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Load Flow
The ETAP Load Flow Analysis Module calculates the bus voltages, branch power factors, currents, and power flows throughout the electrical system. ETAP allows for swing, voltage regulated, and unregulated power sources with multiple power grids and generator connections. It is capable of performing analysis on both radial and loop systems. ETAP allows you to select from several different methods in order to achieve the best calculation efficiency. This chapter defines definitions and explains the usage of different tools you will need to run load flow studies. Theoretical background for different load flow calculation methods is also provided. The Load Flow toolbar section explains how you can launch a load flow calculation, open and view an output report, or select display options. The Load Flow Study Case Editor section explains how you can create a new study case, what parameters are required to specify a study case, and how to set them. The Display Options section explains what options are available for displaying some key system parameters and the output results on the one-line diagram, and how to set them. The Load Flow Calculation Methods section shows formulations of different load flow calculation methods. Comparisons on their rate of convergence, improving convergence based on different system parameters and configurations, and some tips on selecting an appropriate calculation method are also found in this section. The Required Data for Calculations section describes what data is necessary to perform load flow calculations and where to enter them. The Load Flow Study Output Report section illustrates and explains output reports and their format. Finally, the Load Flow Result Analyzer allows you to view the results of various studies in one screen so you can analyze and compare the different results.
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Toolbar
Run Load Flow Studies Run Control Auto Simulator Load Flow Display Options Alert View Load Flow Report Manager Halt Current Calculation Get Online Data Get Archived Data Load Flow Comparator Load Flow Result Analyzer Load Analyzer
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Toolbar
The results from load flow studies are displayed on the one-line diagram. To edit how these results look, click on the Load Flow Display Options icon. For more information see Load Flow Display Options.
Alert View
After performing a load flow study, you can click on this button to open the Alert View, which lists all equipment with critical and marginal violations based on the settings in the study case.
Choosing any format in the Report Manager activates the Crystal Reports. You can open the whole load flow output report or only a part of it, depending on the format selection. The format names and corresponding output report sections are given below: Adjustments Alert-Complete Alert-Critical Alert-Marginal Branch Loading Indicates tolerance and temperature correction adjustments Provides complete report of system alerts Provides summary of critical alerts only Provides summary of marginal alerts only Branch loading results
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Toolbar
Branch input data Displays overloaded bus information Bus input data Cable input data Complete output report including all input and output Title page of the output report Equipment cable input data High Voltage DC Link input data Provides detailed information about impedance elements in the system Displays Transmission Line coupling impedance data Load Flow calculation results Branch loss results Displays Normally Open protective devices Load Flow calculation results for panel systems Reactor input data Summary of load flow calculation Static Var Compensator (SVC) input data Transformer input data Load Flow calculation results for UPS systems
You can also view output reports by clicking on the View Output Report button on the Study Case toolbar. A list of all output files in the selected project directory is provided for load flow calculations. To view any of the listed output reports, click on the output report name, and then click on the View Output Report button.
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Toolbar
When ETAP Real-Time is set up and after you run a Load Flow study with online data, you can press this button to bring up the Load Flow Comparator view. It lists comparison of all system operating values between ETAP Real-Time output and Load Flow calculations.
Load Analyzer
The Load Analyzer tool and its associated reports are designed for load schedule reporting of ETAP models. This module allows the user to report loads of multilevel-connected elements in a system directly (called Connected Loads), or by applying different multiplying factors (called Operating Loads).
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There are two ways you can create a new study case. You can click on the New Study Case button in the Study Case toolbar, as shown above. It will open the Duplicate Study Case dialog box for you to specify names of an existing Study Case and the new study case you want to create.
You can also create a new Study Case from the Project View, by right-clicking on the Load Flow Study Case folder and selecting Create New. ETAP will then create a new study case, which is a copy of the default Study Case, and adds it to the Load Flow Study Case folder.
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Study Case ID
Study Case ID is shown in this entry field. You can rename a Study Case by deleting the old ID and entering the new ID. Study Case ID can be up to 12 alphanumeric characters. Use the Navigator button at the bottom of the editor to go from one study case to the next existing Study Case.
Method
In this group you can select a load flow solution method. Three methods are available: Newton-Raphson, Fast-decoupled, and Accelerated Gauss-Seidel. For the Newton-Raphson, a few Gauss-Seidel iterations are made first to establish a set of sound initial values for the bus voltages (since convergence of the Newton-Raphson Method is highly dependent on the initial bus voltages).
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Enter the maximum number for iterations in this field. If the solution has not converged before the specified number of iterations, the program will stop and inform you. The recommended and default values are 2000 for the Gauss-Seidel Method, and five for the Newton-Raphson and Fast-Decoupled Methods.
Precision
Enter the value for the solution precision in this field, which is used to check for convergence. This value determines how precise you want the final solution to be. For the Gauss-Seidel Method, precision is applied to check the difference between the bus voltages after each iteration. For the Newton-Raphson and Fast-Decoupled Methods, the precision is compared with the difference in power for each bus (MW and Mvar) between iterations. If the difference between the iterations is less than or equal to the value entered for precision, the desired accuracy is achieved. If the solution converges but the mismatch values are high, reduce the value of the precision to make your results more precise and run the program again (you may need to increase the number of iterations). Note: A smaller precision value results in lower mismatch (higher accuracy), as well as a longer run time. The default (and recommended) values are 0.000001 pu volts for the Gauss-Seidel Method, and .0001 pu power for the Newton-Raphson and Fast-Decoupled Methods.
Accel. Factor
This field is present if the Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method is used. Enter the convergence acceleration factor to be used between iterations. Typical values are between 1.2 and 1.7; the default is 1.45.
Update
In this group, you can decide to update initial conditions of the buses and/or set the transformer taps to the calculated value of LTCs. The selected options will be updated after the subsequent load flow run.
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Select this option to update the values of the bus voltage magnitudes with the result of the load flow run. Bus voltage update will result in a faster convergence of the subsequent load flow solutions since the initial bus voltages will be closer to the final values.
Transformer LTCs
Select this option to update the transformer taps to reflect the result of load tap changer (LTC) settings, i.e., transformer taps will be set to values determined from the load flow solution for LTCs. This feature is useful when you want to consider the impedance of the LTC taps for short-circuit calculations. Selecting this option will also display the LTC settings on the OLV.
Report
Bus Voltage
Calculated bus voltages seen in the output report can be printed in kV or in percent of the bus nominal voltages. Select your preference by clicking on in Percent or in kV. For graphical display of bus voltages see Load Flow Display Options.
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This option allows you to simulate load flow studies using a fixed bus voltage and angle for all buses. When you select the fixed initial condition option, you must enter the initial voltage value as the percent of the bus nominal voltage. The default values are 100% for bus voltage magnitude and zero degree for bus voltage angle.
When the operating load is specified as the system load, the operating voltage angles are used as the initial value. In this case, if the Apply XFMR Phase-Shift is checked, the operating voltage angle is compared against the calculated bus voltage angle. If the difference is less than MaxIniAngDiff, the operating voltage angle is used; otherwise the calculated value is used in the load flow calculation.
Study Remarks
You can enter up to 120 alphanumeric characters in this remarks field. Information entered in this location will be printed on the second line of every output page header line. These remarks can provide specific information for each study cases. The first line of the header information is global for all study cases and is entered in the Project Information Editor.
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Loading Category
Select one of the ten Loading Categories for the current Load Flow Study. With the selection of any category, ETAP uses the percent loading of individual motors and other loads as specified for the selected category. Note: You can assign loading to each one of the ten categories from the Nameplate page of the Induction Machine Editor and Synchronous Motor Editor and the Loading or Rating page of other load component editors.
Operating P, Q
This option is available if your ETAP key has the online feature. When this box is checked, the operating loads updated from online data or a previous Load Flow Study will be utilized in the Load Flow Study.
Generation Category
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Select one of the ten Generation Categories for the current Load Flow Study. With the selection of any category, ETAP uses the generator controls for the selected category, as specified in the Rating page of the Generator Editor. The generator controls will be different depending on the mode that the generator is operating under. The mode of generation is selected on the Info page of the Generator Editor. The table below shows the generation controls with respect to the mode of generation. Mode Swing Voltage Control MVAR Control PF Control Generation Category Control %V and Angle %V and MW MW and MVAR MW and PF
Operating P, Q, V
This option is available if your ETAP key has the online feature. When this box is checked, the generator operating values updated from online data or a previous load flow study will be utilized in the Load Flow Study.
None
Select None to use the percent loading of each load as entered for the selected Loading Category.
Bus Minimum
When the minimum bus loading option is selected, all motors and other loads directly connected to each bus will be multiplied by the bus minimum diversity factor. Using this option, you can simulate load flow studies with each bus having a different minimum diversity factor. The minimum bus loading study option may be used to see the effect of transformer taps and capacitors (if any) on the system voltages under a minimum (light) loading condition.
Bus Maximum
When the Maximum Loading option is selected, all motors and other loads directly connected to each bus will be multiplied by the bus maximum diversity factor. Using this option, you can simulate load flow studies with each bus having a different maximum diversity factor. This study option is helpful when the future loading of the electrical system has to be considered and each bus may be loaded at a different maximum value.
Constant kVA
Constant kVA loads include induction motors, synchronous motors, conventional and unbalanced lumped loads with % motor load, UPSs, and chargers.
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Constant impedance loads include static loads, capacitors, harmonic filters, MOVs, and conventional and unbalanced lumped loads with % static load.
Constant I
Constant current loads include unbalanced lumped loads with % constant current load.
Generic
Generic loads include lumped loads modeled using either the exponential, polynomial, or comprehensive model. Please refer to the Section 15.4 (Calculations Methods) for the load-modeling concepts used in ETAP. Note: A motor load-multiplying factor of 125% implies that the motor loads of all buses are increased by 25 percent above their nominal values. This value can be smaller or greater than 100 percent.
Charger Loading
You have the option to use the Loading Category or the Operating Load for chargers. The operating load for a charger can only be updated from a DC Load Flow Study.
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Impedance Tolerance
This group allows you to consider tolerance adjustments to impedance values for transformer, reactor, and overload heater.
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specified as well by selecting and specifying a global tolerance other than 0% in the corresponding field of Load Flow Study Case Editor Adjustment page. The global Impedance Adjustment overrides any individual transformer tolerance value.
Length Tolerance
This section allows you to consider tolerance adjustments to cable and transmission line lengths.
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specified as well by selecting and specifying a global tolerance other than 0% in the corresponding field of the Load Flow Study Case Editor Adjustment page. The global Length Adjustment overrides any individual transmission line tolerance value.
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entered in this page must be non-zero. The element ratings for alert checking are given in the following sections.
Loading
This set of value fields allows you to enter the condition percent values of the monitored parameters used to determine if an alert should be reported based on loading conditions determined by a load flow calculation. The Load Flow Loading Alerts generate overload alerts.
Bus Alert
The Load Flow Module will generate a Bus Loading Alert if the Critical or Marginal percent limit of rated continuous current in the bus is exceeded. The rated continuous current in the bus is specified in the Rating page of the Bus Editor.
Cable Alert
The Load Flow Module will generate a Cable Alert if the Critical or Marginal percent limit of allowable ampacity in the cable is exceeded. The allowable ampacity of the cable is specified in the Ampacity page of the Cable Editor.
Line Alert
The Load Flow Module will generate a Line Alert if the Critical or Marginal percent limit of derated ampacity in the transmission line is exceeded. The derated ampacity of the transmission line is calculated in the Ampacity page of the Transmission Line Editor.
Reactor Alert
The Load Flow Module will generate a Reactor Alert if the Critical or Marginal percent limit of rated current in the reactor is exceeded. The rated current in the reactor is specified in the Rating page of the Reactor Editor.
Transformer Alert
The Load Flow Module will generate a Transformer Alert if the Critical or Marginal percent limit of maximum MVA of the transformer is exceeded. The maximum MVA of the transformer is specified in the Rating page of the Transformer Editor. The simulation alerts work for both 2 and 3-winding transformers.
Panel Alert
The Load Flow Module will generate a Panel Alert if the Critical or Marginal percent limit of rated current in the panel is exceeded. The rated current of the panel is specified in the Rating page of the Panel Editor.
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Protective Devices Low Voltage Circuit Breaker High Voltage Circuit Breaker Fuses Contactors SPDT/SPST switches
Monitored parameters in percent of Continuous rated Current Continuous rated Current Rated Current Continuous rated Current Continuous rated Current
The Load Flow Module will generate Protective Device Alerts only if the monitored parameter rating is larger than zero.
Generator Alert
The Load Flow Module will generate a Generator Alert if the Critical or Marginal percent limit of rated MW of the generator is exceeded. The rated MW of the generator is specified in the Rating page of the Generator Editor.
Marginal Limit
If the Marginal Limit option is checked, the Alert View window will display the marginal alerts as well. If not selected, the Alert View window will display only the critical alerts.
Auto Display
If the Auto Display option is checked, the Alert View window automatically opens after the load flow calculation completes. If not checked, the Alert View window can be opened by clicking the Alert View icon on the Load Flow toolbar.
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Calculation Methods
Show Units
Select this option to show units for power flow and current displayed on the one-line diagram.
Check All
Select this option to show all available result annotations. When this box is unchecked, the previous settings are restored.
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Calculation Methods
Bus Mag.
Select this option to display bus voltages on the one-line diagram. Bus voltages are displayed at 15 degrees.
Bus Angle
Select this option to display bus angles in degrees on the one-line diagram. Bus angles are displayed at -15 degrees.
Load Rated kV
Select this option to use load rated kV as the base for load terminal voltage display.
Bus Nom. kV
Select this option to use bus nominal kV as the base for load terminal voltage display.
Voltage Drop
Line/Cable
Select this option to display line and cable voltage drops on the one-line diagram.
Load FDR
Select this option to display the load feeder voltage drops.
Panel/UPS Systems
Results
Select this option to display results for panel systems in the one-line diagram, assuming that the Calc. Panel/UPS System option has been checked in the study case when the load flow calculation was carried out. If the Calc. Panel System option has not been checked in the load flow study case or the panel system display option is not checked, no results will be displayed in the one-line diagram.
Average Values
Select this option to display average values for panel system results as shown in the following table.
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Calculation Methods
Panel System Load Flow Results Displayed in Average Values Phase Type Voltage Current Power 3-Phase Average Value Average Value Total Power 1-Phase, 3-Wire LL Value Average Value Total Power 1-Phase, 2-Wire Phase Value Phase Value Phase Value
Panel System Load Flow Results Displayed in Average Values All Phases
Select this option to display individual phase values for panel system results. For 3-phase elements, voltage, current, and power for phases A, B, and C are displayed in sequence, and for one-phase threewire elements, voltage, current, and power for phases LL, L1, and L2 are displayed in sequence. Panel System Load Flow Results Displayed in All Phases Voltage Current Power Phase A, B, & C Phase A, B, & C Phase A, B, & C Phase LL, L1, & L2 Phase LL, L1, & L2 Phase LL, L1, & L2 Phase Value Phase Value Phase Value
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Calculation Methods
Power Flows
You can specify how the flows will be displayed in this area.
Units
Select the unit (kVA or MVA) to be used to display power flow on the one-line diagram.
kW + jkvar
Select the kW + jkvar radio button to display power flow in kW+jkvar or MW+jMvar.
kVA
Select the kVA radio button to display power flow in kVA or MVA.
Amp
Select the Amp radio button to display current flow in amperes.
%PF
When the Amp or kVA radio button is selected, you can check this box to show power factor of power flow along with the current.
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Calculation Methods
Select this option to display power flow through all branches on the one-line diagram. ETAP displays the power flow at one end of a branch, i.e., the end that has a positive kW value flowing into the branch. For 3-winding transformers, all three power flows are displayed.
Source
Select this option to display power flow for generators and power grids on the one-line diagram.
Load
Select this option to display power flow for motors, MOVs, capacitors, lumped loads, and static loads on the one-line diagram.
Composite Motor
Select this option to display power flow into composite motors.
Composite Network
Select the checkbox to display power flow into composite networks.
Branch Losses
Select this option to display branch losses on the one-line diagram. Losses are displayed inside a bracket in [kW+jkvar] or [MW+jMvar].
Meters
Ammeter
Check this option to display primary current for the branch to which an ammeter is attached.
Voltmeter
Check this option to display primary voltage for the bus to which a voltmeter is attached.
Multi-Meter
Check this option to display the measurements of a multi-meter, including bus voltage, branch current, branch power flow, power factor, and frequency.
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Calculation Methods
19.3.2 AC Page
This page includes options for displaying information annotations for AC elements.
ID
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the ID of the selected AC elements on the one-line diagram.
Rating
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the ratings of the selected AC elements on the oneline diagram.
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Calculation Methods
Device Type Generator Power Grid (Utility) Motor Load Panel Transformer Branch, Impedance Branch, Reactor Cable/Line Bus Node CB Fuse Relay PT & CT
Rating kW/MW MVAsc HP/kW kVA/MVA Connection Type (# Phases - # Wires) kVA/MVA Base MVA Continuous Amps Number of Cables - Number of Conductor/Cable - Size kA Bracing Bus Bracing (kA) Rated Interrupting (kA) Interrupting (ka) Display Tag, entered in Info Page of Relay Editor Transformer Rated Turn Ratio
kV
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the rated or nominal voltages of the selected elements on the one-line diagram. For cables/lines, click the checkboxes to display the cable/line and the size, length and type on the oneline diagram.
A
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the ampere ratings (continuous or full-load ampere) of the selected elements on the one-line diagram. For cables/lines, click the checkboxes to display the cable/line and the size, length and type on the oneline diagram.
Z
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the rated impedance of the selected AC elements on the one-line diagram. Device Type Generator Power Grid (Utility) Motor Transformer Branch, Impedance Branch, Reactor Cable/Line Impedance Subtransient Reactance Xd Positive Sequence Impedance in % of 100 MVA (R + j X) % LRC Positive Sequence Impedance (R + j X per unit length) Impedance in Ohms or % Impedance in Ohms Positive Sequence Impedance (R + j X in Ohms or per unit length)
D-Y
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the connection types of the selected elements on the one-line diagram.
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Calculation Methods
For transformers, the operating tap setting for primary, secondary, and tertiary windings are also displayed. The operating tap setting consists of the fixed taps plus the tap position of the LTC.
Composite Mtr
Click on this checkbox to display the AC composite motor IDs on the one-line diagram, then select the color in which the IDs will be displayed.
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Calculation Methods
ID
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the IDs of the selected AC-DC elements on the oneline diagram.
Rating
Select the checkboxes under this heading to display the ratings of the selected AC-DC elements on the one-line diagram.
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Calculation Methods
Rating AC kVA & DC kW (or MVA/MW) DC kW & AC kVA (or MW/MVA) KVA HP/kW
kV
Click on the checkboxes under this heading to display the rated or nominal voltages of the selected elements on the one-line diagram.
A
Click on the checkboxes under this heading to display the ampere ratings of the selected elements on the one-line diagram. Device Type Charger Inverter UPS Amp AC FLA & DC FLA DC FLA & AC FLA Input, output, & DC FLA
Composite Network
Click on this checkbox to display the composite network IDs on the one-line diagram, then select the color in which the IDs will be displayed.
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Calculation Methods
Color Theme
A previously defined color theme can be selected from the list. The selected color theme will be used whenever the Theme option button is selected. Annotations This area allows you to assign colors to AC and DC elements, composite elements, and displayed results. Theme This option allows the global color theme selected in the color Theme list for element annotations to be applied globally throughout all diagrams. When the option is selected, the name assigned to the applied color theme is also displayed in a box at the right of the button.
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Calculation Methods
User-Defined Select this option to specify a color for element annotations. When this option is chosen, the DC element annotation color selection list will appear.
Theme Button
Click this button to make the Theme Editor appear.
Theme Editor
The Theme Editor allows you to select existing color themes or define a new color theme. Note that color themes are applied globally within a project file. Changes made on a color theme displayed on this page may also affect other modes and presentations if the global color themes option has been previously selected.
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Calculation Methods
Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson Method formulates and solves iteratively the following load flow equation:
P J 1 Q J 3 J 2 = J4 V
where P and Q are bus real power and reactive power mismatch vectors between specified value and calculated value, respectively; V and represents bus voltage magnitude and angle vectors in an incremental form; and J1 through J4 are called Jacobian matrices. The Newton-Raphson Method possesses a unique quadratic convergence characteristic. It usually has a very fast convergence speed compared to other load flow calculation methods. It also has the advantage that the convergence criteria are specified to ensure convergence for bus real power and reactive power mismatches. This criterion gives you direct control of the accuracy you want to specify for the load flow solution. The convergence criteria for the Newton-Raphson Method are typically set to 0.001 MW and Mvar. The Newton-Raphson Method is highly dependent on the bus voltage initial values. A careful selection of bus voltage initial values is strongly recommended. Before running load flow using the Newton-Raphson Method, ETAP makes a few Gauss-Seidel iterations to establish a set of sound initial values for the bus voltages. The Newton-Raphson Method is recommended for use with any system as a first choice.
Fast-Decoupled Method
The Fast-Decoupled Method is derived from the Newton-Raphson Method. It takes the fact that a small change in the magnitude of bus voltage does not vary the real power at the bus appreciably, and likewise, for a small change in the phase angle of the bus voltage, the reactive power does not change appreciably. Thus the load flow equation from the Newton-Raphson Method can be simplified into two separate decoupled sets of load flow equations, which can be solved iteratively:
[ P ] = [J1 ][ ] [ Q] = [J 4 ][ V ]
The Fast-Decoupled method reduces computer memory storage by approximately half, compared to the Newton-Raphson method. It also solves the load flow equations using significantly less computer time than that required by the Newton-Raphson method, since the Jacobian matrices are constant. As with the Newton-Raphson Method, convergence criteria of the Fast-Decoupled Method is based on real power and reactive power mismatches, which are typically set to 0.001 in the order of MW and Mvar.
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Calculation Methods
Although for a fixed number of iterations it is not as accurate as the Newton-Raphson Method, the savings in computer time and the more favorable convergence criteria makes for a very good overall performance. In general, the Fast-Decoupled Method can be used as an alternative to the Newton-Raphson Method, and it should definitely be given a try if the Newton-Raphson Method has failed when dealing with long radial systems or systems that have long transmission lines or cables.
[I ] = [YBUS ][V ]
the Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method derives the following load flow equation and solves it iteratively:
* [P + jQ] = [V T ][YBUS ][V * ]
where P and Q are specified bus real and reactive power vectors, V is the bus voltage vector, and YBUS is the system admittance matrix. Y*BUS and V* are the conjugates of YBUS and V respectively. VT is the transpose of V. The Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method has relatively lower requirements of the bus initial voltage values compared to the Newton-Raphson Method and the Fast-Decoupled Method. Instead of using bus real power and reactive power mismatch as convergence criteria, the Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method checks bus voltage magnitude tolerance between two consecutive iterations to control the solution precision. The typical value for bus voltage magnitude precision is set to 0.000001 pu. The Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method has a slower convergence speed. When you apply appropriate acceleration factors, a significant increase in the rate of convergence can be obtained. The range for the acceleration factor is between 1.2 and 1.7, and is typically set to 1.45.
Negative Impedance
Negative resistance and reactance should be avoided. For example, the traditional method of modeling 3winding transformers by a Y equivalent model using one impedance and two 2-winding transformers, could sometimes result in a negative impedance value for one of the impedance branches. In this case, the negative impedance should be combined with other series circuit elements so that the result is a positive impedance value. Load flow calculations may not converge if a large value of negative impedance is used. ETAP can now model 3-winding transformers directly with no need for you to do any conversions.
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Calculation Methods
Widely different branch impedance values on the same per unit base may result in a slow convergence. To avoid this situation, various techniques, such as combining series branches with low impedance values, ignoring short length transmission lines and/or cables, or modeling a small impedance branch with tie circuit breakers, can be employed.
Modeling of Loads
Constant Power Load
Constant power loads include induction motors, synchronous motors, conventional and unbalanced lumped loads with % motor load, UPSs, and chargers. The power output remains constant for all changes in input voltage. Below are the respective I-V and P-V curves for a constant power load:
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Calculation Methods
Generic Load
Generic loads include lumped loads using either the exponential, polynomial, or comprehensive model. A generic load model expresses the characteristics of the load at any instant of time as algebraic functions of the bus voltage magnitude and frequency at that instant. Refer to section 8.12 for more information.
Modeling of HV DCs
In a Load Flow Study, the HV DC link is represented as a branch, which consists of a Rectifier, a DC line, and an Inverter. Both the Inverter and the Rectifier of the HVDC link require a connection either directly to a swing bus or to a system containing a swing bus.
Modeling of SVCs
In a Load Flow Study, the SVC is represented as a variable static load. The SVC regulates voltage at its terminal by controlling the amount of reactive power injected into or absorbed from the power system. When running load flow on a system containing an SVC, load flow will first determine the system voltages without the SVC. If the initial voltage of the bus connected to SVC is lower than the reference voltage, the SVC will inject reactive power. And if the initial voltage of the bus connected to SVC is higher than the reference voltage, the SVC will absorb reactive power. Refer to section 11 for more information.
Load Editor Calculation of load for loading categories and voltage drop Input for Studies Calculation of load specification for load flow and initial load for motor starting and transient stability studies Studies Results Calculation of load displayed in one-line diagram from load flow, motor starting, and transient stability studies
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Calculation Methods
The following two tables describe how these factors are used in these cases:
* Indicates the factor is used in calculation if specified by the user in the related Load Editor or Study Case. Notes:
Motor load includes induction motor and generator, synchronous motor, and motor load portion of lumped load. Static load includes static load, capacitor, MOV, and static load portion of conventional and unbalanced lumped loads.
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Calculation Methods
Panel/UPS Systems
A panel system is defined as a radial sub-system that is powered through a top panel, a phase adaptor, or an UPS connected to a 3-phase bus. A power system may contain several panel systems. Each panel system has a top element that is either a 3-phase panel or a phase adapter.
Transformer LTC
Transformer LTC is not considered for any transformer in panel systems. Even if the LTC field is checked in the Transformer Editor, it will be ignored in panel load flow calculation.
Calculation Method
The panel system load flow calculation is carried out sequentially with 3-phase load flow to achieve accurate result. The calculation involved three stages. Before the 3-phase system load flow calculation is performed, a load flow computation is carried out for each panel system for the loading category and diversity factors specified in the study case. In this computation, the terminal bus voltage of the top element is assumed to be fixed at its initial value entered in the Bus Editor. The purpose of this pre-load-flow calculation is to accurately calculate panel system load, including branch losses and effect of voltage drop on various types of loads.
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Calculation Methods
Once the panel system load is calculated, it is stored in the top element. The 3-phase system load flow calculation is then carried out, in which the top element of each panel system is represented as a single load connected to a 3-phase bus. After the 3-phase system load flow is completed, a load flow calculation is carried out again for each panel system with the updated terminal bus voltage of the top element just calculated from the 3-phase system load flow. The results of the calculation are reported on the one-line diagram and in Crystal Report.
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Required Data
Nominal kV %V and Angle (when Initial Condition is set to use Bus Voltages) Load Diversity Factor (when the Loading option is set to use Diversity Factor)
Branch Data
Branch data is entered into the Branch Editors, i.e., Transformer, Transmission Line, Cable, Reactor, and Impedance Editors. Required data for load flow calculations for branches includes:
Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and temperature, if applicable Cable and transmission line, length, and unit Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings Impedance base kV and base kVA/MVA
Operating Mode (Swing, Voltage Control, Mvar Control, or PF Control) Nominal kV %V and Angle for Swing Mode %V, MW loading, and Mvar limits (Qmax & Qmin) for Voltage Control Mode MW and Mvar loading, and Mvar limits Mvar Control Mode MW loading and PF, and Mvar limits for PF Control Mode
Operating Mode (Swing, Voltage Control, or Mvar Control) Rated kV %V and Angle for Swing Mode of Operation %V, MW loading, and Mvar limits (Qmax and Qmin) for Voltage Control Mode MW and Mvar loading, and Mvar limits Mvar Control Mode MW loading and PF, and Mvar limits for PF Control Mode
Note: The Mvar limits (Qmax and Qmin) can also be calculated from the capability curve. The required additional data for this calculation includes:
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Required Data
Inverter Data
Required data for load flow calculations for inverters includes:
Rated kW/hp and kV Power factors and efficiencies at 100%, 75%, and 50% loadings % Loading for desired Loading Category Equipment cable data
Rated kW/hp and kV Power factors and efficiencies at 100%, 75%, and 50% loadings % Loading for desired Loading Category Equipment cable data
Static Load ID Rated kVA/MVA and kV Power factor % Loading for desired Loading Category Equipment cable data
Capacitor Data
Required data for load flow calculations for capacitors includes:
Capacitor ID Rated kV, kvar/bank, and number of banks % Loading for desired Loading Category Equipment cable data
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Required Data
Element ID Rated AC kV, MVA, and power factor, as well as DC rating data % Loading for desired Loading Category
HV DC Link Data
Required data for load flow calculations for HV DC links includes:
Element ID All data on the Rating page is required for Load Flow calculations Inverter current margin (Im)
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Required Data
SVC Data
Required data for load flow calculations for SVCs includes:
Element ID Rated kV Inductive Rating (Either QL, IL, or BL) Capacitive Rating (Either QC, IC, or BC) Max Inductive Rating (Either QL(Max), or IL(Max)) Max Capacitive Rating (Either QC(Min), or IC(Min))
Panel Data
Required data for load flow calculations for panels includes:
Element ID Rated kV and Amps Number of Branch Circuits Loading and %Loading Phasing, Number of Poles, and State Connection Type, i.e. Internal, External, Spare, etc.
Other Data
There are some Study Case related data, which must also be provided. This includes:
Method (Newton-Raphson, Fast-Decoupled, or Accelerated Gauss-Seidel) Max Iteration Precision Acceleration Factor (when Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method is selected) Loading Category Initial Voltage Condition Report (report format) Update (for bus voltages and transformer LTCs using load flow result)
The Study Case related data is entered into the Load Flow Study Case Editor.
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Output Reports
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Output Reports
This field displays the name of the project file based on which report was generated, along with the directory where the project file is located.
Help
Click on this button to access Help.
OK/Cancel
Click on the OK button to close the editor and open the Crystal Reports view to show the selected portion of the Output Report. If no selection is made, it will close the editor. Click on the Cancel button to close the editor without viewing the report.
19.7.3 Complete
The Complete Report includes Input Data, Results, and Summary Reports.
Viewer and File Options You can view the report in the Crystal Reports viewer, or save the report in PDF, MS Word, Rich Text Format, or Excel format. If you wish this selection to be the default for reports, click the Set As Default checkbox.
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Output Reports
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Output Reports
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Output Reports
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Output Reports
19.7.5 Results
This page allows you to select the desired Output Report.
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Output Reports
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Output Reports
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Output Reports
19.7.6 Summary
This page allows you to select different portions of the load flow summary to view. Note: Some portions of the summary are available only when you have selected specific options in the study case, such as Critical and Marginal Voltage options. Alert-Complete Alert-Critical Alert-Marginal Branch Loading Bus Loading Losses Summary
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Output Reports
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Alert View
Device ID
The Device Identification group of the Alert View lists the names of all the components that qualified as alerts after the load flow calculation.
Type
The Type group of the Alert View displays information about the type of the device having the displayed alert.
Condition
The Condition group of the Alert View provides a brief comment about the type of alert being reported. In the case of load flow alerts, the different conditions reported are Overloads, Over Voltage, Under Voltage, Over Excited, and Under Excited.
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Alert View
The Rating group of the Alert View provides the rating information being used by the Load Flow Module to determine whether an alert should be reported and of what kind. Section 15.2.3 Alert Page provides detailed information on alerts for each type of elements.
Operating
The Operating group of the Alert View displays the results from the Load Flow calculation. The results listed here are used in combination with those displayed in the ratings section to determine the operating percent values. These values are then compared to those entered in the Alert page of the Load Flow Study Case Editor.
%Operating
This group displays the percent operating values calculated based on the load flow results and the different element ratings/Limits. The values displayed here are directly compared to the percent of monitored parameters entered directly into the Alert page of the Load Flow Study Case Editor. Based on the element type, system topology and given conditions, the Alert Simulation program uses these percent values to determine if and what kind of alert should be displayed.
Phase Type
This group displays whether the alert being displayed is for a Single-Phase or 3-Phase component.
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Result Analyzer
Export
Export Load Flow Analyzer Data and create a report in Microsoft Excel format.
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Result Analyzer
Ref
Select the study report that is used as the reference. The Display table also indicates which study report is used as the reference by a green highlight on the study report name.
Report Type
Select which Report Type you would like displayed.
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Result Analyzer
General Info Selecting General will display the general information contained in the study report such as number of elements, system generation, loads and losses, and conversion parameters. Bus Results Selecting Bus will display the bus information contained in the study report. Branch Results Selecting Branch will display the branch information contained in the study report. Loads Selecting Load will display the load information contained in the study report. Sources Selecting Source will display the source information contained in the study report.
Project Report
Select which project report(s) you would like active.
Active Project The first selection is defaulted to the open project file. This will limit you to all the reports generated from this project. All Projects in Active Directory This allows the user to compare reports from different projects that are located within the directory that the current (open) project file resides.
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Result Analyzer
Study Case ID Study case ID: unique name up to 25 characters. Data Revision This field indicates the name of the Data Revision used for the selected study report. Configuration This field indicates the configuration status being used for the selected study report. Loading Cat Display the name of the Loading Category used for the selected study report. Generation Cat Display the name of the Generation Category used for the selected study report. Diversity Factor Display the Load Diversity Factor used for the selected study report. Buses Display the total number of Energized Buses that exist in the selected study report.
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Result Analyzer
Branches Display the total number of Branches that exist in the selected study report. Generators Display the total number of Generators that exist in the selected study report. Power Grids Display the total number of Power Grids that exist in the selected study report. Loads Total number of Loads that exist in the selected study report. Load-MW Total Load in MW that exists in the selected study report. Load-Mvar Total Load in Mvar that exists in the selected study report. Generation-MW Display the total Generation in MW that exists in the selected study report. Generation-Mvar Display the total Generation in Mvar that exist in the selected study report. Losses-MW Display the total losses in MW that exist in the selected study report. Losses-Mvar Display the total losses in Mvar that exist in the selected study report. Mismatch-MW Display the total mismatch in MW that exists in the selected study report. Mismatch-Mvar Display the total mismatch in Mvar that exist in the selected study report.
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Result Analyzer
Bus Type This section determines what type of buses to display in the table.
Source Buses These are Buses that are connected to a Generator or Power Grid. Nodes These are Buses that have been graphically displayed as Nodes.
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Result Analyzer
Bus Info
This section determines which bus information to display in the table.
Nominal kV Display the bus nominal voltage in kV of the selected bus. Amp Rating Display the ampere rating of the selected bus. Type Display the bus type information: Gen, SWNG, or Load.
Unit
This section determines the measurement unit used to display the bus loading results and operating bus voltages.
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Result Analyzer
Voltage Display operating voltage based on the result voltage unit (kV, % of Bus nominal kV, or Volts). kW Loading Display total bus loading (kW or MW). kvar Loading Display total bus loading (kvar or Mvar). Amp Loading Display Ampere Loading of the load directly connected to the bus. % Loading Displays the percent loading based on the calculated ampere loading and ampere rating of the bus.
Alert
This section allows you to enter the marginal and critical limits on the display table. Note: The results will be highlighted based on these limits, not based on the limits set from the study case.
Loading Highlights bus loading alerts. OverVoltage Highlights bus over voltage alerts.
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Result Analyzer
Display Options
Actual Value Display the actual value of the results. Differences with Ref. Display the delta differences between the calculated results with respect to the values from the reference report. Skip if Same Data that has the same results as the reference study will not be displayed.
Find
Select any bus from the Bus ID list and click find to locate that bus on your one-line diagram.
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Result Analyzer
Branch Type
Select the Branch type(s) to display on the table. The list of branch types is below:
Branch Info
This section determines which branch information to display in the table.
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Result Analyzer
From Bus Display From Bus connection for that element. To Bus Display To Bus connection for that element. Type Display the element type on the display table. Rating 1 and Rating 2 Display the Rating for each branch. See table below for each Rating: Type 2-W Transformer 3-W Xfmr Primary 3-W Xfmr Secondary 3-W Xfmr Tertiary Cable Line Reactor Impedance Equipment Cable Rating 1 Primary kV / Secondary kV Rated kV Rated kV Rated kV Length Meters Length Meters Positive sequence impedance ohms Positive sequence resistance ohms/percent Length Meters Rating 2 Primary Winding Rating MVA/kVA Primary Winding Rating MVA/kVA Primary Winding Rating MVA/kVA Primary Winding Rating MVA/kVA Size Size Reactor rating Amps Positive sequence reactance ohms/percent Size
Unit
This section determines the measurement unit used to display the branch loading results and operating branch voltages.
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Result Analyzer
kW Flow Display power flow (kW or MW) kvar Flow Display power flow (kvar or Mvar) Amp Flow Display ampere flow from one bus to another. % PF Display Power Factor (%) % Loading Display loading (%) % Voltage Drop Display voltage drop (%) kW Losses Display branch losses (kW or MW) kvar Losses Display branch losses (kvar or Mvar)
Alert
This section allows you to enter the marginal and critical limits on the display table. Note: The results will be highlighted based on these limits, not based on the limits from the Study Case.
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Result Analyzer
Display Options
Actual Value Display the actual value of the results. Differences with Ref. Display the delta differences between the calculated results with respect to the values from the reference report. Skip if Same Data that has the same results as the reference study will not be displayed.
Find
Select any branch from the ID list and click find to locate that element on your one-line diagram.
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Result Analyzer
19.9.5 Loads
Under this category, load information and the load flow results for the loads are displayed. When Loads is selected, the Result Analyzer display is changed to show the following:
Load Type
Select the load type(s) to display on the table. The list of load types is below:
Load Info
This section determines which load information to display in the table.
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Result Analyzer
Terminal Bus Bus connected to the load. Type Display the load type on the display table. Rating and Rating kV Display the Rating for each load. See table below for each Rating: Type Induction Synchronous Lumped Static MOV Capacitor SVC Filter Rating HP/ kW HP/ kW MVA/kVA MVA/kVA HP/kW Capacitor rated Mvar/kvar Rated inductive/capacitive var kvar/Mvar Capacitor rated Mvar/kvar per phase Rating kV Rated voltage Rated voltage Rated voltage Rated voltage Rated voltage Rated voltage Rated voltage Rated voltage
Unit
This section determines the measurement unit used to display the operating load and load terminal voltage results.
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Result Analyzer
kW Loading Total operating load (kW or MW) kvar Loading Total operating load (kvar or Mvar) Amp Loading Display the current loading results. % PF Display the Power factor (%). % Loading Displays the percent loading based on the calculated ampere loading and ampere rating of the load. Terminal Voltage Display the load terminal voltage results.
Alert
This section allows you to enter the marginal and critical limits on the display table. Note: The results will be highlighted based on these limits, not based on the limits from the study case.
Loading This highlights loading alerts for loads. OverVoltage This highlights over voltage alerts for loads. UnderVoltage This highlights under voltage alerts for loads.
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Result Analyzer
Display Options
Actual Value Display the actual value of the results. Differences with Ref. Display the delta differences between the calculated results with respect to the values from the reference report. Skip if Same Data that has the same results as the reference study will not be displayed.
Find
Select any load from the ID list and click find to locate that load on your one-line diagram.
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Result Analyzer
19.9.6 Sources
Under this category, source information and the load flow results for the sources are displayed. When Sources is selected, the Result Analyzer display is changed to show the following:
Source Type
Select the Source type(s) to display on the table. The list of source types is below:
Source Info
This section determines which source information to display in the table.
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Result Analyzer
Terminal Bus Display the bus connected to the source. Type Display the source type. Rating and Rating kV Display the rating for each source. See table below for each Rating: Type Power Grid Synchronous Wind Turbine Rating 3 phase Short Circuit MVAsc Contribution Rated Real Power MW/ kW Rated Real Power MW/kW Rating kV Rated voltage Rated voltage Rated voltage
Unit
This section determines the measurement unit used to display the total operating source generation and the rating for each source.
kW Generation Total operating source generation (kW or MW). kvar Generation Total operating source generation (kvar or Mvar). Amp Source current results
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Result Analyzer
Display Options
Actual Value Display the actual value of the results. Differences with Ref. Display the delta differences between the calculated results with respect to the values from the reference report. Skip if Same Data that has the same results as the reference study will not be displayed.
Find
Select any source from the ID list and click find to locate that source on your one-line diagram.
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Result Analyzer
In addition and in contrast with the regular Load Flow analysis, the Load Analyzer allows a deeper study of the different loads present in a system. This gives the user more flexibility in analyzing individual loads using Minimum/Maximum Bus Loading, or to simply determine the actual connected and operating loads in a given system. Notes: Looped configurations or systems with two swing sources (utility or generator) are not currently handled by the Load Analyzer. Only radial systems are handled. In case the load voltage from the nameplate of an element is different from the upstream Bus voltage, the Load Analyzer will not adjust the voltage of the element. Therefore, the Load Analyzer results will be different from the Load Flow results. Wind turbines, MG sets, Harmonic Filters (HF), and Static var Compensators (SVC) loads are not considered by the Load Analyzer. These loads will be added in the future. 3-phase and 1-phase loads below an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) are not considered by the Load Analyzer. Only the internal load of the UPS is considered. Feeder losses and branch losses are ignored by the Load Analyzer. The Load Flow program considers all branch losses.
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Result Analyzer
Once the module is launched, the Load Analyzer Editor opens. Following is a list and description of the different fields available in this editor.
Project
The project name is displayed in this field. This filed is for your information and cannot be edited.
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Result Analyzer
The project revision is displayed in this field. This field is for your information and cannot be edited. To change the revision you must close this editor, go to the Revision toolbar and select another revision.
Configuration
The project configuration is displayed in this field. This field is for your information and cannot be edited. To change the configuration you must close this editor, go to the Configuration toolbar and select another configuration.
Loading Category
Select one of the ten Loading Categories for the current Load Analyzer study. With the selection of any category, ETAP uses the percent loading of individual motors and other loads as specified for the selected category. Note that you can assign loading to each one of the ten categories from the Nameplate page of the induction machine and synchronous motor editors and the Loading or Rating page of other load component editors.
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Result Analyzer
In the Load Analyzer editor, you can choose the desired Load Diversity Factor applied to each of the three Demand Factors for each load (i.e. Continuous, Intermittent, and Spare). The different Load Diversity Factors are the following:
None (no load diversity factor is applied) Bus Max (individual Bus Max diversity factor is applied to directly connected loads) Bus Min (individual Bus Min diversity factor is applied to directly connected loads) Global Value (Global load diversity factor is applied to all loads)
For each Bus in the system, the user can define the upper and lower bounds of the Load Diversity Factor that will apply to the loads directly connected to that Bus. These individual Load Diversity Factors are applied when Bus Max or Bus Min is selected from the Load Analyzer editor under each category Continuous, Intermittent, and Spare. These values will not be taken into account for loads since Load Diversity Factors are set to a Global Value. For instance, if the user selects Continuous Load to have a Global Value equal to 90%, then all Continuous Loads in the system will be multiplied by that unique Global Value.
Demand Factor
In ETAP, operation of loads fall under three status categories:
Continuous (default is set to 100%, which means the load operates continuously) Intermittent (default is set to 50%, which means the load operates for 12 hours) Spare (default is set to 0%, which means the load is not operating)
The accounted percentage of the load falling under each category, called the Demand Factor, can be set for individual loads from each editor in the Info page.
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Result Analyzer
PF & EFF
For all induction and synchronous motors in the system, the user can select to either use the Rated Power Factor (PF) and Efficiency of motors, or to use interpolated values for the specified motor % loading. If the Rated PF and/or Eff options are selected, then Rated PF and Eff will be used for synchronous motors, and PF and Eff of 100% loading will be used for induction machines. If the Interpolate at Specified % Loading option is selected, then the program interpolates the Power Factor and Efficiency entered for both induction and synchronous motors at the specified % Loading. The interpolation occurs linearly based on the Power Factor and Efficiency values entered at 100, 75, and 50 % Loadings. The Power Factor and Efficiency values can be entered for individual motors from their editor and Nameplate page.
19.10.2 Reports
Once the different settings have been selected from the Load Analyzer interface, click OK and the Load Analyzer Report Manager will open to display the results of the study. The user has the choice to select different reports from the following tabs:
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Result Analyzer
Report Manager also displays the Output Report Name and the Path where project files are located. As a reminder, Load Analyzer is the only module that skips reporting of nodes in some of its reports. For other ETAP modules, nodes and buses are treated the same way in output reports. Load Analyzer reports can export into Viewer (Crystal Reports format), PDF, MS Word, Rich Text Format, and MS Excel and allows choosing any of these formats to be Set As Default. For the Load Analyzer reports, ETAP creates Access databases with the extension of <filename>.LA1. This database is used to produce load analyzer output reports. All reports include a header, which displays project name, business location, contract number, the engineers name, filename, ETAP logo, ETAP version number, report name, page number, date, serial number (SN), revision number, configuration, and remarks with up to 120 characters. The project name, location, contract number, engineers name, and remarks can be set from the ETAP toolbar Project/Information. The filename is set in the Output Filename given in the Load Analyzer Editor.
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Result Analyzer
Bus FDR Loading-1 Report selected from Bus Loading tab in the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
Bus FDR Loading-2 Report selected from Bus Loading tab in the Report Manager
Bus FDR Loading-3 Report selected from Bus Loading tab in the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
The Bus Loading Summary-1 & 2 reports provide the sum of all loads for all Buses including Connected and Operating Loads. These reports are sorted alphabetically by Bus ID.
Bus Loading Summary-1 report selected from Bus Summary tab of the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
Bus Loading Summary-2 report selected from Bus Summary tab of the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
Load-List Bus Summary report selected from Load List tab of the Report Manager
Load-List by Bus report selected from Load List tab of the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
Load-List by Status report selected from Load List tab of the Report Manager
Load-List report selected from Load List tab of the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
The Bus Loading Schedule report displays the total load at each Bus including the effect of all multiplying parameters (i.e. % Loading, Demand Factor, and Load Diversity Factor). This Report tabulates only downstream Buses and Loads (no equipment). This report is sorted by Bus kV first and then Bus ID. The Cable Schedule Report tabulates all Equipment and Branch Cables present in the system. This report also provides information about the Connected Buses, kV, and other physical parameters for each Cable. Transformer Loading Schedule-1 & 2 reports tabulate all Transformers present in the system. These reports also provide information about the Connected Buses, Impedance, and other electrical parameters for each transformer.
Bus Loading Schedule Report selected from Schedules tab of the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
Cable Schedule Report selected from Schedules tab of the Report Manager
Transformer Loading Schedule-1 report selected from Schedules tab of the Report Manager
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Result Analyzer
Transformer Loading Schedule-2 report selected from Schedules tab of the Report Manager
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