Well Blueprint TM Drilling Conditions

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SOP Code: SD Revision Date : 02/12/97

Drilling Shale
Introduction
Shales are defined as clay mineral-rich sedimentary rocks. Shales are generally classified according to the relative methylene blue titration (MBT) values they produce, and the amount of water they contain. Soft shales usually have MBT values in the 20-40 meq/100g range, while brittle shales may have values as low as 0-3 meq/100g. Soft shales are normally encountered at shallow depths, whereas harder, brittle shales are older and found at greater depths. Shales may be affected by mechanical action and the chemical environment surrounding them. It is helpful to anticipate what types of shales will be drilled, and how they might react when exposed to a particular fluid type, and what can be done to minimize the problems associated with them. Shales types behave differently, and the shale type can often be related to a potential wellbore problem.

Soft Shales
Soft shales, sometimes referred to as Gumbo, usually contain large amounts of water and have densities in the range of 1.2-1.5 g/cc. They contain large amounts of smectite and/or illite, and can be associated with problems such as bit balling, mud rings, plugged flow lines and hole washout. They are usually dispersible shales. When soft shales are encountered, problems may be seen in the form of balled bottom hole assembly (BHA) and/or bit. This is sometimes detected following trips, often severe enough to cause loss of rig time in cleaning the shale from the drilling assembly. A plugged flowline is one of the common problems encountered when drilling soft shales, and is often the limiting factor in how fast a particular interval can be drilled. Economic considerations are obvious. Other symptoms may include reduced rate of penetration (ROP) due to balled bit, shaker screens blinding, increased pump pressures, excessive overpull on trips, washouts and stuck pipe. Some shales are pH sensitive and/or time sensitive. In these cases, the section may be drilled with few problems, but may subsequently swell or begin to slough. Soft shales are encountered in nearly every well drilled. A great amount of study has been done to minimize the severity of shale problems. Pre-well planning is important, and mud type and bit selection can often reduce the problems associated with drilling shales. A comparison among wells drilled previously in an area is often productive when deciding what drilling practices will be followed. Running MAX-ROP hole cleaning programs in advance can be useful in determining the rate that a formation should be penetrated. Inhibitive mud systems are known to have a significant affect on the severity of problems.

Additives such as KCl, NaCl, glycols (GEM, GP, GEM CP), silicates (BARASILC) and encapsulating polymers (PAC, EZ-MUD), have been used to improve performance. Bit selection is a key factor; tooth length, bearing type, and design (PDC vs. roller-cone) will affect the degree of success in drilling particular zones. Film forming chemicals can help retard bit balling, thus enhancing the rate of penetration.

Drilling Practices
Good drilling practices are important when drilling soft shales. By reducing the weight on bit, penetration rates can be reduced to prevent annular over-loading, and the possible formation of aggregations of shale (mud rings). The formation of mud rings can lead to restricted mud flow in the annulus and to pack-offs. Short trips should be part of a drilling program. They serve to wipe the wellbore clean, and to assist removing packed shale or clay from the drilling assembly. Circulating the hole clean prior to tripping is essential. Rig modifications such as larger flowlines or flowlines fitted with jets, may help reduce downtime. Viscous sweeps followed by low viscosity sweeps can be used to help clean the hole of cuttings which could accumulate, causing pack-offs or fill on bottom after trips.

Fluid Selection
Cores, cuttings and information from offset wells, or wells in a certain area, can sometimes be used to decide on a mud type for optimum performance. Modifying the salinity or concentration of fluid additives in a system will make it acceptable for use in an area. Mud systems suited to drilling reactive shales include:

BARASILC K-LIG/KOH EZ-MUD PAC DEXTRID CAT I POLYNOX CLAYSEAL Controlled salinity invert emulsions

Salt additives and/or GEMS can be added to these systems to enhance inhibition:

Salt Additives
KCl has been proven to be effective in inhibiting shales. NaCl is less effective but may be adequate if large quantities of highly reactive shales are not anticipated. Other salts such as CaCl2 and CsCl2, although inhibitive, are generally not recommended due to economic or environmental considerations. In cases where potassium is desired for inhibition, but chlorides are not allowed due to environmental concerns, potassium acetate may be a viable alternative. Optimum concentrations vary among salts. GEMS have been demonstrated to work synergistically with potassium chloride and with other salts.

EZ-MUD has also been used in recent years to successfully drill soft shales, both in saline and non-saline systems. Calcium-based fluids (lime and gypsum) provides excellent inhibition for smectite-rich formations.

Erosion
Hole erosion and washout are concerns when drilling shale formations. They are important because they can lead to associated problems with hole cleaning, tripping, and cementing. Laboratory testing, such as Capillary Suction Times (CST), Linear Swelling, and Shale Erosion Testing are used to predict which fluids will offer the best erosion stability.

Symptoms of Erosion
Symptoms of erosion/enlargement may be increased amounts of cuttings, excess in LGS in the drilling fluid, an increase in bottoms-up time, poor hole cleaning, and problems controlling direction. Hole enlargement often occurs simultaneously to shales swelling and sloughing, with the former masking symptoms of the latter. If the events are noticed early enough, changes to the fluids program or drilling program can be made to minimize the problem. Fortunately measures for minimizing bit balling and tight hole often work to minimize hole enlargement. Although the primary function of additives may not be to reduce hole enlargement, salts, detergents, lubricants, polymers and glycols may all work to lessen hole enlargement.

Hard/Brittle Shales
Hard shales are normally older than soft shales and may contain lesser amounts of water with increased amounts of illite, kaolinite, and/or chlorite. These shales typically have densities in the range of 2.2-2.7 g/cc and may have a water content of two percent or less. MBT values are usually low. They present a different set of problems than softer shales do.

Tight Hole
Tight hole can be a problem when drilling hard shales, although the problem is usually a result of downhole stresses or pressure imbalances rather than swelling. Tight hole may also be a result of elliptical holes (which may be detected using 4-arm caliper), especially in the case of deviated wellbores. Tectonic forces are more significant when drilling hard shales than they are when drilling soft shales. Sloughing, caving and packing-off can again be problems, but the underlying causes are different.

Wellbore Caving
Wellbore caving can be a problem when drilling harder shales. Drilling parameters should be monitored carefully to predict when caving might occur. Wellbore caving may be detected at an early stage by examining cuttings at the shale shakers. The appearance of large pieces of shale or shale that has smooth curved surfaces may be evidence that a problem exists.

Another indication might be trouble running the drillstring into the hole, with ledges being encountered. If the hole is not being cleaned because of excessive amount of shale, packing-off may occur. This can be indicated by high torque and drag, or increased pump pressure.

Mud Density
In harder shales, mud weight becomes more of a critical factor. The examination of electric logs and well histories from offset wells may help to determine required mud densities. Electric logs can provide important insight into not only pore pressures, but formation tops and important sand/shale sequences.

Fluid Selection
Again, laboratory testing of cores or shale samples can assist in the selection of the optimal fluid. X-ray diffraction can establish the distribution of various clays and minerals, and when used in conjunction with CST, linear swelling and shale erosion data, make the task of mud selection more reliable. Scanning cores for microfractures is often useful in determining which additives may be most effective for sealing fractures and minimizing the penetration of fluid into the formations surrounding the wellbore. Tectonic forces often directly affect wellbore stability. Studying of geological models may help to determine the optimum direction for penetrating formations relative to bedding planes. Mud weight is an important factor, and research indicates that fluid selection plays an important role in drilling tectonically stressed formations. Where oil-based muds are typically thought to be superior to waterbase muds with respect to inhibition and borehole stability, evidence suggests that oilbase mud may actually lubricate bedding planes causing slippage and resulting tight hole as the formation slides into the wellbore. Fragmentation is more of a problem with hard shales than with soft shales, with pieces becoming separated from the formation and entering the wellbore. Where packing-off may occur when drilling both soft and hard shales, the root causes are usually different ; sloughing versus fragmenting. Highly stressed formations are more likely to cause problems associated with fragmenting, borehole enlargement and packing-off. These problems can be difficult to predict and control, however, careful planning offers the best chance for successfully drilling formations prone to stress-related problems.

Casing Point Selection

Casing point selection is a critical factor when designing wells where the transition from softer to harder (and possibly brittle) shales is not well-defined. Trend logs and formation top determination often form the basis for casing point selection, and whether or not a well is drilled successfully depend on this selection. Generally the intermediate casing point is determined by the depth at which transition occurs. As softer shales play out and more compacted formations are encountered, rock strength increases, providing the integrity necessary for using higher mud densities. If this transition can be accurately determined, and the casing set properly, the mud system may be converted or displaced to a fluid which is better suited for drilling stressed formations.

Fracturing
Often harder shales are found fractured in their native state. If whole mud or even filtrate is allowed to penetrate the fractures, the shales may hydrate, disperse and slough. This will ultimately lead to borehole enlargement and potential problems cleaning the hole. To minimize penetration of fluid into the formation, particle size distribution of solids should be monitored and modified if necessary. Additives such as BAROTROL, BARACARB, BARABLOK and BXR, are useful in modifying particles size distribution, and sealing the pore throats of sands or fractures in shales. Normally an acceptable distribution can be achieved using a combination of asphaltines, gilsonites, mica, and/or calcium carbonate. Several laboratory tests when used in conjunction may form a basis for recommendations for mud additives. These lab tests include, but are not limited to, Particle Plugging Tests, Particle Size Analysis, and FANN 90. Steps can be taken to minimize the effects of wellbore caving if it should become a problem. Initially, a careful analysis of pore pressure versus mud weight should be done. If the formation is naturally fractured, mud weight increases may aggravate the problem, as fluid may be forced into the fractures, destabilizing the shale. However, if it can be determined that fractures probably do not exist, or they may be adequately sealed, mud weight increases may actually reduce caving. Hole cleaning should be monitored carefully. Increasing the low end rheology, or simply raising the yield point and gel strengths, may improve hole-cleaning efficiency. This is especially important in deviated wellbores. Additionally, extending circulation times prior to trips, making frequent wiper trips, and tripping slowly to minimize surge and swab pressures, may all have a positive impact.