Fuels

FUELS

INTRODUCTION This package introduces the participants to Fuels. It is a practical-based, knowledge-orientated session conducted in a training room environment. Specifically, this package covers: Refining of fuels Types of fuels

The duration of this Workshop is 60 mins.

Fuels

LEADER'S GUIDE TARGET GROUPS Workshop shop floor operators involved in the handling or application of fuels and lubricants in service. Employee "upskilling". Foremen involved in the application of fuels and lubricants in service.

Participant Prerequisites Be involved in the application of industrial and automotive fuels and lubricants in industry.

LEADER'S SKILLS It is important that the presenter should have thorough understanding of the basic theory of lubrication. If the presenter is a non-Shell Employee then they must undertake a suitable "Train the Trainer" programme with a qualified Shell leader prior to conducting any workshops. PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION & FUELS TRAINING WORKSHOPS The overall training package has been devised to provide Shell customers with key background information about fuels and lubricants and their application. It is intended to develop the product knowledge of users of Shell products so as to enable these people to do their jobs more effectively. Purpose of Module 15 Workshop: Fuels The purpose of this package is to educate users of lubricants in the refining and types of fuels and their applications. Skill/Knowledge Acquired (Outcomes) This workshop is aimed at providing participants with the skills and knowledge so that they can understand how to select fuels for both automotive and industrial application.

Fuels

ADMINISTRATION
Minimum Participants Maximum Participants 10 20

EQUIPMENT & FACILITIES Venue Any suitable training facility that will comfortably accommodate the participants. Suggested training room layout: 'U' shape preferred. Ensure all participants receive uninterrupted audio and visual contact with the session leader.

Equipment required: OHT projector and screen Whiteboard or butcher's paper and markers Video and monitor

Fuels

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module participants will be able to: Describe the basic operation of a distillation column and list products that are produced. Understand the basic impact of crude origins and refinery design on product output. List the basic properties of the following fuels: - LPG - Aviation Fuels - Gasoline - Diesel - Fuel Oil Define the Octane Number, and how it is increased in gasoline. Discuss the role of lead in fuels and future environmental trends. Discuss the effects of a change in density, cetane number and viscosity have on the performance of distillate in diesel engines.

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PRESENTATION SUMMARY SHEET Fuels

Introduction Refining Distillation Balancing Market Requirements

2 mins 7 mins

Fuels LPG Aviation Fuels - Avgas - Jet Gasoline - Octane Number - Volatility - Stability Additives - Colour Distillate - Density - Cetane - Viscosity - Cloud Point and Cold Filter Plugging Point - Sulphur - Oxidation Stability - Water and Bacterial Growth - Specifications - Additives - Future Trends 3 mins 3 mins

15 mins -

15 mins

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Fuel Oil - Viscosity - Density - Calorific Value - Sulphur - Ash - Carbon Residue - Trace Metals

7 mins

Other Fuels Household Kerosine Premix 2-Stroke Methyl Benzine Racing Fuel 100 Racing Fuel A

8 mins

Total 60 mins

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REFINING
Oil is a mixture of organic chemicals (liquids and dissolved gases) derived mainly from the remains of microscopic plants and animals that lived in seas millions of years ago. Special conditions and great lengths of time were needed for these remains to undergo complex chemical changes to form oil and gas. These products are often concentrated in accumulations which man can detect and exploit. Oil, however, is of little use in its crude state. Therefore, we transport crude oil to a refinery where it is converted by physical and chemical processes into a wide range of useful products. There are more than 900 refineries in operation around the world, more than one quarter of these operate in the USA. Seven refineries (two Shell) operate in Australia. In this module we will discuss how crude is converted into useable hydrocarbon products, and then look at these specific products. Specifically we will cover: LPG Aviation Fuels Gasoline Diesel/Distillate Fuel Oil Other Fuels

O/H 1 Introduction

The First Step: Distillation

The first process in oil refining is the distillation of crude oil to separate it into its different constituents. This happens in a tall steel tower known as a fractionating column, so called because each constituent is known as a fraction. The column is kept very hot at the bottom, but the temperature gradually drops towards the top. The inside of the column is divided at intervals by horizontal trays. These can be either perforated trays or valve trays. Each tray is cooler than the one below it, thus providing a temperature gradient on which separate vapours can condense.

O/H 2 Distillation

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The crude oil is first heated by a power furnace and then passed into the lower part of the column. Since most of the fractions in the oil are already boiling, they vaporise and rise up the column through the valve trays. As each fraction reaches the tray where the temperature is just below its own boiling point, it condenses and changes back into liquid. As the fractions condense on their separate trays, they are drawn off by pipes. Distillation is continuous, with hot, crude oil flowing in near the base of the column and the separate fractions flowing out at each level. The fractions that rise highest in the column are called light fractions and those that condense on the lower trays are called heavy fractions. The very lightest fraction is refinery gas, which remains a vapour and is used as a fuel in the refinery. Other light fractions are: liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), gasoline (petrol), and naphtha (a major feedstock for the chemical industry).

The heavier fractions include: - kerosine (jet fuel), and gas oil (which is used for heating and as a fuel for diesel engines)

The heaviest fractions are drawn off from the base of the column as fuel oils or residues. Following distillation, many of the separated products are processed to purify them. The heavy residues are re-distilled under vacuum to provide the raw materials for lubricating oils, bitumen and feedstock for further processing.

Balancing Market Requirements with Refinery Yield

Distillation processes rarely yield products in the proportions required by the market. Additionally, the type of crude oil used will influence this outcome, as well as influence the techniques used within the refinery.

O/H 3

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In general, the heavier fuel oil accounts for around 1/3 to 1/2 the yield of the distillation process; however, the market demand is predominantly for the "middle" distillates. Additionally, in Australia there is currently a period of negative growth for the gasoline market. This poses manufacturers with a difficult "juggling act" as the majority of fuels used in Australian refineries (most of which are sourced from Australian oil wells) have components that tend to yield a higher percentage of gasoline per barrel. Modern refineries therefore use chemical conversion techniques to enable the yield of products to be re-shaped to match market demand. Conversion or "Cracking" Techniques Important amongst the conversion techniques are the "cracking" processes by which the large molecules of heavy fractions are broken up into smaller, more valuable molecules. Visbreaking breaks down the molecules under heat and reduces the viscosity of the residue fuel. In Catalytic Cracking ("cat-cracking"), the heavy fractions are broken up in the presence of a catalyst (a substance which causes a chemical change but is not itself changed in the process). The Effect of Crude Origins More than 100 different crudes are internationally traded, and a modern refinery may have to process as many as 20 grades during the course of the year. Crude oil contains three hydrocarbon families: Paraffins, CycloParaffins (or naphthenes) and Aromatics. The gasoline quality of many crude oils leaves a lot to be desired. As a result, the manufacturer must improve on Nature! This is where conversion or cracking techniques, are used to ensure the refinery output matches with consumer demand. Australian Standards Some fuels produced at the refinery must meet certain Specifications. These may be national and/or international specifications or Shell-specific specifications. These specifications are provided, where appropriate, in the details following.

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FUELS
In this section we will discuss the specific properties of the following fuels:

LPG Aviation Gasoline Diesel Fuel Oil

Gasoline and Diesel will be dealt with in most detail.

LPG
LPG is the abbreviation for Liquefied Petroleum Gas and consists of petroleum hydrocarbons which, although gaseous at normal ambient temperature and pressure, can be liquefied by the application of mild pressure. They therefore can be conveniently stored and transported as liquid in pressure containers. LPG is composed predominantly of any of the following hydrocarbons or mixtures of all or any of them.

O/H 4 LPG

Propane (C3H8) Propylene (C3H6) Butane (C4H10) Butylene (C4H8)

Commercial Propane and Butane are the most common. These products, because of their ability to be readily liquefied, are supplied in portable steel cylinder "bottles" or in bulk. Typical specifications are: Vapour Pressure @ 40 C (kPa) Olefines % Volume Motor Octane Number Propane % Volume Butane % Volume
0

1000 <5 94 60 35

Must comply with ALPGA-AJP Specifications for Automotive LPG mixture.

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Aviation Fuels
All aviation fuels are produced to stringent manufacturing specifications. At every stage between refinery and aircraft tank, fuel quality is checked by sampling and laboratory analysis, to ensure the fuel conforms to the requirements specified. Fuel specifications are issued by engine manufacturers, Government authorities, airlines, etc. and detail the properties and performance factors required for a given application. There are two types of Aviation Fuel marketed:

Aviation Gasoline (Avgas) Aviation Turbine Fuels

Avgas Avgas Low Lead (100 LL) is the largest selling Aviation Gasoline in Australia. Avgas 115 also exists and has a higher lead level. Both products are used in aircraft piston engines. The most important property of aviation gasoline is the antiknock rating. Distillation and volatility are also important because of their influence on mixture distribution and cold starting. Jet Jet A-1 (Aviation Kerosine) is the most widely used grade of Aviation fuel in Australia and is used for aircraft jet turbines.
Typical Specifications Avgas 100 LL Colour Knock Rating - Lean mixture - Rich mixture (performance no.) Reid Vapour Pressure (kPa) Calorific Value, Net (MJ/kg) Sulphur (% mass) Existent Gum (mg/100ml) Benzene % Volume Blue 100 131 43 43.5 <0.01 <1 <5 Jet A-1 Colour Typical Sulphur (% mass) Initial Boiling Point (0C) Final Boiling Point (0C) Flash Point ( 0C) Freezing Point (0C) Silver Corrosion Electrical Conductivity pS/m Existent Gum mg/100ml Water white <0.1 150 250 40 -50 0 150 <1

O/H 5 Avgas

O/H 6 Jet

All aviation gasoline (100 and 100LL) must comply with Specification DERD 2485 Issue 9 (June 1983)

All Jet A-1 must comply with AFQRJ0S Checklist Issue 14, Dec. 1990 and Addendum 14/1 Dec. 1990. DERD 2494 Issue 10 of June 1988 and DEF (Aust.) 5208A and Amendments 1-3.

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Gasoline
Three grades of gasoline are marketed:

Leaded Unleaded - low octane (91-93 RON) Unleaded - high octane (96 RON)

The following properties apply to all three grades of gasoline, unless otherwise stated. Typical specifications are attached at the end of this section. Gasoline Properties Octane Number The higher the compression ratio of an engine, the better its fuel economy and power output. The extent to which the compression ratio can be raised, however, is limited by the onset of detonation (knocking or pinging. Detonation is caused by the unburnt gases spontaneously exploding before the expanding flame in the combustion chamber reaches them. A fuel's ability to resist knock is called its Octane Rating. It is measured by comparing the fuel's potential to cause knocking with that of a mixture of Iso-octane, rated 100, and pure NHeptane, rated 0. There are three types of octane number that may be referred to:

O/H 7

Research Octane Number RON is the one most frequently quoted and is measured under relatively mild test conditions.

Motor Octane Number MON is measured at higher engine speed and temperature. The difference between the two is known as the fuel's sensitivity. Supershell Ultra Ultra-Hi RON RON RON 96 91-93 96-98 MON 82 min. MON 85 min.

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Anti-Knock Index AKI is used in North America and is the average of RON and MON, i.e. RON + MON 2

How is octane enhanced? The most economical method of increasing octane number is through the addition of lead. Other anti-knock additives have been investigated, but none gives a comparable performance at equivalent cost. (0.4 grams per litre lead boost octane by approximately 6 units). However, environmental concerns over the use of lead have resulted in Government legislation reducing lead levels in leaded fuel, and introducing Unleaded fuels onto the Australian market in 1986 (also driven by emission control requirements). How is octane number increased in the absence of lead? If lead is reduced or removed entirely, then either:

O/H 8

the octane number must be raised by another way, or vehicles have to run on lower octane fuels and compression ratios of new engines have to be lowered.

When unleaded fuels were first introduced onto the Australian market the compression ratio of engines was reduced to match a lower octane fuel (91-93 RON). However, over time there has developed the need for higher performance and higher octane number, i.e. Premium Unleaded Petrol - 96 RON. To achieve the higher octane number gasoline upgrading processes are used such as catalytic reforming and isomerization. Such processes are costly, requiring more crude oil for the same volume output.

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Narrative Additional Information About the Role of Lead in Fuel and Future Trends The role of lead in fuel is twofold:

octane enhancer valve seat wear protection (the absence of lead will encourage rapid valve seat recession, or burnt-out valves.

In considering whether a vehicle is able to operate on unleaded fuel you therefore need to consider both the compression ratio as well as the metallurgy of the engine cylinder head. Unleaded fuels can be used in leaded cars providing:

O/H 9

original design RON is 92 or lower and valve seats OK; engine can be modified to operate with lower RON fuel (not recommended; costly; reduces performance); where alloy heads are fitted then valve seats will not require lead; where cast iron heads are used the valve will require hardened valve seat inserts.

Future Trends:
The Government is actively working with the Australian Institute of Petroleum to reduce the levels of lead in the air. Lead levels are being progressively reduced in Leaded Fuel: were 840 ppm (1990) 125 ppm 1/1/94 (Vic) 300 ppm 1/1/94 (Qld) } } differs for each state with Victoria as benchmark.

O/H 10

target to reduce further in the future (Australia-wide)

Additionally, the Octane Number has been lowered effective 1/1/94 to 96 RON. NB: Lead is toxic. Leaded gasoline will render the catalyst in the catalytic converter inactive. There is a maximum permissible figure for lead in Unleaded Petrol of 13 ppm at the bowser.

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Volatility As gasoline rises in temperature its constituent hydrocarbons vaporise. The ability of a material to vaporise - its volatility - is related to its boiling point, i.e. low boiling hydrocarbons are more volatile than high boiling ones. Hydrocarbons in gasoline (of which there are more than 100 compounds) have different boiling points. (Boiling points are a good general indication of volatility. If a gasoline is described as having a high volatility, this means that a relatively large proportion of its hydrocarbons boil at the lower temperature end - the front end - of the boiling range.) A good quality gasoline needs to evaporate smoothly over its whole boiling range and also needs to keep within strict volatility limits to prevent problems in the engine. Volatility affects engine performance in several ways: Front End Volatility

O/H 11 The Effects of Changes in Fuel Volatility

Too low: Too high:

cold starting difficulties, long time to warm up; "hot-fuel" handling problems, i.e. vapour lock, engine flooding, uneven running, stalling (affected also by ambient temperature increases).

Mid-Range Volatility

Too low:

long time for warm-up; choke needed for longer periods of time; affects cold driving performance; risk carburettor icing (evaporation of gasoline compounds leads to cooling and water vapour in air can condense out and freeze) leads to rough running; stall or stop;

Too high:

Mid-range volatility is important in urban driving where stopstart conditions prevail. The more volatile the gasoline in midrange, the lower fuel consumption for stop-start driving.

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Tail-End Volatility

Too low:

heavier hydrocarbons burn less well and can lead to deposits on cylinders and valves; leads to rough running. affects fuel economy.

Too high:

Ideally fuel volatility should be matched to usage; however, this is not possible, and a compromise must be reached. The refiner controls volatility in order to guarantee satisfactory performance in all cars. The volatility controls (FVI - Flexible Volatility Index) vary throughout the year (due to ambient temperature changes) and vary over a range of geographical zones. Stability To resist the formation of undesirable deposits in engines, gasoline must be stable towards oxidation. If stored in small containers unprotected from the sun for long periods, gasoline is affected ultimately by loss of its light fractions, oxidation and formation of gum (which upsets fuel injectors, carburettors, fuel systems and engines). If it has become significantly off-colour or develops an unpleasant smell, it should not be used in the engine. Additives Detergent additives were first added to gasoline in the 1950s when the target was to keep carburettors clean. Shell Unleaded and Premium Unleaded contain a unique spark booster, which improves spark efficiency and prevents "stumble", "hesitation" and "surge". Furthermore, they contain Shell's triple-action detergent formulation which is so powerful it not only keeps an engine clean, but can even help remove deposits from engines previously using non-detergent gasoline. Propriety fuels additives (after markets) are not recommended for use by the car manufacturers.

O/H 12 Other Gasoline Properties

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Colour Colour is added into gasoline as a safety indicator and as stipulated by the Australian Standard 1876-1990. It provides NO performance benefits. Leaded Petrol Unleaded Petrol High Octane Unleaded Petrol Red Purple Yellow

Distillate
The diesel engine has a well-deserved reputation for high power output, reliability and durability. It is the most efficient liquid-fuelled prime mover yet invented. Unfortunately, it is also often seen to be dirty, noisy and smelly. However, consumption of distillate remains one of the most reliable measures of a country's economic strength. There are complex relationships between engine design, fuel quality and performance. The major grade of distillate marketed by the Shell Company is Formula Diesel. (NB: Distillate may be referred to by any of the following names: Gas Oil; ADO; Automotive Diesel Fuel, Diesel Fuel.)

Properties
The properties of commercial automotive diesel fuel depend both on the refining practices employed and on the nature of the crude oils from which the fuel is produced. Distillate fuels, for example, may be produced within the distillation range of 1500C to 4000C with many possible combinations of various properties such as ignition quality, volatility, viscosity, and other characteristics. We shall now detail the significance of some of these properties. Density The density of diesel fuel is important because it relates to the heat content of the fuel in such a way that the higher the density of diesel fuel the higher is its heat content (energy) per volume. The density of diesel fuel is largely dependent on its chemical composition.

O/H 13

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The inclusion of a limit range in a diesel specification is highly desirable, owing to volumetric delivery control of fuel injection pumps. If the density is below that nominated by the engine manufacturer, power output of the engine will be reduced, and the fuel pump delivery to the engine will need to be adjusted upward to maintain maximum power. Lubricity will also be decreased which may affect pump wear. If density is too high there is a tendency to increase combustion chamber deposits and produce black smoke. Cetane Number Cetane number is a measure of ignition quality of a fuel and is related on a scale that uses two pure compounds as reference fuels. The cetane number of a fuel is obtained by matching the ignition quality of the fuel to those of blends of the two reference fuels. The cetane number of a fuel depends primarily on its composition, and relates to the delay between when the fuel is injected into the cylinder and when ignition occurs. Rapidly igniting fuels, i.e. those with a short ignition delay, have high cetane numbers (50 or above). Slowly igniting fuels have low cetane numbers (40 or below). Aromatic hydrocarbons are low in cetane number, paraffins are high, and naphthenes are in between. The cetane number requirements depend on engine design, size, nature of speed and load variations, and on starting and atmospheric conditions. High cetane number fuels permit an engine to be started at lower air temperatures, reduce white smoke exhaust, and eliminate diesel knock. With a low cetane number fuel, ignition delay, difficult starting, engine knock, noise, and white smoke may be observed during engine warm-up, especially in severe cold weather. While an engine may appear to operate satisfactorily on low cetane number fuel, after prolonged use severe mechanical damage (e.g. piston erosion) can result. An increase in cetane number over values actually required does not materially improve engine performance, and can restrict the quantity of diesel fuel that can be produced from each barrel of crude oil.

O/H 14 Effects of Cetane Number

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Viscosity The actual injection timing of an engine depends on fuel viscosity (among other properties) and therefore optimisation of vehicle manufacturer's pump setting will depend upon the specified range for fuel viscosity. Values outside the range specified by the engine manufacturer will affect fuel delivery and the operation of advance units and hydraulic governor mechanisms, as well as the lubrication of fuel injection equipment components under running conditions. Low viscosity fuel can result in:

O/H 15 The Effects of Changes in Viscosity of Distillate

excessive wear in some injection pumps; power loss due to pump injector leakage (leakage may require a compensation increase in fuel delivery and early advance setting); a spray which does not penetrate sufficiently, hence combustion is impaired and power output and economy are decreased; hot restart problems if engine compartment temperatures are high.

High viscosity fuel can result in:

filter damage or pump drive-line wear because of increased pump resistance; poor atomisation and hence poor accompanied by loss of power and economy; combustion,

washing away of the lubricating oil film, causing dilution of the crankcase oil and excessive wear; risk of fuel injection pump seizure at start-up in cold conditions.

Cloud Point As distillate is cooled, there comes a point at which the waxes begin to separate and appear as a cloud or haze in the fuel. The temperature at that point is known as the cloud point.

O/H 16 Cloud Point & CFPP

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This generally relates to the temperature at which wax crystals begin to precipitate from the fuel in service. Precipitation of wax crystals will lead to fuel filter blockage and fuel starvation.
NB: As previously mentioned, high cetane fuels are preferred over low cetane fuels. These fuels use Paraffinic constituents; however, they are also waxy, i.e. have a high cloud point - final blend is a compromise.

Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP) As diesel fuel is cooled beyond the cloud point more of the waxes will come out of solution and will begin to agglomerate. If further cooling is continued, a point is reached where sufficient wax is present to form a mat on the filter, thick enough to impede the flow of fuel. The temperature down to which a fuel will remain suable in normal equipment is estimated in the laboratory by the cold filter plugging point test. Seasonal Grades of Distillate Because of the effect of low temperature on the flowability of Distillate, two different grades are manufactured: one for summer with higher CFPP and Cloud Point Values; one for winter (April - August) with lower CFPP and Cloud Point values. During the transition period a sudden drop in temperature below the CFPP of the transitional product may cause problems with fuel blockage in pipelines or vehicle start-up. To avoid this problem equipment should be stored under cover - tanks and pipes should preferably be covered. Sulphur The effect of sulphur content on engine wear and deposits appears to vary considerably in importance and depends largely on operating conditions. High sulphur content becomes a problem in diesel engine operation both at low temperatures and intermittent operation where there is more moisture condensation which combines with sulphur compounds to form acids which will result in corrosion and excessive engine wear. (Typical of marine lowspeed engines using high sulphur fuels.) The fuel sulphur level should be low enough to satisfy engine manufacturers' recommendations. However, too low a sulphur limit will adversely affect fuel availability.

O/H 17 Other Properties of Diesel Fuels

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In Australia the sulphur level of fuel is acceptably low, and corrosive problems are not a problem for any medium- to highspeed engine. Oxidation Stability Distillate, as with all fuels, must be:

stable in storage stable in system operating temperatures.

Oxidation stability of distillate is affected by:

chemical composition high temperature water atmospheric oxidation.

Prolonged storage in an adverse environment can result in oxidation of the fuel and the formation of undesirable gums and sediment. These products can cause filter plugging, combustion chamber deposits, or gumming or lacquering of injection system components. High temperatures will accelerate oxidation, as will the presence of copper or zinc metal components. Fuel will oxidise in the presence of air and water, and particularly if the fuel contains non-hydrotreated cracked products which are relatively unstable. Water Water may enter the system through:

condensation (tank breathing due to daily temperature variations; water supplied in fuel (not common); tank leakage (not common).

Water will cause corrosion of injector components and may assist fungal and bacterial growth which can cause filter blockage.

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Bacteria: Cladisporium Resinae As previously mentioned, water may find its way into storage tanks containing distillate. This water can accelerate the formation of a fungus growth causing havoc by continually blocking fuel filters. The fungus growth can be best described as a dark, grey-white, jelly-like material, but appears fibrous upon close examination. This fungus will only grow at the diesel/water interface similar to the way weeds grow in soil on the bottom of an aquarium. The growth is accelerated in summer conditions when ambient temperatures are much higher. The proper technical name for the major variety of the fungus is Cladisporium Resinae. Fungus spores will only grow in the presence of water. When distillate in storage is kept clean and moisture free there are no problems. Fungus can be killed by the addition of a biocide. The cheapest and most easily available biocide treatment is Benlate powder. The most effective treat rate is 10g/1000 litres of dieseline. Benlate powder is available from garden suppliers in 10kg packs, with 200kg pack availability from major agricultural suppliers. Distillate Fuel Specifications Shell Diesoline and Shell Formula Diesel are both manufactured to satisfy all requirements of the Australian Standard of Automotive Diesel Fuel (AS 3570 - 1988). Other specifications that may be referred to are those issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the British Standards Association (BS) and the International Standards Organisation (ISO). These can be made available if needed.

O/H 18 The Growth of Fungus in Distillate

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Typical specifications are shown below.

Test Density kg/m 3 Viscosity cSt @ 400C Cetane Index Sulphur % (Mass) Water % (Volume) Flashpoint 0C CFPP 0C Specification * 820 - 870 1.8 - 4.8 45 min 0.5% 0.05 65 min Winter +1 } Summer -4 } East Aust. Formula Diesel Typical* 0.84 3.0 50 mins 0.2 <0.5 70

O/H 19

*All distillate fuels must comply with Australian Standard AS 3570 - 1988
and with Amendment 1 of November 6, 1989 as a minimum specification.

Additives All aspects of a fuel's performance are affected by its chemical composition. However, there can be no perfect fuel because the best type of molecule for one aspect can be the worst for another. For example, ignition quality can be improved by having more paraffin in the fuel, but this worsens the low temperature properties. Similarly, the calorific value is increased by aromatics, but these are more likely to produce smoke.
Shell Formula Diesel In recent years there have been significant advances in diesel engine design, but they have not previously been matched by advances in the fuel. Shell Research have produced a range of additives that provide significant improvements in the performance of today's engines. Shell Formula Diesel improves all the adverse aspects which have given diesel a bad name and has been proven in the most extensive program of road tests ever held.

O/H 20

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The more important diesel fuel additives and their benefits are: Ignition Improver: reduces the ignition delay period, giving more efficient combustion and less noise and smoke. keeps injection system clean and delivering the right amount of fuel.

Detergent:

Corrosion Inhibitor: protects the expensive fuel injection system. Anti-Foam: avoids frothing and spills when filling the fuel tank.

It is also important to note that whilst Proprietary Additives are NOT recommended by oil companies, additives will enhance certain properties and contribute to prolonged suspension of moisture in fuel. Detergent additives will also clean "dirty systems" which may contribute to filter blockage. The use of proprietary additives (which are usually not proven) may not deliver the benefits claimed, are usually quit expensive (by comparison) and may lead to adverse reactions, in particular engine and fuel combinations. Future Trends Supply and demand scenarios to the year 2010 suggest that transportation fuels will continue to rise as a proportion of total world oil demand. Distillate fuel must compete with other oil products for the hydrocarbon stock. An imbalance is expected between the availability of hydrocarbons from crude oil and those needed for products. A number of factors will influence future distillate quality: Emission controls will become tighter. Density range is likely to be restricted in order to allow more accurate fuel injection. Alternately, fuel density compensators may be built into fuel injection systems (the engine may make its own correction). Pressure to produce fuels with higher cetane numbers or improved ignition quality.

O/H 21 Future Distillate Quality

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Reduction in final boiling point. (This has implications for both availability and cold operability.) Fuel composition and aromatics. (Acceptable definition must be developed and a definite limit established before any restrictive decisions are taken.) Sulphur-type particulates will become significant once stringent emission standards are introduced. There is likely to be argument for reduction of sulphur to perhaps 0.05%.

Fuel Oil
(Also known as Furnace Oil; Heavy Fuel Oil; HFO) Despite a steady decline in consumption during the past ten years, residual fuel oils continue to be an important fuel for marine use and industrial processes. Residual fuel oils are blended from a residue and a diluent to meet the major constraints of viscosity and sulphur content, which effectively define the grade structure. Neat residues usually have very high viscosity and relatively high sulphur content. The addition of a diluent reduces the viscosity to a level which allows the fuel to be handled and used relatively easily. At the same time the sulphur content is reduced by simple dilution. The major properties are listed below: Viscosity Viscosity is probably the single most important parameter describing fuel oil and is used to define the grade structures. Generally speaking, the lower viscosity grades contain more gas oil type diluent and therefore command proportionately higher prices. The viscosity of fuel oil varies with temperature and therefore to make sense a viscosity must be quoted at some measurement temperature. Recently, the standard reference temperature for fuel oils was changed from 800C to 1000C. The higher reference temperatures gives improved measurement accuracy. As with lubricating oils, the unit of measurement is centistokes (cSt).

O/H 22 Fuel Oil

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Density Density of Fuel Oil is significant in two areas: Specific energy content: Energy content per kg. decreases with increasing density, but because higher density fuels have more kg's per litre, energy content per litre increases with increasing density. Water separation: Conventional oil storage and handling facilities rely on oil fuels being less dense than water. Maximum fuel densities are chosen to ensure that the fuel is lighter than water at the recommended storage temperatures and therefore water should separate downwards as normal.
Water can accumulate in storage tanks in a number of ways, e.g. tank breathing and condensation on tank walls, rain water ingress or leaking heating coils. It is important to ensure that storage tanks are regularly drained to prevent bulk water entering the fuel system.

Calorific Value (Specific Energy) Higher density fuel oils have higher carbon/hydrogen ratios than lower density fuel oil (carbon is heavier than hydrogen). Increasing the proportion of carbon has the effect of reducing the specific energy content on a mass basis because carbon produces less heat than hydrogen when it burns. Therefore, on a mass basis, higher density fuel oils have slightly lower specific energy contents than a low density fuel oil. However, because higher density fuels actually contain more kg's per litre than low density fuels, the net effect is that on a volume basis higher density fuel oils have higher specific energy content. Sulphur Sulphur is probably the second most important parameter used to characterise fuel oils. In conjunction with viscosity, sulphur content effectively defines the fuel oil grade structure. Sulphur content is important for both environmental and corrosion reasons. The environmental impact of sulphur dioxide emissions from oil burning (e.g. acid rain) is focusing increasing attention on the sulphur content of fuel oils. In the future, demand for low sulphur grades of fuel are likely to increase.

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Customers may require low sulphur fuel oil for environmental (e.g. residential area nearby) or process reasons (e.g. glass or steel manufacture). Ash Ash represents the part of the fuel that cannot be burnt. The most important constituents of the ash are the metal oxides. Metals such as iron, nickel and vanadium can have a beneficial effect on fuel combustion performance by catalysing the burnout of carbonaceous particles. However, metals can have serious harmful effects also: in particular, sodium and vanadium promote corrosion and fouling of combustion equipment. Lubricating oils usually contain fairly high proportions of metalbased additives and therefore have relatively high ash contents (typically 1-3% mass). Blending significant quantities of waste lube oil into a fuel oil therefore has the effect of dramatically increasing the ash content of the fuel oil. Serious deposition in boilers can result and care must be taken when removing any deposits because of possible lead contamination. Carbon Residue The Carbon Residue of fuel oil gives a measure of its tendency to produce particulate emissions. Generally speaking, higher carbon residues lead to poorer combustion. Although the carbon residue predicts the coke forming propensity of the fuel oil, the reactivity or ease with which the coke burns out depends on the presence of catalytically active metals. In terms of fuel oil the most significant of these is vanadium. High carbon residue, low vanadium fuel oils can give rise to combustion problems. Trace Metals - Vanadium, Magnesium Vanadium is a natural constituent of the heavy asphaltene fraction of a crude oil. The absolute content varies from one crude to another depending on origin. Generally speaking South American Crudes have high vanadium contents and Australian Crudes have relatively low levels. The vanadium remains in the residue fraction during the refining process and therefore ends up in fuel oils. Removal is an expensive process and is not normally undertaken.

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During combustion vanadium can combine with sodium to form sodium vanadium compounds. Some of these have relatively low melting points (down to 550 0C), at these temperatures the compounds are sticky and can adhere to boiler surfaces (e.g. superheater tubes). The presence of the deposits upsets the optimum air flow through the boiler and reduces heat transfers. In addition, the sodium vanadium compounds are corrosive at high temperatures and serious metal loss can occur. Magnesium-based additives can be used to make the normally hard, dense deposits more friable so they can be removed easily. The presence of vanadium in a fuel oil does have some beneficial effects as far as combustion is concerned. Vanadium is a catalytically active metal for the burnout of char particles formed during fuel oil combustion. Fuel oils which have high CCR (Conradsen Carbon Residue) levels but low vanadium contents can give rise to excessive particulate emissions.

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OTHER FUELS
In addition to the foregoing major grades of fuel, the following grades require mention.

Shell Household Kerosene

Main uses: all types of kerosene heating, refrigerating or lighting equipment;

O/H 23 Household Kerosine

Shell Household Kerosine has a high heat output, is clean burning and odourless when burnt in correctly adjusted, clean appliances. Typical specifications: Colour Flash Point Smoke Point Char Value Blue (safety indicator) 380C min. 25 mm min. 20 mgr/kg max.

Shell Premix 2-Stroke Fuel Outboard 50:1

Main uses: marine outboard engines and other 2-stroke engines where a 50:1 oil:fuel ratio is required.

O/H 23 2-Stroke Outboard Fuel

Future blend composition: Unleaded petrol Nautilus 98% 2% (i.e. a san upgrade from Marine 2)

Dye-automate purple (safety indicator)

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Shell Methyl Benzine

Shell Methyl Benzine is a water white, high-octane, lead-free blending component which, when added to motor spirit (e.g. Leaded, Unleaded, Premium Unleaded or Racing Fuel 100), will raise the Research Octane Number (RON) of the fuel. It is also known or referred to as Toluol or Toluene. Methyl Benzine may be blended by the user according to the RON required but should not exceed 1 part Methyl Benzine to 2 parts motor spirit, as thereafter startability will be adversely affected. Shell Methyl Benzine may also be used with either Leaded, Unleaded or Racing Fuel 100 (motor spirit) and Racing Fuel A (Methanol) to give intermediate blends which would be otherwise unstable. WARNING: Care should be taken not to spill Methyl Benzine on the vehicle's paintwork as this will lift the paint.

O/H 25 Methyl Benzine

Shell Racing Fuel 100 (Leaded) (Re-brand of AVGAS 100LL)

Colour Road Octane Rating Pale Blue (Safety indicator) Approx. 104 (RON)

O/H 26 Racing Fuels

This is the highest leaded octane number fuel available.

Shell Racing Fuel A

Shell Racing Fuel A is an alcohol fuel containing: Methanol Caster Oil Acetone Colour 96% 1% (upper CYL lubricant) 3% (blending component) Violet (safety indicator)

This fuel provides extreme cooling and resistance to knock, and is primarily in high compression engines where fuel consumption is of little importance, e.g. speedway, drag, gokart and power boat racing.

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Fuels
Product Knowledg e Questions
1. Name the three (3) grades of gasoline (petrol) marketed today. i)

_______________________________________________________

ii) _______________________________________________________ iii) _______________________________________________________ 2. What is the most economical way of increasing octane number? _______________________________________________________

3. What property of a gasoline (petrol) affects engine performance and driveability? _______________________________________________________

4. Name the two (2) types of additives found in Shell's Unleaded and Premium Unleaded fuels. i) _______________________________________________________ ii) _______________________________________________________ 5. Octane Number is a measure of ignition quality for a gasoline engine. What is the measure of ignition quality for distillate? _______________________________________________________

6. As distillate is cooled, there comes a point at which the waxes begin to separate and appear as a cloud or haze. What do we call this term? _______________________________________________________

Fuels Questions & Answers

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7. Two different grades of distillate are manufactured throughout the year. One for summer, one for winter (April - August). If you had to fill you storage tank once a year, which time of year would you purchase the fuel and why? __________________________________________________________ 8. What four (4) diesel fuel (distillate) additives are incorporated in Shell Formula Diesel? i) _______________________________________________________ ii) _______________________________________________________ iii) _______________________________________________________ iv) _______________________________________________________ 9. What single contaminant is responsible for approx 90% of distillate problems? _______________________________________________________

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Fuels
Preferred Answers
1. Name the three (3) grades of gasoline (petrol) marketed today. i) Leaded (96 RON) ii) Unleaded - low octane (91-93 RON) iii) Unleaded - high octane (96 RON) 2. What is the most economical way of increasing octane number? Addition of lead

3. What property of a gasoline (petrol) affects engine performance and driveability? Volatility

4. Name the two (2) types of additives found in Shell's Unleaded and Premium Unleaded fuels. i) Detergent ii) Spark booster 5. Octane Number is a measure of ignition quality for a gasoline engine. What is the measure of ignition quality for distillate? Cetane Number

6. As distillate is cooled, there comes a point at which the waxes begin to separate and appear as a cloud or haze. What do we call this term? Cloud Point

Fuels Questions & Answers

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7. Two different grades of distillate are manufactured throughout the year. One for summer, one for winter (April - August). If you had to fill you storage tank once a year, which time of year would you purchase the fuel and why? Winter, because of the lower CFPP and Cloud Point values. 8. What four (4) diesel fuel (distillate) additives are incorporated in Shell Formula Diesel? i) Ignition improver ii) Detergent iii) Corrosion inhibitor iv) Anti-foam 9. What single contaminant is responsible for approx 90% of distillate problems? Water

Fuels Questions & Answers