also be possible in this way (Fig. 3). Besides these two extremes, a tailored solution is available for ever y application case.
A total of 20 Krautkrmer systems have been in use worldwide ever since the introduction of this modular system with a continuous upward tendency. However, we do not limit ourselves only to complete systems; existing systems can likewise be modernized. The test mechanics are generally designed in such a way that an operation is possible over several decades. Due to the use of computer technology, the development of data acquisition, recording and evaluation methods never theless moves so fast that these components no longer correspond to the state of the ar t after only a few years. So, why not replace this part? A few examples from the wide range of application possibilities: systems are being used not only for testing
switching contacts but also for testing camshafts, turbine discs or rods for safety par ts needless to say, all certified according to the currently valid specifications.
Fig.3: Testing of aircraft components
Wall thickness measurement on components having unknown sound velocities

As a rule in ultrasonic wall thickness measurements, the acoustic time of flight is measured, and the product of this time of flight and the known sound velocity is then the wall thickness. However, it may happen that the sound velocity is not known because no point on the component is accessible for a mechanical thickness measurement, and therefore no sound velocity can be determined. the sound velocity may largely vary along with the temperature. This is a very marked feature, e.g. with plastics. the sound velocity varies locally in inhomogeneous materials, such as in gray cast iron for example. In such a case, no constant known sound velocity can be used for the wall thickness measurement. The latter was the case some time ago when testing paper rollers whose wall thickness was to be continuously checked, firstly, in order to avoid a case of damage in due time and, secondly, to achieve a maximum possible ser vice life. The AUTO-V method was developed by Krautkrmer for this case, enabling to star t by measuring the sound velocity at any location, and to continue by integrating this value into the current wall thickness measurement. To do this, a probe having two transmitter and receiver elements is used. The pair of transducer elements called T1 R1 excites a longitudinal wave parallel to the surface, a so-called head wave (Fig. 1). The current sound velocity of the longitudinal wave is calculated from the measured time of flight and the design distance between the single transducer elements. A typical A-scan of such a situation is shown in Figure 2. The second pair of transducer elements called T2 - R2 measures the time of flight vertically to the surface at the same probe position (Fig. 3). The current wall thickness can now be calculated using the previously determined sound velocity. The pairs of transducer elements are alternately activated by a dual-channel multiplexer, with four measurements being carried out per second using a modified instrument software.
Fig. 1: Principle of the AUTO-V probe
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Fig. 2: A-scan in the sound velocity measurement mode
The probe with its four transducer element units is shown in Figure 4. In this case, its a probe for checking the wall thickness of cast steel of paper rollers whose sound velocity shows strong local variations. For this purpose, the probe is mounted on a device provided with magnetic rollers. This ensures steady continuous testing.
Fig. 3: A-scan in the wall thickness measurement mode
The current wall thickness and sound velocity are displayed on the screen while the component surface is being scanned. The use is not only limited to ferrous or nonferrous metals, but its also
successful e.g. on ceramic materials or plastic components. The ultrasonic flaw detector USN 52 was equipped with a dual-channel multiplexer to implement this test method.
Fig. 4: AUTO-V probe
An ultrasonic instrument for all eventualities

The new USN family makes it possible.
New versions of the proven small flaw detectors have been brought out gaining a great deal from the results of the technical progress within the computer industry. Processors become faster and faster, and memory chips contain more and more capacity. Decisive for the further development of ultrasonic CRT-type units, however, is the display speed of digital flat screens. The signals received by the probe are first subdivided into small time intervals of equal size. An oscillator crystal supplies the clock pulses. Typical frequencies for this start at 30 MHz. This frequency is also called digitizing frequency or sampling rate. We use a sampling rate of 240 MHz in the instruments of the USN series (generated from 30 MHz and multiplied by the factor 8). The amplitude of the signal received is then determined one by one in each one of the small time intervals. The amplitude value A in the interval i has a certain analog voltage which is now assigned a number according to a fixed amplitude interval scheme. In this case, the numbers lie between 0 and 255, corresponding to 8 bits (28). All digital amplitude values Ai must be buffered temporarily. This results in a data volume of approx. 20 kB (20,000 values) for an A-scan in the range of 250 mm (steel). To display this quantity of values on a digital screen, a data reduction is always necessary because the number of pixels on the screen is much smaller than the number of values generated. This task is accomplished by the data processor of a digital instrument. It must always be ensured in this regard that all maximum amplitudes actually are transferred to the A-scan to be displayed. The computing time required for these operations is inserted at the end of a transmit/receive cycle. The time interval between two transmitter pulses is therefore extended, and the pulse repetition frequency is reduced.
The digital screen

Let us recall: analog screens or CRTs rewrite the signals at every ultrasonic pulse fired. This means that with small units, such as e.g. the USK 7 S, the A-scans are updated 1,000 times per second, with lab instruments and instruments for automatic testing machines up to 12,000 times, or even more often. Things are a bit different with digital ultrasonic instruments:
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Besides the pulse repetition frequency, the screen refresh rate also plays a decisive role. Though the human eye perceives a sequence of 25 single images per second (cinema) as a continuous movement, this speed is not enough for ultrasonic testing: if workpieces are scanned faster, flaw echoes can no longer be recognized reliably in this way because their dwell time on the screen is simply too shor t. By increasing the image refresh rate in connection with a cer tain inertia of the pixels (persistence), such shor t signals are now also reliably recognized. This means that the faster new A-scans are displayed on the screen, the closer we get to the customar y representation of an analog display.
Flat screens
At first glance, digital flat screens have many advantages to offer compared with the CRTs: less space required, lower current consumption, lower cost, display of text and measured values as well as less environmental impact. These essential advantages are never theless paid for with the following restrictions: limited screen refresh rate stair-step representation of the signals due to the division of the image into pixels The electroluminescent display used in Krautkrmer instruments (USD 15, USN 50/52) is fast enough with its screen refresh rate of 60 Hz. Liquid cr ystal displays (LCD), as they are nowadays used in many devices of our everyday life (digital clocks, notebooks, PCs, etc.), could not be used for ultrasonic instruments up to date due to the slow display generating. However, the technology has advanced: thanks to a direct transistorcontrolled excitation of the liquid crystals, an optimization of the liquid and new backlight techniques, we have now an LCD at our disposal which even meets the requirements of ultrasonic testing. The new transflective LCD screen enables us to attain the practice-oriented A-scan update rate of 60 Hz.
The new USN family

We have now applied the new technology to the field-proven ultrasonic flaw detectors USN 50 and USN 52, and at the same time added new functions. These product extensions are also applied to the versions equipped with the EL display. All new USN 50/52 units are equipped either with the EL display having double the resolution of the earlier versions, or with the fast high-resolution LCD screen. To make a distinction between the two, the instruments are now called: USN 50L, USN 52L (LCD versions) and USN 50R, USN 52R (EL versions). It goes without saying that due to the high display contrast with bright ambient light, the L versions are particularly well suited for all outdoor applications. For the first time, no light shield is required, not even with direct sunlight. Another advantage of the L versions is the extended operating time due to the considerably lower current consumption of the LCD. As a result of this, a batter y charge lasts longer than one test shift. Extended functions round off the new image of the USN family. For example a so-called memo function in the USN 52 instruments, enabling to identify data sets alphanumerically, brings about more clarity for the test. The contents of the memo pads for all assigned data sets can be transferred to a PC or a printer. Further improvements include the exact reflector localization with angle beaming on cur ved workpieces and the 0.1-dB fine adjustment. The two USN 52 versions contain the DGS option which makes it possible to unambiguously and reproducibly evaluate small flaws.
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Tube testing - on a large scale, off-the-peg design

There are basically three concepts for the complete ultrasonic testing of seamless or welded tubes: rotating probes along a linearly transpor ted tube fixed probes on a spirally transpor ted tube probes moved linearly along a stationarily rotated tube Krautkrmer delivers ultrasonic tube testing machines according to these three design concepts. The so-called rotation testing machines (rotating probes) previously reached their limits at a maximum diameter of 180 mm. The family of the rotation testing machines (ROT) has now been extended upward, i.e. it has been expanded for larger diameters. The new machine type ROT 350 enables a standard diameter range from 60 to 340 mm to be tested. The machine is not only characterized by the large test range but in particular also by the variable probe assembly having a total of four probe modules. Besides classical testing for longitudinal, transverse and laminar flaws, additional probes can be built in for testing angled flaws and for the dimensional measurement. Other probes can alternatively be activated for special tests (e.g. for extremely shor t flaws). That means that electronic channels, including the corresponding evaluation, can be assigned to the operation of individual, permanently installed probes. The first machine for the diameter range from 60 to 250 mm was delivered to TUBACEX/Spain, the second machine for the diameter range from 60 to 340 mm was delivered to CONDUVEN/Venezuela (see photo).
Immersion testing with the UPR family

Nondestructive immersion testing of high-quality components (high-duty safety par ts, e.g. turbine discs) has strongly increased during the last few years due to tightened legislation (product liability). To be able to carr y out these tests, Krautkrmer has developed a modular concept, viz. the Universal Por tal Robot. A UPR system consists of the following components: ultrasonic electronics recording and evaluation system test mechanics including control system The system can be easily adapted to most different job specifications thanks to its modular setup both in terms of test mechanics and in terms of software.
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The main objective when developing the UPR was to implement a computer-controlled machine for the production inspection which can be controlled by means of easy-to-operate software - and which would then enable fully automatic scanning after the (one-of f) definition of a scan sequence. The scan sequence is programmed by teaching, or by direct input of the scanning paths.
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Fig. 1 (left): UPR7 (FUCHS, Meinerzhagen) Fig. 2 (above): UPR4 electronics (BARMAG, Remscheid)
The C-scan software (operating system Windows NT) is the control centre for all this, enabling to control the following parameters: ultrasonic settings mechanical parameters (travel paths, speeds, etc.) recording and representation of the test results as Cscans, flaw reports The linear travel paths are implemented by stepped-motor controlled linear axes. These linear axes are available in almost any length graduations. If round (rotationally symmetrical) parts are meant to be tested, a turntable driven by a stepped motor or ser vomotor depending on the weight of the components to be tested is used. Mounted on the Z-axis is a probe manipulator which can be provided with one or two angular axes as well as with an additional rotation about the Z-axis, depending on the specified job. Should parts having a complex geometr y be tested, the scan sequence is divided into individual scan steps. A step consists of travel parameters for the mechanics and for the corresponding ultrasonic settings. These steps are automatically processed one by one without the operator having to intervene.
The figures show two typical implementations: a 7-axis scanner (Figure 1) for testing turbine discs (the machine is approved for tests according to BMW-RR, GE, MTU, etc.), as well as a 4-axis system (Figure 2), equipped with rollers, for testing bars. The test results are shown as C-scans (Figure 3). In addition to the Cscan, two sections are laid through the C-scan at the cursor position, and the amplitude cur ve is shown along the sections.
The raw data are always stored, and they can also be subsequently edited (other color assignments, other recording thresholds, etc.). The raw data can be subjected to different evaluation algorithms (e.g. filters, adjacency viewing). It goes without saying that the software allows to generate customized reports.
Fig. 3: typical C-scan
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T E S T I N G T O M O R R O W
True or not true?

News from Charlie Smartchecker.
Charlie Smartchecker has meanwhile started his own service business for nondestructive materials testing and specialized in ultrasonic testing having gathered many years of experience in this field. His motto being Open to the new, yet under obligation to tradition, he manages his business together with his son Charlie Jr., whos acting as junior manager and whos supposed to take over the business later on. The business is doing well, Charlie Smartchecker has already built up a reputation in the branch, hes known as an honest and upright partner. Charlie Jr. on the other hand, a software and internet fan, always looking for new paths, is often of the opinion that his senior takes too little risks, that the structure and the method of the business are urgently in need of modernization. Maintaining the market position, thats Charlie Smartcheckers goal, and after all, he wants to leave his son a flourishing business. One day, Smartchecker & Son are able to get a large order. It consists of testing a pipeline section having a total length of 40 km. The pipeline (nominal diameter 900 with a wall thickness of 12 mm) is meant to be subjected to a 100 % inspection on either side of the weld. The test requirements determine that the ultrasonic test specified for partial sections and the radiographic test be carried out and be documented analogously in spite of the different test methods. The contract award is, among other factors, subject to the following specifications: observance of the customers QA guidelines, a fairly comprehensive specialized documentation including evaluation of single results. All welds are clearly identified by a code which is subsequently meant to be used for managing the corresponding results in a database. During the test on site, all indications exceeding the recording threshold (circular-disk-shaped reflector as reference reflector) shall be documented using position coordinates of the reflector (flaw) as well as the reflectors echo dynamics. The total contract volume is approx. $ 200,000.- for the radiographic part and approx. $ 140,000.- for the ultrasonic part. Charlie Smartchecker, an old hand in the job, has gone into a lot of raptures over the documentation capabilities of his ultrasonic equipment and thus been awarded the contract for the ultrasonic part. At the moment, the testing company has a USD 15 and two USN 52 units from Krautkrmer, as well as three older analog ultrasonic instruments having no documentation capabilities. In view of the order, Charlie Smartchecker has already secretly planned a new investment for a new ultrasonic instrument equipped with state-of-the-art documentation features amounting to approx. $ 30,000.-. So Charlie Smartchecker contacts Krautkrmer asking them to submit a quotation for a corresponding ultrasonic system. He knows that Krautkrmer will quote for this ultrasonic notebook USLT 2000, which opens the way to modern data processing, and that theres a special application software for it, as well as to sort of round it all off an additional development tool called UltraWORKS. All of it costing around $ 25,000.-. Those people at Krautkrmer claim that UltraWORKS makes it relatively easy to create your own applications and to access all test results. The junior is not enthusiastic. He says that its only software that you can just as well develop or have developed for yourself. He has an old college friend whos been writing software for many years now. He doesnt do anything else. He knows a lot about these things. Hell take care of it - in two weeks for $ 1,100.- to be more precise. It would then be possible to take the USD 15, it has an interface. Thatll make the test system complete. Charlie Smartchecker refuses at first, but in a moment of weakness he could be persuaded and changed his mind. Anyhow, the junior must know what hes saying. After all, he knows how to surf in the internet and everything.
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In the end, Charlie Jr.s college friend develops according to the order and even on schedule - an ultrasonic documentation software called Titanic II which is used for the pipeline inspection. The pipeline welds are inspected according to the order. Two inspectors carry out the weld test parallel to one another, each using an ultrasonic instrument. Any indications subject to recording are at once stored in the data memory of the instrument. Having accomplished the days work, the two ultrasonic instruments are connected to a PC, and the test results are transferred. The data are processed according to the specifications using Titanic II, and the required documentation is generated viz. for all welds, even for those not containing any indications subject to recording at all. The test is carried out: everything is all right. Or is it? The owner of the pipeline system, a rather suspicious man after a few nasty experiences in the past, has sampling check tests carried out on the ultrasonically tested pipelines always at the star t, in the middle and at the end of each pipeline section. He isnt prepared to accept any test section and to pay the bill for the corresponding test job till after this has been done. And thats how something happens that nobody has expected: two out of three tests on the first pipeline section checked produce indications subject to recording. Both welds are marked ok in the corresponding documentation generated by Titanic II. The customer summons the testing company to meet him. At first, Smartchecker & Son cannot believe at all whats being claimed. However, during a manual rechecking directly on the pipeline, indications subject to recording are actually detected. The reason for the wrong results must therefore be found in the documentation software.
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Junior sees the problem in the PC connector cable and says that hes often had difficulties with that. Charlie Smartchecker on his part is not at all satisfied with this explanation, he wants to get to the bottom of this matter and insists on having the software revised by its author plus on an immediate elimination of the cause of the error. Charlie Jr. promises to take care of that. Not having heard anything about the required software revision after a couple of days, the senior asks about it. The junior shamefacedly informs him that he has been desperately trying to get into contact with his friend till he finally learned that the latter could not be reached: not now and not within the next few months because his friend had quit studying, having felt a sudden
urge to experience the most different cultures on various continents for the purpose of self-realization. The wildest thoughts flash through Charlie Smartcheckers mind: disinheritance, selling the company, emigration. Finally, he comes to his senses, and he makes an appointment with the owner of the pipeline - and with Krautkrmer. The software error has made the entire ultrasonic documentation worthless. The customer naturally insists on a complete re-inspection of the pipeline and demands that the documentation system has to be supplied by a renowned manufacturer. In addition, he insists on a preliminary acceptance of the documentation system. Charlie Smartchecker gets off lightly one more
time: hes allowed to continue working on the order, he doesnt even have to pay for the time delay. After all this, Charlie Smar tchecker did what he should have done right from the star t: he bought the USLT 2000 including the development tool UltraWORKS from Krautkrmer and had his own documentation software created. Charlie Jr. was no longer consulted about this matter. Due to the additional expenditure caused by the double testing, the company ends up with a deficit amounting to almost double the investments. Charlie Jr. is now paying this off. Besides, he has enrolled in the necessar y training courses at Krautkrmer.
Quick hardness testing, quick documentation

With UltraHARD toward the future of mobile hardness testing.
MIC 10 and DynaMIC
Krautkrmer has a lot to offer for the mobile hardness testing which represents a quick and, most of all, an economic alternative to stationary testing in todays manufacturing process. With MIC 10 and DynaMIC, the program includes products that cover a wide application range. The two actually refer to two different physical methods - the static UCI and the dynamic rebound hardness testing method implemented in a uniform instrument concept. Both instruments enable hardness testing in a matter of seconds: place the probe or the impact device on the component, trigger the measurement, read the hardness value on the display.
UltraHARD: user inter face with graphical analysis of test data
UltraHARD
The UltraHARD application software, developed for both hardness testers, extends their function scope in terms of evaluation, statistics, documentation, data processing - and it makes the work even easier, the testing process including the corresponding applications
even faster, for the documentation for example. UltraHARD, which joins the series of proven Krautkrmer application programs, is available in two versions having different performance ranges.
Basic functions
The basic module of UltraHARD primely consists of a data transfer function from the hardness tester to the PC, and in an
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automatic interfacing with the Windows or MS-Office world. Test reports can be easily generated for example as a predefined Excel sheet form which only has to be recalled for subsequent test repor ts: all that has to be done is to press a key, and the next test repor t is ready. The integration of graphics into the repor ts analyzing graphics or company logos for example is like-
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wise no problem with UltraHARD. Of course, the program feature also enables to fur ther process the data in Excel with all its possibilities, e.g. in graphics or for statistics. In the case there is no MS-Office environment available, the program additionally offers a simple integrated editor for test repor t generation.
bility of simply renaming the measurement series which are still typically identified by means of consecutive numbers in the hardness testers today by giving them alphanumerical names brings about further advantages for the general arrangement.
the display of frequency distribution of readings allow to draw conclusions with regard to the process capability. Theres an extended function range even for repor t generation: test repor ts are available in standard formats which can be easily edited. However, they can also be generated individually, a process which is likewise made easy for the user by simple operator control features. Moreover, UltraHARD has an online screen which directly displays the measured values on the PC screen during the test on the one hand, and ser ves for the remote control of the hardness tester on the other hand. The hardness test can therefore be controlled from the PC.
Additional functions
Besides the data transfer and documentation functions, to which the program version UltraHARD light is limited, UltraHARDs standard version has many other things to offer. For example, graphical analyzing tools for the following applications: linear representation of measurement series for hardness progress curves frequency distribution / histogram case-hardening thickness (according to DIN 50190), nitriding depth, and rim zone hardness depth statistical evaluations of individual measurement series or of the complete readings on all measurement series All important information can be seen at a glance. These program features of UltraHARD enable, for example, to graphically display and evaluate the hardness progress cur ve on welds;
User-friendly tools
To make it easier to use the program, user-friendly tools were integrated: a so-called WIZARD for example guides through the individual actions, helps to define test repor ts and to also place, apar t from the measured values, other impor tant pieces of information order numbers for example at the required position in the test report form. The test report only has to be defined once, and is after wards used as a template model for the test report. A Data Manager, similar to the Windows Explorer in its setup, enables to compile measurement series for test repor ts sor ted, for example, according to date of orders, test points, customer or order numbers, etc. Different organization levels are offered in this regard to help with the assignment and sor ting of data. The possi-
Summary
UltraHARD enables an easy docking to the MS-Of fice world. In particular the test documentation at the press of a key makes the work easier in view of todays legal requirements and in view of the quality assurance demands. Yet its all done quickly and conveniently. Those of us who are not quite unfamiliar with the Windows world, will get to know UltraHARD in less than no time.
Array transducers with integrated electronics for industrial applications

With the drive to smaller, less expensive and more sensitive electronic devices, the array instrumentation area is now economically more viable for industrial applications, and Krautkramer is pleased to announce that we are now developing and manufacturing industrial instrumentation to take advantage of the features which arrays open up.
What is an array transducer?

An array is basically a large single element transducer, which has been subdivided by cutting it into small segments as shown in Figure 1. Typical element sizes are from 0.5 mm (0.02 inch) to 2.5 mm (0.1 inch), although custom sizes are available. Also available are annular arrays, which are circular elements, divided into donut shaped annular elements (Fig. 2).
Figs. 1 and 2: Segments of a single element transducer and a circular element
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Why divide the probe into small elements?

A large probe will give a good flat coverage, but its small beam angle limits its visibility. A small element has a much larger beam divergence angle, and it is this large angle which opens up the useful features of arrays such as dynamic focussing and beam steering. Another feature of small elements is their energy transfer efficiency -smaller elements take less energy to excite and are more efficient receivers due to the lower mass to be energized. Beam divergence is also a function of frequency, lower frequencies will give more divergence than higher. Typical sizes/frequencies for industrial applications are 1 mm wide for 2.5 MHz and 0.5 mm wide for 5 MHz.
Linear Scanning
Linear scanning (sometimes called synthetic aper ture scanning) successively fires adjacent groups of elements to create a scanning effect. The Vir tual Probe width and scan pitch can be controlled by selecting the number of elements fired in parallel, and the number of elements indexed for successive shots. Figure 8 shows two elements fired together, with an index of one element. This technique can be combined with both beam steering and dynamic focussing to apply a scanning motion to angle and focussed beams.
Figs. 4 and 5: Time delayed firing and wave front for angle beaming
Dynamic Focusing
As shown for dynamic beam steering, the same effect can be used to dynamically focus an ultrasonic beam by selecting the array firing order and pulse delays. Again, this can be changed on a pulse by pulse basis to effectively sweep a focal point through test material. Note the beam steering and dynamic focusing can be combined to give a resultant beam which is both focused and angled (used e.g. for tube testing applications).
Fig. 8: Linear scanning
Phased Array Creation and Evaluation

Fig. 3: Different elements and sound beams
As shown for beam steering and dynamic focussing, a beam can be customized and created by selectively setting the firing order and time delays for individual elements. However, what happens with the returned signals? How can they be evaluated as a single ultrasonic signal? Figure 9 below shows the same pattern for firing the simple steered beam, but includes simulated signals all occurring at the same relative distance from each array element.
Beam Steering
An important aspect of array usage is the ability to dynamically synthesize an ultrasonic beam and create a Virtual Probe of any angle within the overall beam spread of an individual element. An angle beam is created by sequentially firing each element in an array to create a wave front following the desired angle. The angle is selected and set up electronically by the instrumentation, and can if necessar y be changed pulse by pulse. This Vir tual Probe can also be swept through a test object by firing groups of elements in a large array.
Figs. 6 and 7: Time delayed firing and wave front for focusing
Fig. 9: Time delay control with echo signals
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Note that on a single timebase (Fig. 10), all the signals do not align, which makes evaluation difficult.
Tandem Scanning
Phased arrays allow for dynamic scanning using the tandem technique. To utilize the technique, separate array groups are defined as transmit and receive vir tual probes and scanned to cover the test area. This technique can be used for testing welds in thick sections.
Fig. 10: Main bang and echoes superimposed in time
Fig. 13: Weld testing on a tube using the phased array technique
This problem is overcome in two phases. First, each received echo stream from each array element is digitized and all echo streams are aligned so that the phasing offset is removed and echoes are then shown relative to each other on a standard time base (Fig. 11).
The system allows for automatic setup to accommodate different tube diameters and thicknesses with no resetting of transducers. Because of the system tolerance to weld wander, the probes can also be installed in a position in the production line where the tube is cool and mechanically stable from vibrations. The application uses all the phased array features described previously. Beam steering to generate the correct angle in the tube focussing the beam in the weld area linear scanning to move the beam across the weld area.
Fig.14: Phased array using the tandem technique for testing welds
Fig. 11: Main bang and echo with phase compensation
Next all the aligned echo trains are digitally added so that any indications found by more than one element will be amplified and will give a true picture of the relative size of the indication (Fig. 12). This then results in a summed presentation which is then fed into a standard USPC 2100 instrument as a regular signal as received from a standard single element transducer, and is evaluated by gated and standard measurements.
Testing of thick-walled containers in power plants is a special application for the tandem technique. The data recording capability is of par ticular impor tance for application of these par ts. The units necessar y for the phased array test systems: Array transducer Array module Time delay cards Ultrasonic electronics (e.g. USPC 2100) with evaluation electronics The test system itself can, and must, be customized; due to the relatively high engineering expenditure it is imperative that there be close cooperation between user and Krautkrmer, as supplier. Owing to the applications complexity, the conditions for successful operation must be intensive project studies and consultation. If these preparations are made, the phased array test system will certainly solve difficult test tasks which could not be solved up until now.
Tube Thickness
As with the previous flaw detection applications, this application also is used in the ERW tube manufacturing process. In this instance the array is focussed and scanned to measure the wall thickness of the tube. This measurement is usual to check the alignment and state of the scar fing tool which trims the ID post weld flash from the tube. The technique uses focussing and linear scanning to cover the area of interest.The results are evaluated and presented to the user as C-scan and B-scan images of the weld area, along with thickness tolerance checks.
Fig. 12: A-scan display of compensated signals
Tube Flaw Detection

This system is used to test the tube weld in an ERW welded tube. The system is installed in-line to scan the weld area. As the radial position of the weld can wander, as the tube moves between the weld head and the testing position, scanning is necessary to cover any deviation.
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Joined together by welding

UltraLOG - a forward-looking development in close cooperation with the industry.
Introduction
The ultrasonic method has also been used in spot weld testing for many years now. A large number of automobile manufacturers worldwide are using ultrasonic systems from Krautkrmer for nondestructive spot weld testing. The use of this method was even more eagerly accepted within the industry because of substantial new developments within the ultrasonic technology. Krautkrmer has played a decisive part in this development for more than 10 years by launching corresponding test equipment as well as product families and accessories respectively. The following report does not only present both newcomers and long-standing pros an updated stock-taking of the test method, but it also describes a promising problem solution by the example of the ultrasonic notebook USLT 2000 and the application software UltraLOG.
Industrial requirements
The use of ultrasonic technology for testing spot-welded joints offers substantial advantages for the user when compared with the conventional inspection using a hammer and a chisel: The component is not destroyed or damaged (less scrap) Determined test results can be produced Test results become comparable because a test result is documented independently of the inspector (ultrasonic display) The test process can be easily automated The obvious arguments speaking for the use of the ultrasonic method lead to a continuously increasing acceptance among the users, in spite of the considerable expenditure on the training of test personnel and the necessary intra-company transfer of know-how. In order to set up a field-oriented test method especially for this type of
application, other essential arguments must also be taken into account:
Legal regulations Implied warranties stipulated by law, and especially the Product Liability Act, force manufacturers to furnish proof of a correct manufacturing process of a product in the case of doubt. To achieve this, the manufacturer must document both the production process and any inspection and checking actions taken. Recall actions are meant as a means of conforming to these general legal guidelines, however, they will not be effective until after a defect has been detected. An adequate test method helps to avoid expensive recall actions in advance by preventive measures. Production process More and more complex prefabricated single components, assembled on one single site in next to no time, are used within the automotive industry. It goes without saying that this requires sophisticated checking mechanisms ensuring the safe and reliable assembly of per-
fectly flaw-free single components. This makes incoming inspections as well as a uniform test method agreed upon with the sub-supplier indispensable! Besides that, tests must be carried out within the production process without affecting the actual production process. That means that both the test equipment and the actual test must be documented quickly, reliably and clearly leaving no room for doubt. In this connection, the degree of automation within the production process, determined internally within each individual company, must also be taken into consideration as a guideline to be followed. The fully automatic production control is facing an inspection or test system which is automated to the farthest possible degree. The quality of the complete vehicle should already be warranted during the production of the single parts.
Quality management philosophy Depending on the QM concept, the test is not only regarded as a statistical verification of the produced quality.
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Modern systems also have a sensory function in the sense of a continuous improvement process (CIP). Information on short-term quality variations at certain welding stations or long-term observations of the process, e. g. in the case of changes in the material thicknesses or surface quality, are to be recorded and evaluated. A test system must be able to produce corresponding indicators.
How does a future-oriented problem solution look like?

With all these influential factors, the reader is naturally liable to suspect it to be questionable whether there might be any feasible solution at all, a solution that would be both handy and easy to use, at the same time allowing for all the factors described above. State-of-the-ar t ultrasonic technology from Krautkrmer however covers all these aspects.
Test environment The test can serve as a means of verification within the production process on the one hand, or it can be used for further QA statistics outside the process on the other hand. The actual test requires adequately trained personnel. The possibility for a quick and direct documentation and further processing of the data obtained from the test must likewise be given. Modern QA and process control systems should be able to utilize the test as a corresponding data source.
Moreover, the test philosophy has to be taken into consideration. That means, hows the test going to be carried out? Two methods are common in the field in this connection. The setup involves either fixed test stations, e. g. near the welding station, or flexible test systems used alternately at different locations.
Heres our proof... The ultrasonic notebook USLT 2000 is a high-resolution ultrasonic system, rugged in its industrial housing, and yet handy, especially well suited for the evaluation of spot welds under manufacturing conditions. The digital part of the ultrasonic component consists of a card, approx. the size of a cheque card, in a standard notebook. With a horizontal pixel resolution of 1024 pixels, this portable system is a worldwide leader. This excellent screen resolution enables to record and evaluate the weld inspection of even the thinnest metal sheets.
Add to this the evaluation and QA software UltraLOG, and you have customized evaluation software included in the package besides the ultrasonic system! The overall system is based on the operating system WINDOWS 95 (compatible with WINDOWS 98 / WINDOWS NT). State-of-the-art software technology (client-server technology) will ensure that all known utilities of the operating system or corresponding industrial-standard application programs (e.g. MSOffice) are automatically also supported. These state-of-the-ar t hardware and software technologies make it possible to open up totally new paths for the systematic inspection of spot welds!
about two years. This will ensure the user that hes not dealing with a banana product (ripens at the customers), but with a field-proven evaluation system. In addition to fixed-programmed evaluation algorithms, the evaluation assistance tool also contains a teach-in method in which different ultrasonic displays can be filed for a test result. The filed displays are then compared with the currently active display in each case. If they are consistent with each other, the corresponding test result is displayed. However, the standard algorithms (Evaluation Assistance I/II) have meanwhile also matured to such an extent that consistencies of 94 % were attained in measurement series carried out with NOK spots in these cases!
Equipment Apar t from the actual ultrasonic system, the inspector should be given the chance of executing all routine operations by means of a corresponding system. This includes the menuguided processing of the test, for example by means of an inspection plan, as well as the automatic documentation of all test-relevant data and an inspection assistance tool (evaluation assistance tool). The inspection assistance tool should be able to present automatic results for the test classes OK, too small nugget, poor fusion/bad through-welding, loose joint, stick weld, burnt spot, both for two-plate and for three-plate joints. The ultrasonic system, the probe, as well as the corresponding QA and evaluation software should of course come from one and the same supplier.
Automatic evaluation assistance tool UltraLOG contains different evaluation assistance tools (Evaluation Assistance I, II, III) which produce optimum results depending on the metal sheet combination and sur face quality of the material. These evaluation assistance tools were developed and tested in direct cooperation with automobile manufacturers over a period of
Test data manager Another feature contained in UltraLOG is a complete database system for generating and managing the test results, as well as for the test management. Inspection plans can be generated for individual inspectors or certain test stations by means of test data managers. This enables to plan, to control and to document the actual test process. These plans may include instructions for testing the most complex components (e.g. a complete car body). UltraLOG doesnt contain any limitations with regard to the nesting depth - i.e. structural setup - of the components under test. Inspection plans can be generated and managed in a centralized or decentralized manner (depending on the companys EDP structure). For example, the Planning Department can prepare the complete test system for any chosen production lines, without having to have any direct contact with the actual test station. The ready-made inspection plans are distributed among the test systems via network, e-mail, internet, or quite conservatively, on a disk.
The processing degree is of course variable by means of the built-in threestage safety system (Administrator/ Master/Inspector). The work processes can be optimally controlled in this way, avoiding any collisions or overlappings during the actual test or during the test preparation.
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A new dimension of ultrasonic testing... The inspection plans are called by the inspector by pressing a key at the corresponding station. The inspector is then guided through the test according to the sequence defined in the inspection plan. The inspector can easily recall test-specific suppor t data for each plan (test instructions, component drawings). The required suppor t data (e.g. material data) are of course likewise filed in the inspection plan. Depending on whether the inspector would like to see the large high-resolution ultrasonic display or whether he would rather like to be guided by the component drawing (e.g. in the case of unknown components), he has the possibility to change the views during the test. The actual test is largely automated, i.e.:
The inspector couples the ultrasonic probe to the spot weld according to the model in the inspection plan/test sketch. The ultrasonic display will automatically stop (!) as soon as all coupling conditions are met. The automatic evaluation assistance tool evaluates the spot weld according to the set evaluation method and makes an evaluation suggestion. The inspector shor tly checks the result visually and signalizes by recoupling the probe that he accepts the test result (documentation will then take place parallel to this). The system goes automatically to the next spot weld to be tested. Whether or not the information obtained from the test results can be relied on in the ultrasonic inspection is influenced by the probe used. The probe element diameter must correspond to the specified minimum nugget diameter. A wrong choice can lead to incorrect test results. New intelligent dialog probes make sure that such mismatches are avoided. The operational reliability and consequently the information obtained from the test results thus gain a new quality. An automated test can be carried out up to 10 times per minute, i.e. a maximum of 600 spot welds per hour. The
inspector carries out the complete test on the component. Basically no interventions are required during the test on the test system. Should interventions nevertheless become necessary (e.g. a repeated measurement), the essential functions can be influenced during the test process via remote control. The documentation of the actual test result takes place without any additional work parallel to the test process, i.e. the inspector doesnt have to enter any additional data. All test results, as well as all ultrasonic parameters are automatically stored in the database for each component in question. It is therefore always possible to present statistics on component level for each test station, or to furnish full documented proof of the test on a component from the point of view of Product Liability.
related viewing methods are possible without any problem via the integrated WINDOWS interfaces.
Summing-up
Spot weld testing using the ultrasonic method has gained worldwide acceptance today in many companies within the automotive industry. Krautkrmer has fundamentally shaped this application by various product families over the years. At present, the most up-to-date and most versatile system worldwide is USLT 2000 with the application software UltraLOG. This unit combines a traditional application with ultrasonic know-how and state-of-the-art EDP technology in such a way that an innovative and forward-looking system was developed for this application. Besides the cost saving in comparison with hammer and chisel, the decisive thing about the use of this method is the possibility to actively participate in the continuous improvement process (CIP) of the QA system in question. The documentation possibilities take general legal conditions (Product Liability Act) into account and create additional possibilities of obtaining information about quality variations within the production process and of drawing direct conclusions as to their cause if applicable. This method is becoming ever increasingly accepted by the automotive industry.
And always remember to keep in touch! It goes without saying that, apart from the test process control, the test result and further processing are important aspects, especially for the online quality assurance. Once generated, all test results are immediately available for further processing, e.g. via network or e-mail. These test results meet the requirements in terms of the documentation duty under Product Liability, and they can be utilized for statistical assessments or for production process control. Determining the characteristic factors for each work station, welding station, component, or different time- 35 -
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R E P O R T S A N D O P I N I O N S
The Krautkrmer training system

The continuously increasing demands on quality, safety and reliability of the products call for an improvement of the development and production methods, and along with it also the training and qualification of specialists in the quality control. The nondestructive test methods gain more and more importance in view of all this. We as manufacturers of ultrasonic test equipment have realized ver y early that a flaw detector plus operating manual alone is only of little use to the operator. For this reason, the help with the solution of test problems given by our Application Lab as well as the field-oriented training courses of the inspectors and test operators organized by our Training Depar tment are an integral part of our after-sales service. We have held one-week training courses on the subject of Nondestructive Ultrasonic Testing at Krautkrmer ever since 1955 - and since 1992, these courses have also been held on subjects from the field of eddy current testing. We are thus able to base our work on comprehensive experience and to immediately introduce new developments in the test sector into our courses. Our courses are divided into a theoretical and a practical part. In the theoretical part (in the morning), the fundamental principles of the test method and its applications are presented. The practical part (in the afternoon) is then gone through according to a detailed program of exercises in groups of two to three participants at workstations equipped with state-of-the-art instruments. The practical exercises are set up in such a way that the theoretical knowledge acquired in the morning is substantiated by the exercises. In this connection, the course leader intervenes by giving explanations and by demonstrating whenever any errors are made, or whenever a work group asks him for help. At the end of a training course, a detailed certificate of participation is handed out to the participant. The training in the field of ultrasonic testing star ts with the course Introduction to Ultrasonic Testing which does not require any specialized knowledge. Duration: 5 days (40 hours). Subject matters of the training course are: fundamental principles of physics of the sound propagation; generation of ultrasound; setup and function of (analog and digital) ultrasonic instruments and probes; calibration and localization using straightbeam, angle-beam and TR probes; easy documentation of test results. The training course Introduction to Ultrasonic Testing meets the requirements for entering the qualification examinations Level I-UT according to the ASNT document SNT-TC-1A, as well as the Level 1-UT according to EN 473. We are currently offering the Level-I examination (ASNT) and will soon also offer following a corresponding agreement the Level-1 examination according to EN 473 which will then be held at our company by an authorized independent test specialist. Taking the basic course Introduction to Ultrasonic Testing as a basis, the
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training course titled Ultrasonic Evaluation of Flaws is held, dealing with the theoretical and practical aspects of the fundamental principles of recording and evaluation of flaws or discontinuities according to the DGS, reference block and half-value methods. Duration 5 days (40 hours). The continuing training course Application-Oriented Selection of Ultrasonic Probes is likewise based on the basic course Introduction to Ultrasonic Testing and on the advanced course Ultrasonic Evaluation of Flaws in which theoretical and practical knowledge and skills can be acquired in terms of choosing the suitable probes for the different application cases of the daily field testing situations, for the evaluation of test results and the creation of test instructions. Duration: 5 days (40 hours). The two previously mentioned training courses together, i.e. Ultrasonic Evaluation of Flaws and Application-Oriented Selection of Ultrasonic Probes with a total of 10 days (80 hours) of training time, meet the requirement for participating in the Level-II examination
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according to the ASNT document SNT-TC-1A. Following a corresponding agreement the requirements for participating in the Level-2 examination according to EN 473 will also be met. This examination will then be held, as the Level-1 examination, at our company by the certification authorities. Other training courses in the field of ultrasonic testing, organized by us in our training centre at Hrth, include:
Ultrasonic Testing of Welded Joints. Practical Exercises on Digital Ultrasonic Equipment. Practical Exercises in Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement. Introduction to Eddy Current Testing. In addition, we organize our standard and specialized training courses such as e.g. Ultrasonic Inspection of Spot Welds in Car Body Making - on request
worldwide also in English. Besides this, our U.S. associated company at Lewistown likewise offers corresponding training courses in the USA. For more detailed information about our training program, please contact our Training Department.
Probes for the DM 4

The latest version of the thickness gauge DM 4 presents considerable improvements in comparison with earlier versions. Besides the possibility of measuring the thickness of base material through coatings (DUAL MULTI function), a DA3 mode was created to optimize the operation of DA3.. probes.
High-temperature measurements
For example, when using the probes DA 315, DA 317 and DA 319 for measurements on hot surfaces up to approx. 200 C as well as DA 305 up to approx. 500 C in the DA3 mode, the delay line length is measured while the probe is coupled to the test object. This has the following advantage in comparison with measurements in which the probe is lifted off: time-of-flight variations due to heating of the probe delay line during the measurement can be directly compensated for. This excludes a temperature drift of the measurement results, i.e. the measurement results are exact and independent of any influences by coupling time and cooling cycle. The new DA3 mode is also of advantage when using the probes DA 301, DA 303 and DA 312 for measurements at ambient temperature because the measurement result is influenced by temperature variations in this case as well, if only slightly. The DA3 mode thus allows to obtain a considerably more stable and better reproducible measurement result for all DA3.. probes.
Dialog probes
The latest generation of the DA 45..type dialog probes for the DM 4 optimize the utilization of the measurement accuracies that can be achieved with the instrument. The probe contains a memor y chip carr ying all the necessar y settings for the optimum instrument operation. When connecting the dialog probe to the DM 4, the information filed in the memor y chip is read by the instrument, and all the parameters are automatically set in the instrument accordingly. This refers e.g. to the gain, the phase angle to be evaluated of the delay line and backwall echo, and to the correction curve for the V-path error which always exists with the dual-element (TR) probes. These adjustment data are type-related in the case of standard probes, i.e. the data are constant for a type regardless of the single probe unit. With special probes for the DM 4, on the other hand, single unit-related data can also be programmed in the memor y chip in order to be able to control the instrument individually for ever y single probe. This enables to obtain the best signal-to-noise ratio even with critical measurement tasks, i.e. it makes maximum measurement safety and reliability available. As all adjustment data for the DM 4 are available in the memor y chip, the user does not have to worry about the instrument setup. He can rather rely on the fact that the instrument setup is always optimized so that he can fully concentrate on the actual measurement task. The DM 4 always has exactly the same setup, even in repetitive in-ser vice measurements, without the user having to note down this setup.
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Another step forward in ultrasonic testing

By Erik Zimmermann, Zeppelin Silo- und Apparatetechnik GmbH, Friedrichshafen
In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen discovered the X-rays, called Rntgen after him in German. Ever since that time, nothing fundamental has changed in radiographic testing developed at that time, except that the X-ray films and the X-ray machines have been improved and become more efficient. One of the great advantages of radiographic testing was always the documentation in the form of the X-ray film which could be filed. In the case of ultrasonic testing, it was previously common practice to draw up handwritten test repor ts, which is often seen as a disadvantage. Ever since we started using the ISONIC test system, we have taken one step for ward in this regard. We are now able to hand out a representative piece of documentation to the experts and to our customers. This comprises the demonstrated proof of the correct execution of the test and the real-time evaluation of all signals, including the echo indications from the ultrasonic instrument even as trueto-scale and graphic representations. Another aspect is based on the fact that an X-ray image or radiograph always only represents a shadow image without any information as to the depth position of flaw indications. ISONIC offers not only a top view for this, but also the side view from which the depth position can be read. How often has a weld been repaired from the wrong side! This is avoided when using the ISONIC. Moreover, it often happens that the ultrasonic inspection detects cracks and lack of side fusion more sensitively than the X-ray method. An example of this: We would like to describe our first experiences using a normal work specimen made of WstE355. The metal sheet specimen was radiographed after welding according to
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top: X-ray film middle: Extract from a test repor t bottom: Microsection
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standard specifications. No irregularities were noticed when the film was evaluated. The additional ultrasonic inspection using the ISONIC system, however, revealed a flaw measuring 17 mm in length. This flaw area was after wards again radiographed using an X-ray tube as well as a more sensitive film quality and another beaming direction. Once again, no flaws were detected when evaluating the film (please see X-ray film range 37-39 cm). As the test object was a work specimen and not a finished tank, a microsection was taken from the location concerned. The defective spot could then be seen under the microscope (please see microsection photo).
Another characteristic feature of ISONIC is the reproducibility of the test: everything is documented by the system right from the start, from coupling via probe movement up to complete volume coverage, that means the whole test sequence (please see extract from the ISONIC report on the above-mentioned work specimen) - and not only for ferritic welds, but also for materials such as aluminium alloys. The requirements of the European and U.S. standard specifications can be met without reservations. The step into the next centur y would thus already be traced out, the test is carried out by a certified inspector us-
ing a calibrated system, and the evaluation is made at a round table as with the X-ray film evaluation. Summar y: Documentation, ISONIC now makes it also possible for the ultrasonic inspection Determination and documentation of the flaw depth position Large-area flaws in welds can often be better detected ultrasonically than by means of the radiotechnology Improvement as against the conventional ultrasonic inspection: coupling monitor.
Steps in ultrasonic testing

Exhibition of historical test equipment at the DGZfP Annual Conference 1999
On the occasion of this years annual conference of the Deutsche Gesellschaft fr zerstrungsfreie Prfung (German Society of Nondestructive Testing) in Celle, an exhibition had been arranged showing remarkable developments in ultrasonic material testing devices in West and East Germany from the early days of their industrial application up to the end of the analog era. A handsome number of instruments were presented illustrating to the visitor the technical progress of electronics and test techniques in particular. Krautkrmer was always able to bring out the main features and to contribute to the development with many milestones in the past five decades. No wonder the following Krautkrmer treasures were encountered at the historical exhibition: ultrasonic flaw detector USIP 4 (1951); the first instrument at the top left
portable ultrasonic flaw detector USK 2 (1956), with a separate power supply unit TR probe SEB 4 (1958) - a world success in a dual package portable ultrasonic flaw detector USK 4 (1961), with display magnifier
Corrometer (1967), needle meter for wall thickness measurements D-Meter (1971), wall thickness gauge in camera format ultrasonic flaw detector USL 35 (1976), with logarithmic amplifier and programmed distance laws
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Service in changing times

In the era of a transition from the industrial society to the information and communication society, the function and the importance of the technical after-sales service have continuously and lastingly changed.
Development during the last few decades

If the after-sales service was a necessary evil for the manufacturers at the time of booming demand of the 50s, this was followed by thoughts of repositioning the ser vices and of redefining the staff profile in the 60s when the first signs of a market saturation showed up. In the decade of the following 70s, the range of goods offered still increased, decreasing profit margins led to cost pressure, transparency was in demand. At the same time, a technical revolution took place due to the microprocessor. It was the time of the systems specialists and of the cost center.
After-sales service as marketing instrument

In the high-tech market of the 80s with a high market saturation, the after-sales ser vice developed into an active, sales-supporting marketing instrument. As a result of this, todays global market calls for open systems with the consequences that the offers and supplies must be based on integral thinking and on the principle of ever ything coming from one and the same supplier. This refers to information, engineering, calibration ser vices and maintenance of value, and is per formed, for example, by means of hardware modification and software update.
sulting synergies, commercial handling, including spare parts sales and logistics and with a direct connection, the Ser vice-Center hotline (..2233 / 601 111). Specialists for all instrument versions are standing by in the repair shop, contributing to an effective problem solution (software/hardware) and to shor t repair times with their specialized knowledge. As our customers cannot do without their test instrument for too long, we have an extensive stock of ser vice spare par ts directly at our disposal. High-tech products require original spare par ts. Experienced employees are at your disposal for questions concerning component specification, price determination, availability and deliver y. Ever y repair closes with an intensive endurance test and a comprehensive final inspection. In many countries of the world, our mobile workshop comes to the customer, for example if the system is integrated into a production process. A shor t reaction time is taken for granted by us. In addition, our field service staff safeguards the investments of
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the customer by software updates or modifications of the test device for a new or additional job. Training and instruction are an important prerequisite for the repair and adjustment of modern equipment. Ever y single move has to fit, the software must be masterly installed. Our ser vice know-how is therefore imparted to the technicians of our representatives worldwide in training courses which the Ser vice Center continuously organizes and offers.
Services within the framework of quality assurance

The demands for the comprehensive and thorough precision of test equipment have enormously increased during the past few years. The verification of the reproducibility and comparativeness of measurements at regular inter vals has become an integral par t of todays quality assurance systems. Objective and reproducible test methods are therefore used for the calibration of ultrasonic test equipment. One example of this are the mathematically generated reference signals of a waveform synthetizer used by us for checking and optimiz-
Service Center at Krautkrmer

In view of this from the customers point of view certainly advantageous development, the Krautkrmer Service Center was founded in 1983, offering various benefits for the customer: closeness to market, shor t paths for information and decisions, experience, technical competence for instruments and systems with the re-
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ing the per formance of test instruments and systems. The test properties of the instruments are thus always traceable; we carry out tests according to national or international guidelines taking into consideration the EN equipment standard to be expected - or according to especially developed Krautkrmer criteria which are recognized throughout the world.
A large range of services offered today ...

Our ser vices are field-oriented and can be utilized as a modular system. The inspection comprises calibration according to deliver y specifications, software update if required, network testing according to VBG 4 and documentation. In addition, we offer the spare parts option, just in case that a defect is detected during the inspec-
tion. The repair is carried out immediately, the necessar y component or module is billed at a special price. If maximum availability is at stake, our maintenance agreement (complete ser vice) is just the right answer. We offer inspections at regular inter vals, software update, repairs at a fixed price, including material and labour, instruments and modules to get through the repair period, as well as a guaranteed reaction time. Since software is something that lives, we keep the software-update agreement ready. It includes the automatic mailing of new software versions, support by phone, special prices for our software training courses offered at regular inter vals, and the use of our freecall hotline.
... and tomorrow.

Ever ybodys talking about the year 2000 and so are we. Our suppor t will shor tly be extended by two interesting aspects: we shall make equipment firmware available by means of download programs via the data network, and we shall introduce especially within the systems ser vice the technique of remote diagnosis. The first steps have already been taken in this direction, steps that will bring our competence a bit closer to the customer.
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E C H O P U L S E S
Checking of resistance spot welds

Definition of position of the ultrasonic spot weld testing.
In the last editions of echo, we reported on the methods and advantages of ultrasonic spot weld testing among others on the special issue 296 Ultrasonic testing of spot-welded joints on coated steel sheets and optimization of welding parameters. You may now obtain from us our special issue SD 297 Ultrasonic testing as a means of quality assurance in resistance spot welding (author: Dipl.-Ing. H. Polrolniczak, Moers). You will be informed about: Quality features in resistance spot welding Measures aiming at quality assurance Comparison between mechanical testing using chisel and hammer and ultrasonic testing Ultrasonic testing of spot welds The summary reads: For some time now, there has been an exchange of experiences from the field application at almost all German automobile works, these experiences have been mutually discussed, and open issues have been clarified by joint field-oriented studies. The positive outcome of the tests and experiments described in this treatise shows that its possible to mark out an area in which a nondestructive ultrasonic test can be carried out producing a sufficiently reliable test result for the field application. The systematically continued exchange of experiences will also allow conclusions to be drawn on those cases in which a test is at present still too unreliable. Fur thermore, it will be possible to reduce the area where there is not enough knowledge of ultrasonic testing yet. An impor tant interim result of the previous effor ts already applies to the present situation: 1. The nondestructive mechanical tool test using chisel and hammer can be completely replaced with the technically more revealing and more economical ultrasonic test. 2. The number of destructive tests can be reduced by the use of ultrasonic test techniques. The required extent and degree of inspector training is at the moment defined within the framework of a German Welding Association (Deutscher Verband fr Schweien - DVS) guideline Inspector in resistance welding which is currently being worked out. Well-trained inspectors and standardized test principles are indispensable prerequisites for a successful application of ultrasonic testing. It is to be hoped that the necessar y scientific suppor t for the clarification of physical correlations be ver y soon given with the same topicality and intensity as the intensive efforts within the industry. The test results presented are par t of the joint projects dealt with by the project team called Exchange of experiences in ultrasonic testing. The tests were carried out by inspectors from AUDI, BMW, Daimler Benz AG, FORD, and VW, the preparation of samples and their mechanical testing being carried out by the Welding Research and Training Center (Schweitechnische Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt - SLV) at Duisburg.
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E C H O P U L S E S
Well armed for the year 2000

Many people worldwide are expecting gigantic problems with the changeover of time in our computer systems on the 1st of January in 2000. Whether large data processing systems or small microcomputers for example also in ultrasonic instruments: all of them could get into trouble with the changeover if theres an electronic clock ticking inside them. Where can a problem occur? If the clock ticks silently on and only serves for the time indication, nothing much will happen. The situation only becomes delicate whenever the time is required for the data processing. Sor ting processes according to the date are a typical application. In earlier times, the year was only processed in two-digit numbers in order to save precious memor y space. Dates indicated as 01.01.99 are still common nowadays. The changeover from 31.12.99 to 01.01.00 makes the problem clearly visible: many computers assume a step back into the year 1900... The time plays an impor tant par t in many processes of our ever yday life: reminders and interests depend on it. Just imagine yourself ordering and receiving an article in December, 1999, but not paying for it until in Januar y, 2000. A computer having a year2000 problem could draw up a reminder for you requiring interest payable on arrears on account of a default in payment for over 99 years... How can we protect ourselves against this problem? The ver y first thing is to attach impor tance to a 4-digit number of the year! Most computers allow this to be done even after wards. The computer should then get a chance of experiencing the turn of the millenium both when its switched on and when its switched off. Simply watch what your unit or computer does when you set the clock to 23:55 and 31.12.1999. Does it run on into the next millenium after five minutes without any problem? Apar t from this, does it recognize 29.02.2000 as an additional day of the leap year 2000? We have already carried out these tests on our products. The reactions of each individual instrument or unit was documented in a quite comprehensive list. In that way, instruments or units not having any clock at all and consequently no problem with the year 2000 either were identified. We have provided space for remarks in a separate column if anything special should be taken into account with a unit or instrument in view of the turn of the millenium. How can you get this list? Go to the Internet! Select our home page at the address: http://www.krautkramer.com. You will find the introduction to the chapter Year 2000 Readiness right on the first page there. At the end of an extensive discussion of the topic you will find the list you are looking for under the heading Krautkramer Products year 2000 status. Regular updates make sure that the latest findings are documented in this list.
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E C H O P U L S E S
We are prepared for the year 2000. For more than a year, a specialized team has examined all conceivable influences of the turn of the year 2000 within Krautkrmer and worked out solutions for it.
By the way...
In the Internet you will find a lot more interesting information, ideas and problem solutions on our pages.
just click us at: http://www.krautkramer.com.
The Krautkrmer Ultrasonic Booklet

The Krautkrmer booklet can already look back on a long histor y and has been a faitfhful companion to many an inspector and not only to them in the course of the years. As the changing times have to be taken into account in this booklet as well, a new edition of the booklet was brought out in German and in English this year. Typographical errors were corrected, the references updated, and the currently valid standard specifications and rules for ultrasonic testing were taken into consideration. These booklets can be ordered at a token fee from the Krautkrmer GmbH & Co. oHG at Hr th in German (order number 28643) or in English (order number 28644).
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E C H O P U L S E S
With small and large calibre

The ultrasonic test doesnt determine any absolute physical quantities (the only exception being the time-of-flight measurement). The test results must therefore usually be referred to reference blocks and reference reflectors. This means that the reliability of the test results is directly dependent on the reliability of the reference material and on the calibration of the test equipment. These reference blocks and adjustment procedures must therefore also be standardized in the course of the economic globalization. This takes place both worldwide through the ISO standardization comprising 130 member countries (International Organization for Standardization), and in Europe through the CEN standardization comprising 19 member countries (Comit Europen de Normalisation). The weld inspection makes up the largest sector of ultrasonic testing. That is the reason why the reference blocks for weld inspection were given priority in the standardization process. There are two blocks of this type, which are now called calibration blocks because they are defined as reference standards in international standard specifications: the calibration blocks no. 1 and no. 2, or shor t K1 and K2: DIN EN 27963 (identical with ISO 7963), issue June 1992, Welded joints in steel calibration block no. 2 for the ultrasonic testing of welded joints. That means that theres only one standard worldwide for this application. The block has the known shape with a thickness of 12.5 mm and the circular arcs of 25 mm and 50 mm radius. The bore hole diameter is 5 mm. DIN EN 12223 (final draft 1998), Nondestructive testing ultrasonic testing description of the calibration block no. 1. This block has likewise the known shape with a thickness of 25 mm and a length of 300 mm. However, it no longer has an inser t made of plexiglass. The bore hole diameter is now 3 mm. The sound velocities of the two blocks must be within the following intervals: for longitudinal waves (5920 30) m/s, for transverse waves (3255 15) m/s. Since the reliability of weld testing depends on the uniformity of the calibration blocks, as mentioned previously, ver y strict standards are applied to the process inspection of these blocks at Krautkrmer: Both calibration blocks are made of the same steel quality by Krautkrmer (S355JO according to EN 10027). The blanks are heat-treated and forged to produce a fine microstructure. The plates are completely checked for any internal inclusions (using longitudinal waves of 10 MHz). The sound velocities are ver y accurately determined at several points in the main axes of the calibration block (by measuring the thicknesses and the echo times of flight). The measurements for transverse waves are carried out using two polarizing directions perpendicular to one another at ever y measuring point. The dimensions, the scales and the plane-parallelism of the finished calibration block are checked using special gauges. A single out-of-tolerance value will be enough to make the block become a reject item, no matter if it were dimensional imper fections, variations in velocity, or internal inclusions. With clear conscience, Krautkrmer can therefore declare its calibration blocks to be in conformity with the standards mentioned above.
Calibration block no. 1 (K1) according to DIN EN 12223, order number 59108
Calibration block no. 2 (K2) according to DIN EN 27963, order number 50434
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E C H O P U L S E S
Tracking down the holes

Getting under the rind of cheese that went wrong: thanks to ULTRASONICS, its ripening can be tracked down to every detail.
By Gaby Schweizer
We recognize the Appenzell cheese by its pin-sized holes, the Sbrinz by its brittleness. Not ever y cheese is never theless flawless: sometimes the Appenzell lacks holes, or the Gruyre is full of cracks. After months of care and attention, such a cheese that has gone wrong must be sold off at a low price. It causes problems with the automatic packing, or it can only be used as raw material for ready-toserve fondue. The problem is caused by the fact that milk is non-transparent. The ripening cheese doesnt reveal its inner life which has possibly lost its balance, faulty developments may remain unnoticed until the end. Swiss scientists aim to remedy this. They have developed an ultrasonic method which listens to the cheese during the ripening process and immediately detects any cracks. It is the same ultrasonic method that enables pregnant women to look into their bellies. In Switzerland, one to two percent of the cheeses are downgraded in value. This cheap cheese weighs heavy: in the winter of 1996/97 alone, around 90 tons of Gruyre were stirred into cheese spread, and nine tons were fed to pigs. Up until today, it has been the human ear that scanned the cheese for flaws. The cheese is tapped on either side with a hammer, and the muffled echo is listened to. Exper ts are able to hear cracks within the first few centimetres under the rind by this method. In the case of doubt, the person examining the cheese takes a drill or a plugger. If the ten centimetre long plug pulled out of the cheese is too brittle or too cracked, the chances of the cheese to be rated first-class dwindle. The disadvantage of this
Fig. 1: Like during pregnancy. Bruno Albrecht from the Research Institute for Dair y Farming (Forschungsanstalt fr Milchwirtschaft) listening to the ripening of cheese.
method: for example with Gruyre, it is only used after three months any faulty developments or malformations can no longer be reversed or corrected at this point of time. Moreover, the drill destroys a small par t of the cheese. Scientists from the Swiss Research Institute for Dairy Farming (Forschungsanstalt fr Milchwirtschaft) at Liebefeld have now developed a method of listening which is superior to the human ear: Bruno Albrecht and his staff use an ultrasonic probe to listen to the cheese. Ultrasonic waves have such a high frequency that they cannot be perceived by the human ear. The electronic ear is placed on the rind of cheese to sound out fractures if any. The emitted sound waves propagate through the cheese at a speed of 5,760 kilometres per hour. Should they hit an inter face where air or gas par t from the cheese dough they are reflected. The echo tells the scientists where cracks or faulty holes have slipped inside the cheese. This method allows us to track down ver y small cracks already in the early stages of storage, says Albrecht.
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The cheese-maker can inter vene quickly in this case and, for example, reduce the storage temperature. It is to be assumed that only a small group of cheese-lovers will be unhappy about the new method of detecting cracks in cheese: Albrecht has indeed already talked to people who rather prefer their Gruyre with lots of cracks.
Fig. 2: Early detection of cracks in a whole cheese. The sound waves propagate through the cheese at 5,760 kilometres per hour. As soon as they hit a crack, theyre reflected from it. Published in Facts (Switzerland) 39/1998. Off-print by kind permission of the author.
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E C H O P U L S E S
Nothing but a cheesy story? Luckily a fat profit!

The early days of not all too ordinary ultrasonic tests.
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Ultrasonic impulses
... given by Krautkrmer yesterday, today, and tomorrow
50 years experience in nondestructive materials testing, 50 years experience of service for quality and safety. We have always been able to give impulses with our innovative products ever since the pioneer days, and we shall continue along on this road in future as well. One example of our forward-looking products is our Ultrasonic Notebook USLT 2000, a milestone of ultrasonic progress worldwide. The techniques and the appearance of the test equipment may have changed in the course of time, but the principle has always remained the same: our instruments and systems serve the quality of your products, they serve your safety and the safety of all. We have accomplished our work in a dialog with you, our customers. Therefore, we would like to express our thanks.

Echo 38

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I M P R I N T

All safe and (ultra)sound, play it safe with ultrasound ......................... 11

REPORTS AND OPINIONS

A word of greeting from the company founders

Josef Krautkrmer Dr. rer.nat. habil. Dr.-Ing. h.c.

A word of greeting from the General Management

The Krautkrmer Story

1949: the first real Krautkrmer instrument

The beginning of a wonderful (business) friendship

left: Axle testing at the Federal German Railways

A truly por table USIP

From the garage on tour around the world

Another trade mark: the transfer of know-how

Reminiscenses of the early years with Krautkrmer

Yoji Kobayashi, Krautkramer Japan

Manfred Mller, Krautkramer Forster Espaola, Spain

Rudolf Brutsaert, the Brutsaert company, Belgium

All safe and (ultra)sound, play it safe with ultrasound

Nothing done by halves with semifinished products

Smooth transition: weld testing

The way is clear for the German Rail

Not a bad move: NDT on all routes

Play it safe with ultrasound

Though laid on thick: just the remaining wall thicknesses

Through-coating measurement: DUAL MULTI mode; indication: 0.244 inches thickness

Probes through intelligence

What else is new?

State of the art in coating thickness measurement

Possibilities and limits of conventional ultrasonic technology

Increase of resolution by the pulse shape

Ultrasonic evaluation with signal processing

Fig. 3: A-scan from CTM 20

Nondestructive measurement of coating thicknesses

The invasion of the smallest ones

Fig. 1: Instrument front view with rotar y knobs

Fig. 3: Screen display: standard - zoom demonstrated by the example of USM 25

Fig. 2: USM 25 in weld testing

Fig. 5: Memo pad referring to the result in data set 11

Everything about scanners

Fig. 1: Scanner inter face

Fig. 2: Small scanner for weld inspection

Fig.3: Testing of aircraft components

Wall thickness measurement on components having unknown sound velocities

Fig. 1: Principle of the AUTO-V probe

Fig. 2: A-scan in the sound velocity measurement mode

Fig. 3: A-scan in the wall thickness measurement mode

An ultrasonic instrument for all eventualities

The digital screen

The new USN family

Tube testing - on a large scale, off-the-peg design

Immersion testing with the UPR family

Fig. 3: typical C-scan

True or not true?

Quick hardness testing, quick documentation

UltraHARD: user inter face with graphical analysis of test data

Array transducers with integrated electronics for industrial applications

What is an array transducer?

Figs. 1 and 2: Segments of a single element transducer and a circular element

Why divide the probe into small elements?

Fig. 8: Linear scanning

Phased Array Creation and Evaluation

Fig. 9: Time delay control with echo signals

Fig. 10: Main bang and echoes superimposed in time