Energy, Energy Transfer, Energy Transfer and General Energy gy Analysis y

Ref.1: Cengel & Boles, Chapter 2

Content

Concept of energy and its forms; internal energy energy, heat and terminologies associated with energy transfer by heat Mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction conduction, convection convection, and radiation. Concept of work: e.g. e g electrical work and other forms of mechanical work The first law of thermodynamics:
Energy balances, and mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system.

E Energy conversion i efficiencies ffi i i Implications of energy conversions

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Energy

V i Various forms: f Thermal, Mechanical, Kinetic, Potential, Electric, Magnetic, Chemical, Nuclear

In SI system in Joule (J) or kJ sometime also express per unit mass; e = E/m (J/g) or per unit time (E flow rate) = J/s = Watt

Can be classified as:

Macroscopic p Those a system y p possesses as a whole with respect p to some outside reference frame, e.g. PE, KE Microscopic p related to the molecular structures and activities Internal energy (U)
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What is Internal Energy ?

Ref.1

Sensible energy: The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules. Latent energy: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system. Chemical energy: The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule. Nuclear energy: The tremendous Ref.1 amount of energy associated with The internal energy of a system is the the strong bonds within the sum of all forms of the microscopic nucleus of the atom itself.
energies.

The various forms of microscopic energies that make up sensible energy.

Thermal = Sensible + Latent Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear

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Consider a system moving with a velocity, v at an elevation Z relative to the reference plane
General System CM r V

Ref plane (Z = 0)e, Z=0

We can define, the total energy E, that is:

The sum of all forms of energy that can exist within the system e.g. thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear

In simple mechanical system:

E = sum of the internal energy (U), kinetic energy (KE), and potential energy (PE)
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 Ki Kinetic ti energy (KE) a result of the system's motion relative to an external reference frame Potential energy (PE) a result esu t o of its ts e elevation e at o in a gravitational field relative to the external reference frame Thus the total Energy
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PE = mgZ

( kJ )

E = U + KE + PE

( kJ )

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on a unit mass basis

where e = E/m is the specific stored energy, and u = U/m is the specific internal energy. If we are talking about the change in stored energy

E = U + KE + PE
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( kJ )
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I the In th case of f stationary t ti closed l d systems: t No change in KE and PE , KE = PE = 0

The change in the stored energy is identical to the change in internal energy for stationary systems

E = U

( kJ )

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Energy Transport
How is energy transported across the boundary of a general thermodynamic system ?
Closed

systems y ( (fixed mass systems) y )

Only in the form of heat or work

Open

systems (control volumes)

In the form of heat, work, and energy transported by the mass streams
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Energy Transport by Heat and Work

Heat H t

energy gy transfer across a system y boundary y due to the temperature difference between a system and its surroundings
Work

energy transfer associated with a force acting through a di t distance

Heat and work are energy transport mechanisms between a system and its surroundings. surroundings
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Similarities between heat and work:

They Th

are both b th boundary b d phenomena; i.e. recognized at t the th b boundaries d i p possess energy, gy, but not heat or work

Surroundings System (Energy) W, Q

Systems y Both B th

are associated i t d with ith a process, not t a state. t t U Unlike lik properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state. are path functions, i.e., their magnitudes depends path followed during gap process as well as the end on the p states
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Both

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Heat and work are path dependent functions they have i inexact t differentials diff ti l (), ) i.e. i expressed d as Q and d W The following figure illustrates that properties (P, T, V, u, etc.) are point functions. However, heat and work are path functions.
700 kPa

100 kPa

0.01 m3 12

0.03 m3 Swinburne University of Technology

The total heat transfer or work is obtained by adding the diff differential ti l amounts t of fh heat t (Q) or work k (W) along l the th process path

1, along path

Q = Q12 W = W12

(not Q) (not W )

1, along path

The integrals of Q and W are not Q2 Q1 and W2 W1

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Sign Convention

Heat transfer to a system and work k done d b by a system are positive Heat transfer out of a system and work done to a system are negative

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Energy Transfer by Heat

E Energy transfer t f due d to t the th T difference between the system and its surroundings The net heat transferred to a system y is defined as:
Surrounding, T = 25oC No heat transfer heat heat

25oC

15oC

5oC

Qnet = Qin Qout

Qin and Qout are the magnitudes of the heat transfer values Often also represented in terms of heat transfer per unit mass of the system, q.
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Q q= m

(J/g)
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 Adiabatic

process process where there is no heat transfer across the boundary (Q = 0), e.g. in perfectly insulated system

Q=0

Modes of heat transfer:

Conduction Co duct o Convection Radiation
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Insulation

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Conduction

Conduction heat transfer is a progressive transfer of energy from more energetic to less energetic molecules Can take place in solids, liquids or gases

Ref.1

Fourier's Fourier s law .

Q = kt = A = dT/dx
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heat flow per unit time (W) thermal conductivity (W/mK) area normal to heat flow (m2) = temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow (C/m)
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Convection
Convection heat transfer is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion Combined effects of conduction and fluid motion The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from Newton's law of cooling, expressed as
Ref.1

Q A h Ts Tf
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= heat transfer rate (W) = heat transfer area (m2) = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) = surface temperature p ( (K) ) = bulk fluid temperature away from the surface (K)

Ref.1

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The convective Th ti h heat t transfer t f coefficient ffi i t (h) is i an experimentally determined parameter function of the surface geometry, the nature of the fluid motion, , the p properties p of the fluid, , and the bulk fluid velocity
free convection of gases free convection of liquids forced convection of gases forced convection of liquids convection in boiling and condensation
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h W/m2K 2-25 50-100 50 100 25-250 50-20,000 2500 100 000 2500-100,000
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Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is energy in transition from the surface of one body to the surface of another in the form of electromagnetic waves (photons)

Ref.1
Q A Ts Tsurr
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= heat transfer per unit time (W) = surface area for heat transfer (m2) = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 = emissivity, 0 to 1 = absolute temperature of surface (K) = absolute temperature of surroundings (K)
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Energy Transfer by Work

The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance a rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions Often also Of l represented d iin terms of f work kd done per unit i mass of f the h system, w.

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Mechanical forms of Work

Energy expended by a force acting through a distance

expressed as when the force is not constant,

Work = Force Distance

Symbol y means that work is a p path-dependent p function and has an inexact differential
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Other mechanical forms work

Sh ft Work Shaft W k

Consider a constant torque T that h iis applied li d to a shaft, h f f for a specified constant torque, the work done during n revolutions is determined as:

Power transmitted through the shaft (work done per unit time)
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Other mechanical forms of work S i Work Spring W k

When the length of the spring changes by a differential amount dx under the influence of a force F, the work done is For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is proportional to the force applied.

where k = spring constant (kN/m)

Substituting g and integrating g gy yield

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Other mechanical forms work

W k Done Work D on Elastic El ti Solid S lid B Bars
F n = stress (unit, the same as pressure, N/m2) x

Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film

s = surface tension
(energy required to extend a surface per unit area, J/m2)
Ref 1

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Nonmechanical Forms of Work

Electrical work: The generalized force is the voltage (the electrical potential) and the generalized displacement is the electrical charge. Power rate of electrical work done by y electrons crossing a system boundary The amount of electrical work done in a time period:

Magnetic work: The generalized force is the magnetic field strength and the generalized displacement is the total magnetic dipole moment. Electrical polarization work: The generalized force is the electric field strength and the generalized generali ed displacement is the polarization polari ation of the medium.

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The First Law of Thermodynamics

C Conservation ti of f Energy E P Principle i i l Energy can b E be neither ith created t d nor d destroyed; t d it can only change forms
Energy gy

can cross the boundaries of a closed system y in the form of heat or work may cross a system boundary (control surface) of an open system by heat, work and mass transfer
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Energy

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PE1 = 10 kJ KE1 = 0

(Adiabatic)

PE2 = 7 kJ KE2 = 3 kJ

The work (shaft) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system.

E = 8 kJ

Wsh,in = 8 kJ

Energy cannot be E b created or destroyed; it can only y change g forms.

(Adiabatic) Win = 5 kJ

E = 5 kJ

Battery

The work (electrical) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the y system.

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The First Law of Thermodynamics

The conservation of energy principle or the first law of thermodynamics is expressed as
Total energy Total energy The change in total entering the system leaving the system = energy of the system

Ein Eout = E system

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The First Law of Thermodynamics

C Consider id the th following f ll i system t moving i relative l ti t to a reference f r plane V
Energyin
System CM

r V
z Energyout

Reference Plane, z = 0

Normally the total energy of a system is expressed as

E = Internal energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy E = U + KE + PE
U = the sum of the energy contained within the molecules of the system KE = the kinetic energy PE = the potential energy
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The change in stored energy for the system is

E = U + KE + PE
Thus conservation of energy principle, or the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems, is written as

Ein Eout = U + KE + PE
In the case of stationary system, i.e. v = 0 and has no change in elevation the equation reduces to

Ein Eout = U
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Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

How is energy transported across the boundary of a general thermodynamic system ?
Closed

systems y ( (fixed mass systems) y )

Only in the form of heat or work

Open

systems (control volumes)

In the form of heat, work, and energy transported by the mass streams
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Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

Q (Heat transfer)

Energy transfer caused by a T difference between the system and its surroundings. di Q=0f for adiabatic di b ti systems

W (Work)
Energy transfer other than Q, e.g. rising i i piston, i t rotating t ti shaft, h ft etc. t

m( (Mass flow) )
The change of energy due to mass flow in or out of the system. This is q to zero for closed systems. y equal

Thus, the energy balance for a general system:

Ein Eout = ( Qin Qout ) + (Win Wout ) + ( Emass , in Emass , out ) = Esystem

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The energy balance can be expressed in a rate form:

For constant rates, rates the total quantities during the time interval t are related to the quantities per unit time as

The energy balance may also be expressed in a per unit mass basis

and in differential forms

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Cyclic Process
F a cyclic For li process, the th initial i iti l and d fi finall states t t are id identical, ti l th thus E = 0

The first law becomes:

Qnet Wnet = Ecycle Qnet = Wnet

In a cycle, the net change for any properties (point functions or exact differentials) is zero. However, the net work and heat transfer depend on the cycle path. E = U = P = T = (any property) = 0
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Energy Conversion Efficiencies

Efficiency Effi i () indicates i di t h how well ll an energy conversion i or transfer process is accomplished
Desired Result = Required Input

Thermal efficiency
Ratio of the net work output (the desired result) to the heat input For a heat engine the desired result is the net work done (Wout Win) and the input inp t is the heat s supplied pplied to make the cycle c cle operate Qin.

th =
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Wnet , out Qin

Wnet , out = Wout Win Qin Qnet

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Energy Conversion Efficiencies

Effi i Efficiency of f mechanical h i ld devices i

Mechanical efficiency of pump and turbine

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Example
The mechanical efficiency of a fan is the ratio of the kinetic energy of air at the fan exit to the mechanical power input.

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Ref 1

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Mechanical efficiency should not be confused with motor efficiency and generator efficiency Pump p efficiency y

Generator efficiency

Pump-Motor overall efficiency Turbine-Generator overall efficiency

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Combustion Efficiency

Heating value (HV) of the fuel: The amount of heat released when a unit amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the combustion products are cooled to the room temperature.
Fuel
CnHm

Combustion Chamber

CO2 H2O N2

Air
Reactants TR, PR Products PP, TP

Qout = HV

Combustion efficiency ratio of the actual heat transfer from the combustion process to the heating value of the fuel

combustion =
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Qout HV
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Heating Value, HV

LHV (lower heating value) the heating value when water appears as a gas in the products

LHV = Qout with H 2Ovapor in products

LHV is often used as the measure of energy per kg of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine HHV (higher heating value) the heating value when water appears as a liquid in the products

HHV = Qout with H 2Oliquid l d in products

HHV is often used as the measure of energy per kg of fuel supplied to the steam power cycle
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Power Plant Overall Efficiency y:

overall overall overall
& & & Q W W in , cycle net , cycle net , electrical output = & & m Q W & HHV fuel f fuel f in , cycle y net , cycle y = combustionthermal generator & W p net , electrical output = & fuel HHV fuel m

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Lighting Efficacy:
Lighting Efficacy = Amount of Light in Lumens Watts of Electricity Consumed
Efficacy, lumens/W 6 - 20 40 - 60

Type of lighting Ordinary Incandescent Ordinary Fluorescent

Effi i Efficiency of f a Cooking C ki A Appliance li

Effectiveness of Conversion of Electrical or chemical Energy to Heat for Cooking

Cooking Efficiency =

Useful Energy Transferred to Food Energy Consumed by Appliance

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Implications of energy conversion on the environment

The conversion of

energy from one form to another often affects the environment and the air we breathe in many ways.

Pollutants

emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible for smog, acid rain, and green house effect: global warming. energy efficiency, efficiency energy conservation, and using renewable energy sources help minimize global warming.
Ref 1 Energy conversion processes are often accompanied by environmental pollution.

Improved

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Implications of energy conversion on the environment

S t i bl processes Sustainable

SOCIAL

Equitable S Sustainable i bl

Bearable ENVIRONMENT

ECONOMIC

Viable

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Summary

Forms of energy
Macroscopic = kinetic + potential Microscopic = Internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)

Energy transfer by heat Energy transfer by work M h i lf Mechanical forms of f work k The first law of thermodynamics
Energy balance Energy change of a system Mechanisms of energy transfer (heat, work, mass flow)

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E Energy conversion i efficiencies ffi i i

Efficiencies of mechanical and electrical devices (turbines, pumps)

Energy and environment

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Example 3 A fluid contained in a piston piston-cylinder cylinder device receives 500 kJ of electrical work as the gas expands against the piston and does 600 kJ of boundary work on the piston. What is the net work done by the fluid?

Wele =500 kJ

Wb=600 kJ

Wnet = (Wnet

Wnet = (Wout Win, ele ) Wnet = 100 kJ

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other h

+ Wb
other

+ Wb

Wnet = ( 0 500 kJ ) + 600 kJ

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Example 4 A system y receives 5 kJ of heat transfer and experiences p a decrease in energy in the amount of 5 kJ. Determine the amount of work done by the system.
Qin =5 5 kJ
E= -5 kJ

Wout=? ?

We apply the first law as

System Boundary

Ein Eout = Esystem Ein = Qin = 5 kJ Eout = Wout Esystem = 5 kJ t Eout = Ein Esystem Wout = 5 ( 5 ) kJ Wout = 10 kJ
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The work done by the system equals the energy input by heat plus the decrease in the energy of the working fluid.

Example 5 A steam power plant operates on a thermodynamic cycle in which water circulates through a boiler boiler, turbine turbine, condenser, pump, and back to the boiler. For each kilogram of steam (water) flowing through the cycle, the cycle receives 2000 kJ of heat in the boiler, rejects j 1500 kJ of heat to the environment in the condenser, and receives 5 kJ of work in the cycle pump. Determine the work done by the steam in the turbine, in kJ/kg.

Qnet Wnet = Ecycle Qnett = Wnett Qin Qout = Wout Win Wout = Qin Qout Win Let w = wout W Q and q = m m = qin qout + win kJ kg

wout = ( 2000 1500 + 5 ) wout = 505 kJ kg

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Example 6
Air flows into an open system and carries energy at the rate of 300 kW. As the air flows through the system it receives 600 kW of work and loses 100 kW of energy by heat transfer to the surroundings. If the system experiences no energy change as the air flows through it, how much energy does the air carry as it leaves the system, i kW? in System sketch:

Conservation of Energy:

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Example 7
In example 2-5 2 5 the steam power plant received 2000 kJ/kg of heat, 5 kJ/kg of pump work, and produced 505 kJ/kg of turbine work. Determine the thermal efficiency for this cycle. W can write We it the th thermal th l efficiency ffi i on a per unit it mass basis b i as:

th =

wnet , out qin

kJ 505 5 ) ( w win kg i = outt = kJ qin 2000 kg = 0.25 or 25%

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Example 8
A steam power plant receives 2000 kJ of heat per unit mass of steam flowing through the steam generator when the steam flow rate is 100 kg/s. If the fuel supplied to the combustion chamber of the steam generator has a higher heating value of 40,000 kJ/kg of fuel and the combustion efficiency is 85%, determine the required fuel flow rate, t in i k kg/s. /

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