CONTENTS

1. Overview of MTNL

2. GSM Introduction
2.1 History of the cellular mobile radio and gsm
2.2 Cellular Systems
2.3 The transition from Analog to Digital Technology
2.4 The GSM Network

3. GSM Network Area
3.1 GSM Network Areas
3.2 Cell-Detailed Description
3.3 Frequency Reuse Concept
3.4 The GSM Radio Interface
3.5 From source information to radio waves
3.6 Discontinuous transmission (DTX)
3.7 Timing advance
2

3.8 Power Control
3.9 Discontinuous Reception
3.10 Multipath and Equalizations

4. GSM ARCHITECTURE
4.1 Mobile station
4.2 Base Station System (BSS)
4.3 Base Station Controller (BSC)
4.4 Packet control unit
4.5 Base Terminal Station (BTS)
4.6 Sectorization
4.7 BTS-BSC Configurations
4.8 Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
4.9 Transcoder (XCDR)
4.10 The Interfaces in the GSM
4.11 Switching Subsystem (SSS)
4.12 Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
4.13 Other GSM core network elements connected to MSC
3

4.14 Operation and Maintenance Subsystem (OMS)
5 .GSM FUNCTIONS
5.1 Network operations GSM functions
5.2 Transmission
5.3 Radio Resources Management (RRM)
5.4 Handoff
5.5 Mobility Management (MM)
5.6 Security and authentication
5.7 Communication Management (CM)
5.8 Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)

6. Call Management Overview

6.1 Mobile-To-Land Call Scenario
6.2 Optional Phases
6.3 Steps In Request For Service Phase
6.4 Authentication And Ciphering Phases
6.5 Equipment Validation
6.6 Steps In Equipment Validation Phase
4

6.7 Steps In Call Setup Phase With The Ms
6.8 Voice Path Establishment
6.9 Steps In Call Setup Phase With Land Network
6.10 Land-To-Mobile Call Scenario
6.11 Mobile-To-Mobile Call Scenario

7. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF GSM
8. Conclusion



5

1. Historical Development of MTNL
1986 Creation of Mahanagar Telephones Nigam Limited
1986 First digital exchange world technology brought to India
1987 Large Scale introduction of push button telephone made dialing easier.
1988 Phone Plus services multiplied benefits to telephone users.
1992 Voice Mail Service Introduced
1996 ISDN services introduced
1997 Wireless in Local loop introduced
1999 Internet services introduced.
2000 Millennium Telecom Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of MTNL is born
2001 Launched GSM Cellular Mobile service under the brand name Dolphin
Launched WLL Mobile services under the brand name Garuda.
The company listed at New York stock exchange(NYSE)
United telecom ltd., MTNL Joint venture in Nepal, for providing WLL based
services in Nepal became operational.
CLI based Internet express services introduced.
2002 Launched pre-paid GSM Mobile services under the brand name Trump. Email on
PSTN lines introduced under the brand name MTNL mail.
2003 Introduced CDMA 1x 2000 Technology under the brand name Garuda 1-
x.Introduced pilot project of ADSL based Broadband services. Introduced Virtual
Phone services. Mahanagar Telephone Mauritius Ltd. bagged second operator
license in Mauritius.
2004 Expanded GSM & CDMA capacity by 800,000 lines each (total 1.6 million lines
expanded) STD/ISD rates slashed by almost 60%. MTNL subsidiary MTML
obtained license to provide fixed, mobile & ILD services in Mauritius. Launched
Wi-Fi & digital certification services. State of the art training centre CETTM
commissioned.
2005 Leading market in GSM customer additions. Launched broadband services under
the brand name TRI BAND. Floated tender for 1 million 3G GSM lines.

6

M Mi is ss si io on n

To remain market leader in providing world class Telecom and IT related services at
affordable prices and to become a global player.
V Vi is si io on n
Become a total solution provider company and to provide world class telecom services
at affordable prices.
Become a global telecom company and to find a place in the Fortune 500 companies.
Become the largest provider of private networks and leased lines.
Venture into other areas in India and abroad on the strength of our core competency.

N Ne et tw wo or rk k S St tr ru uc ct tu ur re e
19 Years of Growth
MTNL as a company, over last nineteen years, grew rapidly by modernising the network,
incorporating the State-of-the-art technologies and a customer friendly approach.


7

N Ne et tw wo or rk k I In nf fr ra as st tr ru uc ct tu ur re e

1986 2006
1.No of exchanges 114 529
2.Equipped capacity (Million) 0.88 8.44
3.Subscriber base (Million) 0.75 5.92
i) Basic Wireline & CDMA Fixed 0.75 3.88
ii) CDMA-Mobile - 0.10
iii) GSM Cellular - 1.94
4.Internet - 1,188,204
5.Broadband - 211,935
6.Public Call Offices (Local and Long
Distance)
10,593 279,041
7.No of stations on Long Distance
Network
264 39,303
8.No of countries connected overseas
on ISD
11 239
9.Digitalization of exchange network Nil 100%

8

2.GSM INTRODUCTION
The Global System for Mobile communications is a digital cellular communications system.
It was developed in order to create a common European mobile telephone standard but it has
been rapidly accepted worldwide. GSM was designed to be compatible with ISDN services.
2.1 History of the Cellular Mobile Radio and GSM
The idea of cell-based mobile radio systems appeared at Bell Laboratories (in USA) in the
early 1970s. However, mobile cellular systems were not introduced for commercial use until
the 1980s. During the early 1980s, analog cellular telephone systems experienced a very
rapid growth in Europe, particularly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom. Today cellular
systems still represent one of the fastest growing telecommunications systems.
But in the beginnings of cellular systems, each country developed its own system, which was
an undesirable situation for the following reasons:
The equipment was limited to operate only within the boundaries of each country.
The market for each mobile equipment was limited.
In order to overcome these problems, the Conference of European Posts and
Telecommunications (CEPT) formed, in 1982, the Group Special Mobile (GSM) in order to
develop a pan-European mobile cellular radio system (the GSM acronym became later the
acronym for Global System for Mobile communications). The standardized system had to
meet certain criteria:
Spectrum efficiency
International roaming
Low mobile and base stations costs
Good subjective voice quality
Compatibility with other systems such as ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
Ability to support new services
Unlike the existing cellular systems, which were developed using an analog technology, the
GSM system was developed using a digital technology.
9

In 1989 the responsibility for the GSM specifications passed from the CEPT to the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). The aim of the GSM specifications is to
describe the functionality and the interface for each component of the system, and to provide
guidance on the design of the system. These specifications will then standardize the system
in order to guarantee the proper inter-working between the different elements of the GSM
system. In 1990, the phase I of the GSM specifications was published but the commercial use
of GSM did not start until mid-1991.
The most important events in the development of the GSM system are presented in the table
1.
Year Events
1982
CEPT establishes a GSM group in order to develop the standards
for a pan-European cellular mobile system
1985
Adoption of a list of recommendations to be generated by the
group
1986
Field tests were performed in order to test the different radio
techniques proposed for the air interface
1987
TDMA is chosen as access method (in fact, it will be used with
FDMA) Initial Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed by
telecommunication operators (representing 12 countries)
1988 Validation of the GSM system
1989 The responsibility of the GSM specifications is passed to the ETSI
10

1990 Appearance of the phase 1 of the GSM specifications
1991 Commercial launch of the GSM service
1992
Enlargement of the countries that signed the GSM- MoU>
Coverage of larger cities/airports
1993 Coverage of main roads GSM services start outside Europe
1995 Phase 2 of the GSM specifications Coverage of rural areas

Table 1: Events in the development of GSM
From the evolution of GSM, it is clear that GSM is not anymore only a European standard.
GSM networks are operational or planned in over 80 countries around the world. The rapid
and increasing acceptance of the GSM system is illustrated with the following figures:
1.3 million GSM subscribers worldwide in the beginning of 1994.
Over 5 million GSM subscribers worldwide in the beginning of 1995.
Over 10 million GSM subscribers only in Europe by December 1995.
Since the appearance of GSM, other digital mobile systems have been developed. The table 2
charts the different mobile cellular systems developed since the commercial launch of
cellular systems.



11

Year Mobile Cellular System
1981 Nordic Mobile Telephony (NMT), 450>
1983 American Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
1985
Total Access Communication System (TACS) Radiocom 2000 C-
Netz
1986 Nordic Mobile Telephony (NMT), 900>
1991
Global System for Mobile communications> North American
Digital Cellular (NADC)
1992 Digital Cellular System (DCS) 1800
1994
Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) or Japanese Digital Cellular
(JDC)
1995 Personal Communications Systems (PCS) 1900- Canada>
1996 PCS-United States of America>

Table 2: Mobile cellular systems



12

2.2 Cellular Systems
THE CELLULAR STRUCTURE
In a cellular system, the covering area of an operator is divided into cells. A cell corresponds
to the covering area of one transmitter or a small collection of transmitters. The size of a cell
is determined by the transmitter's power.
The concept of cellular systems is the use of low power transmitters in order to enable the
efficient reuse of the frequencies. In fact, if the transmitters used are very powerful, the
frequencies can not be reused for hundred of kilometers as they are limited to the covering
area of the transmitter.
The frequency band allocated to a cellular mobile radio system is distributed over a group of
cells and this distribution is repeated in all the covering area of an operator. The whole
number of radio channels available can then be used in each group of cells that form the
covering area of an operator. Frequencies used in a cell will be reused several cells away.
The distance between the cells using the same frequency must be sufficient to avoid
interference. The frequency reuse will increase considerably the capacity in number of users.
In order to work properly, a cellular system must verify the following two main conditions:
The power level of a transmitter within a single cell must be limited in order to reduce
the interference with the transmitters of neighboring cells. The interference will not
produce any damage to the system if a distance of about 2.5 to 3 times the diameter of
a cell is reserved between transmitters. The receiver filters must also be very
performant.
Neighboring cells can not share the same channels. In order to reduce the interference,
the frequencies must be reused only within a certain pattern.
In order to exchange the information needed to maintain the communication links within the
cellular network, several radio channels are reserved for the signaling information.

CLUSTER
The cells are grouped into clusters. The number of cells in a cluster must be determined so
that the cluster can be repeated continuously within the covering area of an operator. The
typical clusters contain 4, 7, 12 or 21 cells. The number of cells in each cluster is very
13

important. The smaller the number of cells per cluster is, the bigger the number of channels
per cell will be. The capacity of each cell will be therefore increased. However a balance
must be found in order to avoid the interference that could occur between neighboring
clusters. This interference is produced by the small size of the clusters (the size of the cluster
is defined by the number of cells per cluster). The total number of channels per cell depends
on the number of available channels and the type of cluster used.
TYPES OF CELLS
The density of population in a country is so varied that different types of cells are used:
2.2.1.1 Macro cells
The macro cells are large cells for remote and sparsely populated areas
2.2.1.2 Micro cells
These cells are used for densely populated areas. By splitting the existing areas into smaller
cells, the number of channels available is increased as well as the capacity of the cells. The
power level of the transmitters used in these cells is then decreased, reducing the possibility
of interference between neighboring cells.
2.2.1.3 Selective cells
It is not always useful to define a cell with a full coverage of 360 degrees. In some cases,
cells with a particular shape and coverage are needed. These cells are called selective cells.
Typical examples of selective cells are the cells that may be located at the entrances of
tunnels where coverage of 360 degrees is not needed. In this case, a selective cell with
coverage of 120 degrees is used.
2.2.1.4 Umbrella cells
A freeway crossing very small cells produces an important number of handovers among the
different small neighboring cells. In order to solve this problem, the concept of umbrella cells
is introduced. An umbrella cell covers several micro cells. The power level inside an
umbrella cell is increased comparing to the power levels used in the micro cells that form the
umbrella cell. When the speed of the mobile is too high, the mobile is handed off to the
umbrella cell. The mobile will then stay longer in the same cell (in this case the umbrella
cell). This will reduce the number of handovers and the work of the network.
14

A too important number of handover demands and the propagation characteristics of a
mobile can help to detect its high speed.
2.3 The Transition From Analog To Digital Technology
In the 1980s most mobile cellular systems were based on analog systems. The GSM system
can be considered as the first digital cellular system. The different reasons that explain this
transition from analog to digital technology are presented in this section.
THE CAPACITY OF THE SYSTEM
As it is explained in section 1, cellular systems have experienced a very important growth.
Analog systems were not able to cope with this increasing demand. In order to overcome this
problem, new frequency bands and new technologies were proposed. But the possibility of
using new frequency bands was rejected by a big number of countries because of the
restricted spectrum (even if later on, other frequency bands have been allocated for the
development of mobile cellular radio). The new analog technologies proposed were able to
overcome the problem to a certain degree but the costs were too important.
The digital radio was, therefore, the best option (but not the perfect one) to handle the
capacity needs in a cost-efficiency way.
COMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER SYSTEMS SUCH AS ISDN
The decision of adopting a digital technology for GSM was made in the course of developing
the standard. During the development of GSM, the telecommunications industry converted to
digital methods. The ISDN network is an example of this evolution. In order to make GSM
compatible with the services offered by ISDN, it was decide that the digital technology was
the best option.
Additionally, a digital system allows, easily than an analog one, the implementation of future
improvements and the change of its own characteristics.
ASPECTS OF QUALITY
The quality of the service can be considerably improved using a digital technology rather
than an analog one. In fact, analog systems pass the physical disturbances in radio
transmission (such as fades, multi-path reception, spurious signals or interferences) to the
receiver. These disturbances decrease the quality of the communication because they produce
effects such as fadeouts, cross-talks, hisses, etc. On the other hand, digital systems avoid
these effects transforming the signal into bits. These transformations combined with other
15

techniques, such as digital coding, improve the quality of the transmission. The improvement
of digital systems comparing to analog systems is more noticeable under difficult reception
conditions than under good reception conditions.
2.4 The GSM Network

ARCHITECTURE OF THE GSM NETWORK
The GSM technical specifications define the different entities that form the GSM network by
defining their functions and interface requirements.
The GSM network can be divided into four main parts:
The architecture of the GSM network is presented in figure 1.

















Fig : 1 Architecture of the GSM network


OMC
MSC
BSC HLR
A
MS
Other
MSCs
BTS AUC
Other
Networks
EIR
Other
MSCs
VLRs
VLR
BSS
B
C
D
E
F
G
Un
Abis
16

2.4.1.1 Mobile Station
A Mobile Station consists of two main elements:
2.4.1.1.1 The Terminal
There are different types of terminals distinguished principally by their power and
application:
The `fixed' terminals are the ones installed in cars. Their maximum allowed output
power is 20 W.
The GSM portable terminals can also be installed in vehicles. Their maximum
allowed output power is 8W.
The handheld terminals have experienced the biggest success thanks to the weight
and volume, which are continuously decreasing. These terminals can emit up to 2
W. The evolution of technologies allows decreasing the maximum allowed power
to 0.8 W.
2.4.1.1.2 The SIM
The SIM is a smart card that identifies the terminal. By inserting the SIM card into the
terminal, the user can have access to all the subscribed services. Without the SIM card, the
terminal is not operational.
The SIM card is protected by a four-digit Personal Identification Number (PIN). In order to
identify the subscriber to the system, the SIM card contains some parameters of the user such
as its International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
Another advantage of the SIM card is the mobility of the users. In fact, the only element that
personalizes a terminal is the SIM card. Therefore, the user can have access to its subscribed
services in any terminal using its SIM card.

17


2.4.1.2 The Base Station Subsystem
The BSS connects the Mobile Station and the NSS. It is in charge of the transmission and
reception. The BSS can be divided into two parts:

2.4.1.2.1 The Base Transceiver Station
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A
BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell.
Each BTS has between one and sixteen transceivers depending on the density of users in the
cell.
2.4.1.2.2 The Base Station Controller
The BSC controls a group of BTS and manages their radio resources. A BSC is principally in
charge of handovers, frequency hopping, exchange functions and control of the radio
frequency power levels of the BTSs.
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
Its main role is to manage the communications between the mobile users and other users,
such as mobile users, ISDN users, fixed telephony users, etc. It also includes data bases
needed in order to store information about the subscribers and to manage their mobility. The
different components of the NSS are described below.
2.4.1.2.3 The Mobile services Switching Center (MSC)
It is the central component of the NSS. The MSC performs the switching functions of the
network. It also provides connection to other networks.
18

2.4.1.2.4 The Gateway Mobile services Switching Center (GMSC)
A gateway is a node interconnecting two networks. The GMSC is the interface between the
mobile cellular network and the PSTN. It is in charge of routing calls from the fixed network
towards a GSM user. The GMSC is often implemented in the same machines as the MSC.
2.4.1.2.5 Home Location Register (HLR)
The HLR is considered as a very important database that stores information of the
subscribers belonging to the covering area of a MSC. It also stores the current location of
these subscribers and the services to which they have access. The location of the subscriber
corresponds to the SS7 address of the Visitor Location Register (VLR) associated to the
terminal.
2.4.1.2.6 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The VLR contains information from a subscriber's HLR necessary in order to provide the
subscribed services to visiting users. When a subscriber enters the covering area of a new
MSC, the VLR associated to this MSC will request information about the new subscriber to
its corresponding HLR. The VLR will then have enough information in order to assure the
subscribed services without needing to ask the HLR each time a communication is
established.
The VLR is always implemented together with a MSC; so the area under control of the MSC
is also the area under control of the VLR.

2.4.1.2.7 The Authentication Center (AuC)
The AuC register is used for security purposes. It provides the parameters needed for
authentication and encryption functions. These parameters help to verify the user's identity.
2.4.1.2.8 The Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The EIR is also used for security purposes. It is a register containing information about the
mobile equipments. More particularly, it contains a list of all valid terminals. A terminal is
identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). The EIR allows then to
forbid calls from stolen or unauthorized terminals (e.g., a terminal which does not respect the
specifications concerning the output RF power).
19

2.4.1.2.9 The GSM Inter-working Unit (GIWU)
The GIWU corresponds to an interface to various networks for data communications. During
these communications, the transmission of speech and data can be alternated.
The Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
The OSS is connected to the different components of the NSS and to the BSC, in order to
control and monitor the GSM system. It is also in charge of controlling the traffic load of the
BSS.
However, the increasing number of base stations, due to the development of cellular radio
networks, has provoked that some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS. This
transfer decreases considerably the costs of the maintenance of the system.

















20

3 GSM NETWORK AREAS

















PLMN Service Area
MSC/VLR Service Area
Location Area
Cell
21

3.1 GSM Network Areas
The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As shown in Figure, these areas include
cells, location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, and public land mobile network
(PLMN) areas.


Figure 2.1: Network Areas

3.1.1 Cell
Cell is the basic service area. The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base
transceiver station. The GSM network identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI)
number assigned to each cell.
22

3.1.2 Location Area
The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is paged. Each LA
is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a single MSC. Each LA is
assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.



Figure 2.2: Location Areas

3.1.3 MSC/VLR Service Area
An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is covered by one
MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the MSC (see Figure).


23



Figure 2.3: MSC/VLR service area
3.1.4 PLMN Service Area
The area covered by one network operator is called PLMN. A PLMN can contain one or
more MSCs.
3.2 Cell-Detailed Description
In a cellular system, the communication area of the service provider is divided into small
geographical areas called cells. Each cell contains following components:
An antenna
Solar or AC power network station
The solar or AC powered network station is called the Base Station (BS).
24



Figure 2.4: Cells
A cell simply corresponds to the covering area of a transmitter or a small collection of
transmitters used for the area. The size of the cell may typically range between 1 to 12 miles.
The size of the cell is determined by many factors, but the two important factors are:
The transmitter power
The population of the geographical region
3.2.1 Why Hexagonal Shaped Cells are better?
Cells are drawn in hexagonal shape because the hexagonal shaped cells have
no gaps or overlaps between them. It causes no interruption to the communication of a
mobile subscriber moving from one cell to another. It is obvious from the figure that other
shapes of the cells are leaving gaps where no coverage is provided to the mobile users. On
the other hand, there is no such problem in hexagonal cells.
25



Figure 2.5: Types of Cells
3.2.2 Types of Cells
Due to the uneven changes in the population density of different countries and regions in the
world, there are different types of cells used according to the best results in uninterruptible
communication. These are listed as:
Macro Cells
Micro Cells
Pico Cells
Umbrella Cells
Selective Cells

a) Macro Cells

Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or
larger building structures that are taller than an average roof-top level.
A macro cell is a cell in a mobile phone network that provides radio coverage served by a
power cellular base station (tower). Generally, macro cells provide
26

coverage larger than micro cell such as rural areas or along highways. The antennas for
macro cells are mounted on ground-based masts, rooftops and the other existing structures, at
a height that provides a clear view over the surrounding buildings and terrain. Macro cell
base stations have power outputs of typically tens of watts.
b) Micro Cells
A micro cell is a cell in a mobile phone network served by a low power cellular base station
(tower), covering a limited area such as a mall, a hotel, or a transportation hub. A micro cell
is usually larger than a Pico cell, though the distinction is not always clear. Typically the
range of a micro cell is less than a mile wide.
The antennas for micro cells are mounted at street level. Micro cell antennas are smaller than
macro cell antennas and when mounted on existing structures can often be disguised as
building features. Micro cells provide radio coverage over distances up to, typically, between
300m and 1000m. Micro cell base stations have lower output powers than macro cells,
typically a few watts.
c) Pico Cells
Pico cells are small cells whose diameter is only few dozen meters; they are used mainly in
indoor applications.It can cover e.g. a floor of
a building or an entire building, or for example in shopping centres or airports. Pico cells
provide more localized coverage than micro cells, inside buildings where coverage is poor or
there are high numbers of users.


27

d) Umbrella Cells
A layer with micro cells is covered by at least one macro cell, and a micro cell can in turn
cover several pico cells, the covering cell is called an umbrella cell.
If there are very small cells and a user is crossing the cells very quickly, a large number of
handovers will occur among the different neighboring cells. The power level inside an
umbrella cell is increased compared to the micro cells with which it is formed. This makes
the mobile to stay in the same cell (umbrella cell) causing the number of handovers to be
decreased as well as the work to be done by the network.
e) Selective Cells
The full coverage of the cells may not be required in all sorts of applications, but cells with
limited coverage are used with a particular shape. These are named selective due to the
selection of their shape with respect to the coverage areas. For example, the cells used at the
entrance of the tunnels are selective cells because coverage of 120 degrees is used in them.

3.2.3 CLUSTERS
A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster. Figure 4 illustrates a
seven-cell cluster.
28



Figure 2.6: cluster
3.3 Frequency Reuse Concept
The concept of cellular systems is the use of low power transmitters in order to enables the
efficient reuse of the frequencies. If the transmitters of high power are used, there will be
interference between the user at the boundaries of the cells. However, the set of available
frequencies is limited and that is why there is a need for the reuse of the frequencies.

29

A frequency reuse pattern is a configuration of N cells, N being the reuse factor, in which
each cell uses a unique set of frequencies. When the pattern is repeated, the frequencies can
be reused. There are several different patterns, but only two are shown below to clarify the
idea.
The numbers in the cells define the pattern. The cells with the same number in the pattern
can use the same set of frequencies. In the pattern with the reuse factor of 4, only one cell
separates the cells using the same set of frequencies. In the pattern with the reuse factor of 7,
two cells separate the reusing cells.
The distance between the cells using the same frequency must be sufficient to avoid
interference. The frequency reuse increases the capacity in the number of users of a service
provider.
For the proper function of the cellular system, following two conditions must be satisfied:
The power level of the transmitter within the single cell must be limited in order to reduce
the interference with the transmitters of the neighboring cells. The distance of about 2.5
times the diameter of a cell must be maintained between transmitters of the neighboring
cells to avoid any damage to the system.
Neighboring cells can not share the same channels. In order to reduce the interference, the
frequencies must be reused only within a certain pattern.

It is required to maintain several radio channels for signaling in order to exchange
information needed to maintain the communication links within the cellular networks.
3.4 The GSM Radio Interface
The radio interface is the interface between the mobile stations and the fixed infrastructure. It
is one of the most important interfaces of the GSM system.
30

One of the main objectives of GSM is roaming. Therefore, in order to obtain a complete
compatibility between mobile stations and networks of different manufacturers and
operators, the radio interface must be completely defined.
The spectrum efficiency depends on the radio interface and the transmission, more
particularly in aspects such as the capacity of the system and the techniques used in order to
decrease the interference and to improve the frequency reuse scheme. The specification of
the radio interface has then an important influence on the spectrum efficiency.
3.4.1 Frequency Allocation
Two frequency bands, of 25 MHz each one, have been allocated for the GSM system:
The band 890-915 MHz has been allocated for the uplink direction (transmitting from
the mobile station to the base station).
The band 935-960 MHz has been allocated for the downlink direction (transmitting
from the base station to the mobile station).
But not all the countries can use the whole GSM frequency bands. This is due principally to
military reasons and to the existence of previous analog systems using part of the two 25
MHz frequency bands.


3.4.2 Multiple Access Scheme
The multiple access scheme defines how different simultaneous communications, between
different mobile stations situated in different cells, share the GSM radio spectrum. A mix of
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA),
combined with frequency hopping, has been adopted as the multiple access schemes for
GSM.
3.4.3 FDMA and TDMA
Using FDMA, a frequency is assigned to a user. So the larger the number of users in a
FDMA system, the larger the number of available frequencies must be. The limited available
31

radio spectrum and the fact that a user will not free its assigned frequency until he does not
need it anymore, explain why the number of users in a FDMA system can be "quickly"
limited.
On the other hand, TDMA allows several users to share the same channel. Each of the users,
sharing the common channel, is assigned their own burst within a group of bursts called a
frame. Usually TDMA is used with a FDMA structure.
In GSM, a 25 MHz frequency band is divided, using a FDMA scheme, into 124 carrier
frequencies spaced one from each other by a 200 kHz frequency band. Normally a 25 MHz
frequency band can provide 125 carrier frequencies but the first carrier frequency is used as a
guard band between GSM and other services working on lower frequencies. Each carrier
frequency is then divided in time using a TDMA scheme. This scheme splits the radio
channel, with a width of 200 kHz, into 8 bursts. A burst is the unit of time in a TDMA
system, and it lasts approximately 0.577 ms. A TDMA frame is formed with 8 bursts and
lasts, consequently, 4.615 ms. Each of the eight bursts, that form a TDMA frame, are then
assigned to a single user.
3.4.4 Channel structure
A channel corresponds to the recurrence of one burst every frame. It is defined by its
frequency and the position of its corresponding burst within a TDMA frame. In GSM there
are two types of channels:
The traffic channels used to transport speech and data information.
The control channels used for network management messages and some channel
maintenance tasks.
Traffic channels (TCH)
Full-rate traffic channels (TCH/F) are defined using a group of 26 TDMA frames called a 26-
Multiframe. The 26-Multiframe lasts consequently 120 ms. In this 26-Multiframe structure,
the traffic channels for the downlink and uplink are separated by 3 bursts. As a consequence,
the mobiles will not need to transmit and receive at the same time which simplifies
considerably the electronics of the system.
The frames that form the 26-Multiframe structure have different functions:
24 frames are reserved to traffic.
1 frame is used for the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH).
32

The last frame is unused. This idle frame allows the mobile station to perform other
functions, such as measuring the signal strength of neighboring cells.
Half-rate traffic channels (TCH/H), which double the capacity of the system, are also
grouped in a 26-Multiframe but the internal structure is different.
Control channels
According to their functions, four different classes of control channels are defined:
Broadcast channels (BCH)
The BCH channels are used, by the base station, to provide the mobile station with the
sufficient information it needs to synchronize with the network. Three different types of
BCHs can be distinguished:
The Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH), which gives to the mobile station the
parameters needed in order to identify and access the network
The Synchronization Channel (SCH), which gives to the mobile station the training
sequence needed in order to demodulate the information transmitted by the base
station
The Frequency-Correction Channel (FCCH), which supplies the mobile station with
the frequency reference of the system in order to synchronize it with the network



Common Control Channels (CCCH)
The CCCH channels help to establish the calls from the mobile station or the network. Three
different types of CCCH can be defined:
The Paging Channel (PCH). It is used to alert the mobile station of an incoming cal
The Random Access Channel (RACH), which is used by the mobile station to request
access to the network
The Access Grant Channel (AGCH). It is used, by the base station, to inform the
mobile station about which channel it should use. This channel is the answer of a base
station to a RACH from the mobile station
33

Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
The DCCH channels are used for message exchange between several mobiles or a mobile
and the network. Two different types of DCCH can be defined:
The Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH), which is used in order to
exchange signaling information in the downlink and uplink directions.
The Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH). It is used for channel maintenance
and channel control.
Associated Control Channels
The Fast Associated Control Channels (FACCH) replaces all or part of a traffic channel
when urgent signaling information must be transmitted. The FACCH channels carry the same
information as the SDCCH channels.
Burst structure
As it has been stated before, the burst is the unit in time of a TDMA system. Four different
types of bursts can be distinguished in GSM:
The frequency-correction burst is used on the FCCH. It has the same length as the
normal burst but a different structure.
The synchronization burst is used on the SCH. It has the same length as the normal
burst but a different structure.
The random access burst is used on the RACH and is shorter than the normal burst.
The normal burst is used to carry speech or data information. It lasts approximately
0.577 ms and has a length of 156.25 bits. Its structure is presented in figure 3.





0 1 2 3 6
5
4 7 8 9 10 1
1
12
1
4
1
3
Frame 12: SACCH
Normal burst
Duration: 15/26 ms
1
5
16 1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
3
22 2
1
24 25
BP
0
BP
1
BP
2
BP
3
BP
4
BP
5
BP
6
BP
7
Tail
Bits
3 5
7
1 2
6
1 5
7
3 8.2
5
Frame 0-11: TCH
Frame 13-14: TCH Frame 25:
Unused
Data
Bits
Stealing
Bit
Training
Sequenc
e
Guard
Bits
TDMA frame
Duration: 60/13 ms
26-frame multi frame
Duration :120 ms
Tail
Bits
Stealing
Bit
Data
Bits
34



Fig : 2 Structure of the 26-Multiframe, the TDMA frame and the normal burst
*This figure has been taken, with the corresponding authorization, from "An Overview of
GSM" by John Scourias (see Other GSM sites)
The tail bits (T) are a group of three bits set to zero and placed at the beginning and the end
of a burst. They are used to cover the periods of ramping up and down of the mobile's power.
The coded data bits correspond to two groups, of 57 bits each, containing signaling or user
data.
The stealing flags (S) indicate, to the receiver, whether the information carried by a burst
corresponds to traffic or signaling data.
The training sequence has a length of 26 bits. It is used to synchronize the receiver with the
incoming information, avoiding then the negative effects produced by a multipath
propagation.
The guard period (GP), with a length of 8.25 bits, is used to avoid a possible overlap of two
mobiles during the ramping time.
Frequency hopping
The propagation conditions and therefore the multipath fading depend on the radio
frequency. In order to avoid important differences in the quality of the channels, the slow
frequency hopping is introduced. The slow frequency hopping changes the frequency with
every TDMA frame. A fast frequency hopping changes the frequency many times per frame
but it is not used in GSM. The frequency hopping also reduces the effects of co-channel
interference.
There are different types of frequency hopping algorithms. The algorithm selected is sent
through the Broadcast Control Channels.
Even if frequency hopping can be very useful for the system, a base station does not have to
support it necessarily. On the other hand, a mobile station has to accept frequency hopping
when a base station decides to use it.
35

FROM SOURCE INFORMATION TO RADIO WAVES
The figure 4 presents the different operations that have to be performed in order to pass from
the speech source to radio waves and vice versa.








Fig 4 : From speech source to radio waves

If the source of information is data and not speech, the speech coding will not be performed
Speech coding
The transmission of speech is, at the moment, the most important service of a mobile cellular
system. The GSM speech codec, which will transform the analog signal (voice) into a digital
representation, has to meet the following criteria:
A good speech quality, at least as good as the one obtained with previous cellular
systems.
To reduce the redundancy in the sounds of the voice. This reduction is essential due to
the limited capacity of transmission of a radio channel.

Speech
Coding

Speech
Decoding

Channel
Coding

Channel
Decoding

Inter
Leaving

De-Inter
Leaving

Burst
Assembling

Burst dis-
Assembling

Cipheri
ng

Deciphering

Modulation

De-
Modulation
Transmission
36

The speech codec must not be very complex because complexity is equivalent to high
costs.
The final choice for the GSM speech codec is a codec named RPE-LTP (Regular Pulse
Excitation Long-Term Prediction). This codec uses the information from previous samples
(this information does not change very quickly) in order to predict the current sample. The
speech signal is divided into blocks of 20 ms. These blocks are then passed to the speech
codec, which has a rate of 13 kbps, in order to obtain blocks of 260 bits.
Channel coding
Channel coding adds redundancy bits to the original information in order to detect and
correct, if possible, errors occurred during the transmission.
Channel coding for the GSM data TCH channels
The channel coding is performed using two codes: a block code and a convolution code.
The block code corresponds to the block code defined in the GSM Recommendations 05.03.
The block code receives an input block of 240 bits and adds four zero tail bits at the end of
the input block. The output of the block code is consequently a block of 244 bits.
A convolution code adds redundancy bits in order to protect the information. A convolution
encoder contains memory. This property differentiates a convolution code from a block code.
A convolution code can be defined by three variables: n, k and K. The value n corresponds to
the number of bits at the output of the encoder, k to the number of bits at the input of the
block and K to the memory of the encoder. The ratio, R, of the code is defined as follows: R
= k/n. Let's consider a convolution code with the following values: k is equal to 1, n to 2 and
K to 5. This convolution code uses then a rate of R = 1/2 and a delay of K = 5, which means
that it will add a redundant bit for each input bit. The convolution code uses 5 consecutive
bits in order to compute the redundancy bit. As the convolution code is a 1/2 rate convolution
code, a block of 488 bits is generated. These 488 bits are punctured in order to produce a
block of 456 bits. Thirty two bits, obtained as follows, are not transmitted:
C (11 + 15 j) for j = 0, 1, 31
The block of 456 bits produced by the convolution code is then passed to the interleaver.
Channel coding for the GSM speech channels
37

Before applying the channel coding, the 260 bits of a GSM speech frame are divided in three
different classes according to their function and importance. The most important class is the
class Ia containing 50 bits. Next in importance is the class Ib, which contains 132 bits. The
least important is the class II, which contains the remaining 78 bits. The different classes are
coded differently. First of all, the class Ia bits are block-coded. Three parity bits, used for
error detection, are added to the 50 class Ia bits. The resultant 53 bits are added to the class Ib
bits. Four zero bits are added to this block of 185 bits (50+3+132). A convolution code, with
r = 1/2 and K = 5, is then applied, obtaining an output block of 378 bits. The class II bits are
added, without any protection, to the output block of the convolution coder. An output block
of 456 bits is finally obtained.

Channel coding for the GSM control channels
In GSM the signaling information is just contained in 184 bits. Forty parity bits, obtained
using a fire code, and four zero bits are added to the 184 bits before applying the convolution
code (r = 1/2 and K = 5). The output of the convolution code is then a block of 456 bits,
which does not need to be punctured.
Interleaving
An interleaving rearranges a group of bits in a particular way. It is used in combination with
FEC codes in order to improve the performance of the error correction mechanisms. The
interleaving decreases the possibility of losing whole bursts during the transmission, by
dispersing the errors. Being the errors less concentrated, it is then easier to correct them.
Interleaving for the GSM control channels
A burst in GSM transmits two blocks of 57 data bits each. Therefore the 456 bits
corresponding to the output of the channel coder fit into four bursts (4*114 = 456). The 456
bits are divided into eight blocks of 57 bits. The first block of 57 bits contains the bit
numbers (0, 8, 16,448), the second one the bit numbers (1, 9, 17,455). The first four blocks
of 57 bits are placed in the even-numbered bits of four bursts. The other four blocks of 57
bits are placed in the odd-numbered bits of the same four bursts. Therefore the interleaving
depth of the GSM interleaving for control channels is four and a new data block starts every
four bursts. The interleaver for control channels is called a block rectangular interleaver.
Interleaving for the GSM speech channels
38

The block of 456 bits, obtained after the channel coding, is then divided in eight blocks of 57
bits in the same way as it is explained in the previous paragraph. But these eight blocks of 57
bits are distributed differently. The first four blocks of 57 bits are placed in the even-
numbered bits of four consecutive bursts. The other four blocks of 57 bits are placed in the
odd-numbered bits of the next four bursts. The interleaving depth of the GSM interleaving
for speech channels is then eight. A new data block also starts every four bursts. The
interleaver for speech channels is called a block diagonal interleaver.
Interleaving for the GSM data TCH channels
A particular interleaving scheme, with an interleaving depth equal to 22, is applied to the
block of 456 bits obtained after the channel coding. The block is divided into 16 blocks of 24
bits each, 2 blocks of 18 bits each, 2 blocks of 12 bits each and 2 blocks of 6 bits each. It is
spread over 22 bursts in the following way:
the first and the twenty-second bursts carry one block of 6 bits each
the second and the twenty-first bursts carry one block of 12 bits each
the third and the twentieth bursts carry one block of 18 bits each
from the fourth to the nineteenth burst, a block of 24 bits is placed in each burst
A burst will then carry information from five or six consecutive data blocks. The data blocks
are said to be interleaved diagonally. A new data block starts every four bursts.
Burst assembling
The burst assembling procedure is in charge of grouping the bits into bursts. Section 5.2.3
presents the different bursts structures and describes in detail the structure of the normal
burst
Ciphering
Ciphering is used to protect signaling and user data. First of all, a ciphering key is computed
using the algorithm A8 stored on the SIM card, the subscriber key and a random number
delivered by the network (this random number is the same as the one used for the
authentication procedure). Secondly, a 114 bit sequence is produced using the ciphering key,
an algorithm called A5 and the burst numbers. This bit sequence is then XORed with the two
57 bit blocks of data included in a normal burst.
39

In order to decipher correctly, the receiver has to use the same algorithm A5 for the
deciphering procedure.
DISCONTINUOUS TRANSMISSION (DTX)
This is another aspect of GSM that could have been included as one of the requirements of
the GSM speech codec. The function of the DTX is to suspend the radio transmission during
the silence periods. This can become quite interesting if we take into consideration the fact
that a person speaks less than 40 or 50 percent during a conversation. The DTX helps then to
reduce interference between different cells and to increase the capacity of the system. It also
extends the life of a mobile's battery. The DTX function is performed thanks to two main
features:
The Voice Activity Detection (VAD), which has to determine whether the sound
represents speech or noise, even if the background noise is very important. If the voice
signal is considered as noise, the transmitter is turned off producing then, an
unpleasant effect called clipping.
The comfort noise. An inconvenient of the DTX function is that when the signal is
considered as noise, the transmitter is turned off and therefore, a total silence is heard
at the receiver. This can be very annoying to the user at the reception because it seems
that the connection is dead. In order to overcome this problem, the receiver creates a
minimum of background noise called comfort noise. The comfort noise eliminates the
impression that the connection is dead.

TIMING ADVANCE
The timing of the bursts transmissions is very important. Mobiles are at different distances
from the base stations. Their delay depends, consequently, on their distance. The aim of the
timing advance is that the signals coming from the different mobile stations arrive to the base
station at the right time. The base station measures the timing delay of the mobile stations. If
the bursts corresponding to a mobile station arrive too late and overlap with other bursts, the
base station tells, this mobile, to advance the transmission of its bursts.
POWER CONTROL
At the same time the base stations perform the timing measurements, they also perform
measurements on the power level of the different mobile stations. These power levels are
adjusted so that the power is nearly the same for each burst.
40

A base station also controls its power level. The mobile station measures the strength and the
quality of the signal between itself and the base station. If the mobile station does not receive
correctly the signal, the base station changes its power level.
DISCONTINUOUS RECEPTION
It is a method used to conserve the mobile station's power. The paging channel is divided
into sub channels corresponding to single mobile stations. Each mobile station will then only
'listen' to its sub channel and will stay in the sleep mode during the other sub channels of the
paging channel.
MULTIPATH AND EQUALISATION
At the GSM frequency bands, radio waves reflect from buildings, cars, hills, etc. So not only
the 'right' signal (the output signal of the emitter) is received by an antenna, but also many
reflected signals, which corrupt the information, with different phases.
An equalizer is in charge of extracting the 'right' signal from the received signal. It estimates
the channel impulse response of the GSM system and then constructs an inverse filter. The
receiver knows which training sequence it must wait for. The equalizer will then, comparing
the received training sequence with the training sequence it was expecting, compute the
coefficients of the channel impulse response. In order to extract the 'right' signal, the received
signal is passed through the inverse filter.







41

5. GSM ARCHITECTURE


42

5.1 Basic Architecture

A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of four major subsystems:
1. Radio subsystem (RSS)
2. Network (switching) subsystem (SSS)
3. Operation and maintenance subsystem (OMS)




Figure 5.1: Main Components of GSM Network

Before exploring the GSM architecture in depth, it is better to have a quick overview of the
above components, starting with the MS (the mobile station). As we shall proceed through
43

our discussion on these components the architecture, other parts of the entire network will
elaborate automatically.
Radio Subsystem (RSS)
The Radio Subsystem (RSS) consists of:
Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station (BS)
Radio Interface (Um)

Mobile station
Mobile station (MS) is a portable data and/or voice communications statio which acts as a
normal telephone whilst being able to move over a wide area. A mobile station is typically
made up of:
an antenna
an amplifier
a receiver
a transmitter and
similar hardware and software for sending and receiving signals and converting
between RF waves and audio signals
The mobile station (MS) comprises all user equipment and software needed for
communication with a Wireless telephone network. MS refers to the Mobile Phone. i.e. the
handset held by the users in the mobile network. This is the terminology of 2G systems like
GSM. In the 3G systems, MS (mobile station) is now referred as User Equipment UE. The
MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in
44

order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or
can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data
communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the
GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue connections through the system.
In GSM, the Mobile Station consists of four main components:
Mobile Terminal (MT)- offers common functions that are used by all the service the
Mobile Station offers. It is equivalent to the network termination of an ISDN access
and is also the end-point of the radio interface.
Terminal Equipment (TE) - is a peripheral device of the Mobile Station and offers
services to the user. It does not contain any functions specific in GSM.
Terminal Adapter (TA) - hides radio-specific characteristics.
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) - is a personalization of the Mobile Station and
stores user specific parameters (such as mobile number, contacts etc).


Figure 5.2: components of the MS

45

Each MS is identified by an IMEI that is permanently stored in the mobile unit. Upon
request, the MS sends this number over the signaling channel to the MSC. The IMEI can be
used to identify mobile units that are reported stolen or operating incorrectly.

Just as the IMEI identities the mobile equipment, other numbers are used to identity the
mobile subscriber. Different subscriber identities are used in different phases of call setup.
The Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is the number that the calling party dials in
order to reach the subscriber. It is used by the land network to route calls toward an
appropriate MSC. The international mobile subscribe identity (IMSI) is the primary function
of the subscriber within the mobile network and is permanently assigned to him.
5.3 Functions of a Mobile Station
The Mobile Station (MS) performs the following:
Radio transmission termination
Radio channel management
Speech encoding/decoding
Radio link error protection
Flow control of data
Mobility management
Performance measurements of radio link
The MS has two very important entities, each with its own identity:
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
Mobile equipment
46

5.4 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

Figure 5.3: Subscribers Identity Module

GSM subscribers are provided with a SIM (subscriber identity module) card with its unique
identification at the very beginning of the service. By divorcing the subscriber ID from the
equipment ID, the subscriber may never own the GSM mobile equipment set. The
subscriber is identified in the system when he inserts the SIM card in the mobile equipment.
This provides an enormous amount of flexibility to the subscribers since they can now use
any GSM-specified mobile equipment.
The SIM is a removable, the size of a credit card, and contains an integrated circuit chip with
a microprocessor, random access memory (RAM), and read only memory (ROM). The
subscriber inserts it in the MS unit when he or she wants to use the MS to make or receive a
call. As stated, a SIM also comes in a modular from that can be mounted in the subscribers
equipment.

When a mobile subscriber wants to use the system, he or she mounts their SIM card and
provide their Personal Identification Number (PIN), which is compared with a PIN stored
within the SIM. If the user enters three incorrect PIN codes, the SIM is disabled. The service
provider if requested by the subscriber can also permanently bypass the PIN. Disabling the
47

PIN code simplifies the call setup but reduces the protection of the users account in the
event of a stolen SIM.
5.5 Functions of a SIM
The functions of the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) are:
Authentication of the validity of the MS when accessing the network
User authentication
Storage of subscriber-related information, which can be: data fixed during
administrative phase (e.g., subscriber identification), and temporary network data (e.g.,
cell location identity).
Mobile Equipment (ME)
The mobile equipment is also called the terminal and is responsible for communication with
the GSM system and converting the radio signals in to human voice and reverse is also true.
According to the power and applications of it, ME is divided into different types:
Fixed Terminals
Portable Terminals
Handheld terminals
a) Fixed Terminals
These MEs are installed in cars having the maximum power output of 20 W.
b) Portable Terminals
Portable terminals are also installed in the vehicles. Their maximum allowed output power is
8 W.
48

c) Handheld terminals
The handheld terminals are most popular because of their smaller size and weight, which are
decreasing continuously. These terminals can emit up to 2 W of power. With evolution in
technology, the maximum allowed power is reduced to 0.8 W.
5.6 Mobile subscriber identities in GSM
It would be better to discuss some of the important subscriber identities in the GSM, which
make the use of this technology safer for every person whether he/she is a subscriber of GSM
or not.
1) International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile country code
(MCC), mobile network code (MNC) (to identify the PLMN), and a PLMN unique mobile
subscriber identification number (MSIN). The IMSI is the only absolute identity that a
subscriber has within the GSM system. The IMSI consists of the MCC followed by the MNC
and MSIN and shall not exceed 15 digits. It is used in the case of system-internal signaling
transactions in order to identify a subscriber. The first two digits of the MSIN identify the
HLR where the mobile subscriber is administrated.

2) Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
A TMSI is a MSC-VLR specific alias that is designed to maintain user confidentiality. It is
assigned only after successful subscriber authentication. The correlation of a TMSI to an
IMSI only occurs during a mobile subscribers initial transaction with an MSC (for example,
location updating). Under certain condition (such as traffic system disruption and
malfunctioning of the system), the MSC can direct individual TMSIs to provide the MSC
with their IMSI.

49

3) Mobile Station ISDN Number
The MS international number must be dialed after the international prefix in order to obtain a
mobile subscriber in another country. The MSISDN numbers is composed of the country
code (CC) followed by the National Destination Code (NDC), Subscriber Number (SN),
which shall not exceed 15 digits. Here too the first two digits of the SN identify the HLR
where the mobile subscriber is administrated.
4) The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

The MSRN is allocated on temporary basis when the MS roams into another numbering area.
The MSRN number is used by the HLR for rerouting calls to the MS. It is assigned upon
demand by the HLR on a per-call basis. The MSRN for PSTN/ISDN routing shall have the
same structure as international ISDN numbers in the area in which the MSRN is allocated.
The HLR knows in what MSC/VLR service area the subscriber is located. At the reception of
the MSRN, HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR
exchange where the called subscriber is currently registered.
5) International Mobile Equipment Identity
The IMEI is the unique identity of the equipment used by a subscriber by each PLMN and is
used to determine authorized (white), unauthorized (black), and malfunctioning (gray) GSM
hardware. In conjunction with the IMSI, it is used to ensure that only authorized users are
granted access to the system.
The Base Station (BS) terminates the radio interface (Um) on the stationary network side.
The BS has a modular design and includes the:
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Base Station Controller (BSC)
Transcoding and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
50

In GSM, the Base Station System is a term given to a BSC (Base Station Controller) and the
BTS (Base Transceiver Station) associated with it. The number of BTS associated with a
BSC is dependent on the manufacturer. Although not mandatory, through interpretation of
the Abis interface standard BTS and BSC employed within a BSS will always be supplied by
the same manufacturer.



Figure 5.4: BSS Structure
The BSC, the TRAU and BTS form a unit, which is called Base Station System (BSS) in the
GSM terminology.A BSC can control several BTS. Every BSC contained in the network
controls one BSS. The interface between BSC and BTS is called A
bis -
interface. A interface
as being the entity responsible for communicating with MSs in a certain area. The radio
equipment of a BSS may be composed of one or more cells. A BSS may consist of one or
more BS.
The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular telephone network
which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the
network switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels,
51

allocation of radio channels to mobile phones, paging, quality management of transmission
and reception over the air interface and many other tasks related to the radio network.

Figure 5.5: Detailed BSS Components
Base Station Controller (BSC)
A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that function for control of one or more BTS. It
is a functional entity that handles common control functions within a BTS. BSC within a
mobile network is a key component for handling and routing information. The BSC provides
all the control functions and physical links between the MSC and BTS. It is a high-capacity
switch that provides functions such as handover, cell configuration data, and control of radio
frequency (RF) power levels in base transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are served by an
MSC.
The BSC is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The BSC
performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. It assigns and
52

releases frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own area. The BSC performs the
intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in its control. It also reallocates frequencies
to the BTSs in its area to meet locally heavy demands during peak hours or on special events.
The BSC controls the power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum
power level for a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC provides the time and
frequency synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures
the time delay of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is
not centered in its assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the
MS to advance the timing such that proper synchronization takes place. The BSC may also
perform traffic concentration to reduce the number of transmission lines from the BSC to its
BTSs.
A BSC is often based on a distributed computing architecture, with redundancy applied to
critical functional units to ensure availability in the event of fault conditions. Redundancy
often extends beyond the BSC equipment itself and is commonly used in the power supplies
and in the transmission equipment providing the A-ter interface to PCU.
The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies, frequency
hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border calculation, are stored
in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio planning engineering which involves
modeling of the signal propagation as well as traffic projections.
PACKET CONTROL UNI T
The packet control unit (PCU) is a late addition to the GSM standard. It performs some of the
processing tasks of the BSC, but for packet data. The allocation of channels between voice
and data is controlled by the base station, but once a channel is allocated to the PCU, the
PCU takes full control over that channel.
53

The PCU can be built into the base station, built into the BSC or even, in some proposed
architectures, it can be at the SGSN site. In most of the cases, the PCU is a separate node
communicating extensively with the BSC on the radio side and the SGSN on the Gb side.
Base Terminal Station (BTS)
The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the radio equipment
(transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network. A group of BTSs are
controlled by a BSC.
A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and is controlled by a BSC. BTS is
typically able to handle three to five radio carries, carrying between 24 and 40 simultaneous
communication. Reducing the BTS volume is important to keeping down the cost of the cell
sites.

Figure 5.6: BTS with its antennae
54

A BTS compares radio transmission and reception devices, up to and including the antennas,
and also all the signal processing specific to the radio interface. A single transceiver within
BTS supports eight basic radio channels of the same TDM frame.
There are two categorize in which, BTS may be arranged in the cells depending upon the
circumstances of the region in which they are to be used. The two arrangements are shown in
figure below.


Collocated BTS







55

Remote BTS


Star BTS

Figure 5.7: Two types of BTS arrangements
Functions of BTS
The primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals from a mobile
unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the signals are encoded,
encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at the cell site.
Transcoding to bring 13-kbps speech to a standard data rate of 16 kbps and then combining
four of these signals to 64 kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though; it can be done at BSC or
at MSC. The voice communication can be either at a full or half rate over logical speech
channel. In order to keep the mobile synchronized, BTS transmits frequency and time
synchronization signals over frequency correction channel (FCCH and BCCH logical
channels. The received signal from the mobile is decoded, decrypted, and equalized for
channel impairments.
56

Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to BSC. The
channel subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is determined by BTS.
BTS signals the mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink radio channel measurement
corresponding to the downlink measurements made by MS has to be made by BTS.
SECTORIZATION
By using directional antennas on a base station, each pointing in different directions, it is
possible to sectorise the base station so that several different cells are served from the same
location. Typically these directional antennas have a beamwidth of 65 to 85 degrees. This
increases the traffic capacity of the base station (each frequency can carry eight voice
channels) whilst not greatly increasing the interference caused to neighboring cells (in any
given direction, only a small number of frequencies are being broadcast). Typically two
antennas are used per sector, at spacing of ten or more wavelengths apart. This allows the
operator to overcome the effects of fading due to physical phenomena such as multipath
reception. Some amplification of the received signal as it leaves the antenna is often used to
preserve the balance between uplink and downlink signal.

Figure 5.8(a): Site Sectorization-Omni Cell site
57



Figure 5.8(b): Site Sectorization-Tri Cell site


Figure 5.8(c): Site Sectorization-Hex Cell site

BTS-BSC Configurations
There are several BTS-BSC configurations: single site, single cell; single site, multicell; and
multisite, multicell. These configurations are chosen based on the rural or urban application.
These configurations make the GSM system economical since the operation has options to
adapt the best layout based on the traffic requirement. Thus, in some sense, system
58

optimization is possible by the proper choice of the configuration. These include omni-
directional rural configuration where the BSC and BTS are on the same site; chain and
multidrop loop configuration in which several BTSs are controlled by a single remote BSC
with a chain or ring connection topology; rural star configuration in which several BTSs are
connected by individual lines to the same BSC; and sectorized urban configuration in which
three BTSs share the same site and are controlled by either a collocated or remote BSC. In
rural areas, most BTSs are installed to provide maximum coverage rather then maximum
capacity.

Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
An important component of the BSS that is considered in the GSM architecture as a part of
the BTS is the Transcoder/Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU). The TRAU is the equipment in
which coding and decoding is carried out as well as rate adaptation in case of data. Although
the specifications consider the TRAU as a subpart of the BTS, it can be sited away from the
BTS (at MSC), and even between the BSC and the MSC. The TRAU adapts the 64 Kbps
from the MSC to the comparatively low transmission rate of the radio interface of 16 Kbps.
The interface between the MSC and the BSS is a standardized SS7 interface (A-interface)
that, as stated before, is fully defined in the GSM recommendations. This allows the system
operator to purchase switching equipment from one supplier and radio equipment and the
controller from another. The interface between the BSC and a remote BTS likewise is a
standard the A
bis.
In splitting the BSS functions between BTS and BSC, the main principle
was that only such functions that had to reside close to the radio transmitters/receivers should
be placed in BTS. This will also help reduce the complexity of the BTS.

59


Transcoder (XCDR)
Depending on the relative costs of a transmission plant for a particular cellular operator, there
may be some benefit, for larger cells and certain network topologies, in having the transcoder
either at the BTS, BSC or MSC location. If the transcoder is located at MSC, they are still
considered functionally a part of the BSS. This approach allows for the maximum of
flexibility and innovation in optimizing the transmission between MSC and BTS.



Figure 5.9: Transcoder Interfacing

The transcoder is the device that takes 13-Kbps speech or 3.6/6/12-Kbps data multiplexes
and four of them to convert into standard 64-Kbps data. First, the 13 Kbps or the data at
3.6/6/12 Kbps are brought up to the level of 16 Kbps by inserting additional synchronizing
data to make up the difference between a 13-Kbps speech or lower rate data, and then four of
60

them are combined in the transcoder to provide 64 Kbps channel within the BSS. Four traffic
channels can then be multiplexed on one 64-Kbps circuit. Thus, the TRAU output data rate is
64 Kbps. Then, up to 30 such 64-Kbps channels are multiplexed onto a 2.048 Mbps if a
CEPT1 channel is provided on the A
bis
interface. This channel can carry up to 120-(16x 120)
traffic and control signals. Since the data rate to the PSTN is normally at 2 Mbps, which is
the result of combining 30-Kbps by 64-Kbps channels, or 120- Kbps by 16-Kbps channels.
The Interfaces in the GSM
U
m
-interface
It is the air interface between the mobile station (MS) and the BTS. This interface uses
LAPDm protocol for signaling, to conduct call control, measurement reporting, handover,
power control, authentication, authorization, location update and so on. Traffic and signaling
are sent in bursts of 0.577 ms at intervals of 4.615 ms, to form data blocks each 20 ms.



Figure 5.10: Simple description of Interfaces
61

A
bis
-interface
The interface between the BTS and BSC. Generally carried by a DS-1, ES-1, or E1 TDM
circuit. Uses TDM subchannels for traffic (TCH), LAPD protocol for BTS supervision and
telecom signaling, and carries synchronization from the BSC to the BTS and MS.The Abis
interface uses multiplexing (Mult) or rate adaptation (RA) on its links.The first option means
that four 16 kbit/s links are multiplexed into one 64 kbit/s channel. The latter option means
that no multiplexing of the 16 kbit/s channels takes place.
A-interface
It is the interface between the BSC and MSC. It is used for carrying traffic channels and the
BSSAP user part of the SS7 stack. Although there are usually transcoding units between
BSC and MSC, the signaling communication takes place between these two ending points
and the transcoder unit doesn't touch the SS7 information, only the voice or CS data are
transcoded or rate adapted.
A
ter
-interface
It is the interface between the BSC and transcoder. It is a proprietary interface whose name
depends on the vendor (for example Ater by Nokia), it carries the A interface information
from the BSC leaving it untouched.
G
b
-interface
It connects the BSS to the SGSN in the GPRS core network .
62



Figure 5.11: Signaling protocol structure in GSM
In the figure: Layer 1 is the physical layer, Layer 2 is the data link layer, and Layer 3 is the
GSM signaling protocol.

Switching Subsystem (SSS)

The Switching Subsystem (SSS) comprises of:

Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC)
Home Location Register (HLR)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Authentication Centre (AuC)
Equipment Identification Register (EIR) [061]

63



Figure 5.12: The NSS

The network and the switching subsystem together include the main switching functions of
GSM as well as the databases needed for subscriber data and mobility management (VLR).
The main role of the MSC is to manage the communications between the GSM users and
other telecommunication network users. The basic switching function is performed by the
MSC, whose main function is to coordinate setting up calls to and from GSM users. The
MSC has interface with the BSS on one side (through which MSC VLR is in contact with
GSM users) and the external networks on the other (ISDN/PSTN/PSPDN). The main
difference between a MSC and an exchange in a fixed network is that the MSC has to take
into account the impact of the allocation of RRs and the mobile nature of the subscribers and
64

has to perform, in addition, at least, activities required for the location registration and
handover.
The Network Switching Subsystem, also referred to as the GSM core network, usually refers
to the circuit-switched core network, used for traditional GSM services such as voice calls,
SMS, and circuit switched data calls.
There is also an overlay architecture on the GSM core network to provide packet-switched
data services and is known as the GPRS core network. This allows mobile phones to have
access to services such as WAP, MMS, and Internet access.
All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based services, so most
operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard GSM core network.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
An MSC is the point of connection to the network for mobile subscribers of a wireless
telephone network. It connects to the subscribers through base stations and radio
transmission equipment that control the air interface, and to the network of other MSCs and
wireless infrastructure through voice trunks and SS7. An MSC includes the procedures for
mobile registration and is generally co-sited with a visitor location register (VLR) that is
used to temporarily store information relating to the mobile subscribers temporarily
connected to that MSC. The MSC performs the telephony switching functions of the system.
It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions
as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
65


OTHER GSM CORE NETWORK ELEMENTS CONNECTED TO MSC
The MSC connects to the following elements:
The home location register (HLR) for obtaining data about the SIM and mobile services
ISDN number (MSISDN; i.e., the telephone number).
The UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN) which handles the radio
communication with 3G mobile phones.
The visitor location register (VLR) for determining where other mobile subscribers are
located.
Other MSCs for procedures such as handover.
Other network elements of MSC
a) Billing Center
Each MSC writes call accounting records to local disk memory. Billing Center periodically
polls the disk records of each MSC to collect the billing data for the PLMN.
b) Service Center
The Service Center interfaces with the MSCs to provide special services, such as the Short
Message Service (SMS), to mobile subscribers in the PLMN. The Billing Center and Service
Center are not a basic part of the GSM system. [083]
c) Tasks of the MSC
The main tasks of the MSC include:
66

Delivering calls to subscribers as they arrive based on information from the VLR.
Connecting outgoing calls to other mobile subscribers or the PSTN.
Delivering SMSs from subscribers to the short message service centre (SMSC) and vice
versa.
Arranging handovers from BSC to BSC.
Carrying out handovers from this MSC to another.
Supporting supplementary services such as conference calls or call hold.
Generating billing information.
Functions-based Types
There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which reflects their
complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the same MSC, but
doing different things at different times.
1) Gateway MSC (G-MSC)
The gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscriber
who is being called is currently located. It also interfaces with the PSTN. All mobile to
mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC. The term is only valid
in the context of one call since any MSC may provide both the gateway function and the
Visited MSC function; however, some manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs
which do not have any BSSs connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC
for many of the calls they handle.
2) Visited MSC (V-MSC)
The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The VLR
associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.
67

3) Anchor MSC
The anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated. The target MSC is
the MSC toward which a Handover should take place. A mobile switching centre server is a
part of the redesigned MSC concept starting from 3GPP Release 5.
4) Short Message Service Center (SMSC)
Finally, the MSC serves as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from Short Message
Service Centers (SMSC) to the subscribers and from the subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus
acts as a message mailbox and delivery system
The SMSC is a store-and-forward device used to provide peer-to-peer text messaging
services in mobile networks. Any text message issued from a mobile handset is forwarded to
the SMSC, where the location of the called subscriber is determined by consulting the
appropriate HLR. If the subscriber is currently connected to a reachable network, the location
is determined and the text message is transmitted. If not, the message is stored for later
transmission once the subscriber becomes available. The SMSC also includes back-end
interfaces for the connection of enhanced service platforms that can be used to implement a
variety of SMS services such as televoting and premium rate data services (e.g., weather,
traffic, sports, and news).
HOME LOCATI ON REGI STER (HLR)
The home location register (HLR) is a central database that contains details of each mobile
phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several
logical, and physical, HLRs per public land mobile network (PLMN), though one
international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only
one logical HLR (which can span several physical nodes) at a time.
68

The HLR stores details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM
has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR record.
The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the MSISDNs, which are the
telephone numbers used by mobile phones to make and receive calls. The primary MSISDN
is the number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a
SIM to have other secondary MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each
MSISDN is also a primary key to the HLR record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a
subscriber remains with the mobile phone operator.
Data stored in the HLR
GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given.
GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services.
Current location of subscriber (VLR and serving GPRS support node/SGSN).
Call diverts settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.
The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions and messages
from elements in the GSM network, for example, the location update messages received as
mobile phones roam around.
OTHER GSM CORE NETWORK ELEMENTS CONNECTED TO HLR
The HLR connects to the following elements:
The G-MSC for handling incoming calls
The VLR for handling requests from mobile phones to attach to the network
The SMSC for handling incoming SMS
The voice mail system for delivering notifications to the mobile phone that a message is
waiting
69

The AUC for authentication and ciphering and exchange of data (triplets)
FUNCTIONS OF HLR
The main function of the HLR is to manage the fact that SIMs and phones move around a lot.
The following procedures are implemented to deal with this:
Manage the mobility of subscribers by means of updating their position in administrative
areas called 'location areas', which are identified with a LAC. The action of a user of
moving from one LA to another is followed by the HLR with a Location area update
while retrieving information from BSS as base station identity code (BSIC).
Send the subscriber data to a VLR or SGSN when a subscriber first roams there.
Broker between the G-MSC or SMSC and the subscriber's current VLR in order to allow
incoming calls or text messages to be delivered.
Remove subscriber data from the previous VLR when a subscriber has roamed away from
it.
VI SI TOR LOCATI ON REGI STER (VLR)
The visitor location register is a temporary database of the subscribers who have roamed into
the particular area which it serves. Each base station in the network is served by exactly one
VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a time.
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the
MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the V-
MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a
proprietary interface.

70

Data stored in VLR
IMSI (the subscriber's identity number).
Authentication data.
MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number).
GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access.
access point (GPRS) subscribed.
The HLR address of the subscriber.
OTHER GSM CORE NETWORK ELEMENTS CONNECTED TO VLR
The VLR connects to the following elements:
The V-MSC to pass needed data for its procedures; e.g., authentication or call setup.
The HLR to request data for mobile phones attached to its serving area.
Other VLRs to transfer temporary data concerning the mobile when they roam into new
VLR areas. For example, the temporal mobile subscriber identity (TMSI).
Functions of VLR
The primary functions of the VLR are:
To inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered by the
VLR.
To track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no call is
ongoing.
To allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use.
To allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls.
To purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the area of a
VLR. The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period of inactivity and
71

informs the HLR (e.g., when the phone has been switched off and left off or when the
subscriber has moved to an area with no coverage for a long time).
To delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another, as
instructed by the HLR.
AUTHENTI CATI ON CENTRE (AUC)
The authentication centre (AUC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that attempts to
connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the
authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described
above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless
communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.
If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination of
SIM card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional form of identification
check performed on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the EIR section
below, but this is not relevant to the AUC processing.
Proper implementation of security in and around the AUC is a key part of an operator's
strategy to avoid SIM cloning.
The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates data
known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the process
depends upon a shared secret between the AUC and the SIM called the K
i
. The K
i
is securely
burned into the SIM during manufacture and is also securely replicated onto the AUC. This
K
i
is never transmitted between the AUC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce
a challenge/response for identification purposes and an encryption key called K
c
for use in
over the air communications.
72

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile equipment that
prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are
implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node.
EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The IMEI
uniquely identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN. It interfaces to
the various HLR in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units in the PLMN. It
maintains various lists of message. The database stores the ME identification and has nothing
do with subscriber who is receiving or originating call. There are three classes of ME that are
stored in the database, and each group has different characteristics:

White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid MSs. This
is the category of genuine equipment.
Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen.
Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty software, and
wrong make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with faults not important enough
for barring.
Operation and Maintenance Subsystem (OMS)
The Operations and Maintenance Center (OMC) is the centralized maintenance
and diagnostic heart of the Base Station System (BSS). It allows the network
provider to operate, administer, and monitor the functioning of the BSS. An OMS consists of
one or more Operation & Maintenance Centre (OMC).
73



Figure 5.13: The OMC
The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support
system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors
and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support
for centralized, regional and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for
a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support
the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance organizations.
The OMC provides alarm-handling functions to report and log alarms generated by the other
network entities. The maintenance personnel at the OMC can define that criticality of the
alarm. Maintenance covers both technical and administrative actions to maintain and correct
the system operation, or to restore normal operations after a breakdown, in the shortest
possible time.
The fault management functions of the OMC allow network devices to be manually or
automatically removed from or restored to service. The status of network devices can be
checked, and tests and diagnostics on various devices can be invoked. For example,
74

diagnostics may be initiated remotely by the OMC. A mobile call trace facility can also be
invoked. The performance management functions included collecting traffic statistics from
the GSM network entities and archiving them in disk files or displaying them for analysis.
Because a potential to

collect large amounts of data exists, maintenance personal can select which of the detailed
statistics to be collected based on personal interests and past experience. As a result of
performance analysis, if necessary, an alarm can be set remotely.

The OMC provides system change control for the software revisions and configuration data
bases in the network entities or uploaded to the OMC. The OMC also keeps track of the
different software versions running on different subsystem of the GSM.









75

7. GSM FUNCTIONS
7.1 Network operations GSM functions
In this chapter, the description of the GSM network is focused on the different functions to
fulfill by the network and not on its physical components. In GSM, five main functions can
be defined:
Transmission
Radio Resources Management (RRM).
Mobility Management (MM).
Communication Management (CM).
Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM).
7.2 Transmission
Transmission means sending and receiving of data and signaling bits. Not all the components
of the GSM network are strongly related with both types of types of Tx. While the MSC,
BTS and BSC, among others, are involved with data and signaling, components such
as HLR, VLR or EIR registers, are only concerned with signaling. The GSM standard also
provides separate facilities for transmitting digital data. This allows a mobile phone to act
like any other computer on the Internet, sending and receiving data via the Internet Protocol.

7.3 Radio Resources Management (RRM)
The role of the RR function is to establish, maintain and release communication links
between mobile stations and the MSC. The elements that are mainly concerned with the RR
function are the MN and the BTS. However, since the RR component performs connection
76

management also during cell handoffs, it also affects the MSC which is the handoff
management component.
The RR is also responsible for the management of frequency resources as well as varying
radio interface conditions. Main component operations are:
Channel assignment, change and release.
Handoff
Frequency hopping.
Power-level control.
Discontinuous transmission and reception.
Timing advance.
7.4 Handoff
The user movements may result a change in the channel/cell, when the quality of the
communication is degrading; this is known as handoff. Handoffs occur between:
between channels within a cell
between cells controlled by the same BSC
between cells under the same MSC but controlled by different BSCs
between cells controlled by different MSCs.
Handoffs are mainly controlled by the MSC. However to avoid unnecessary signalling, the
first two types of handoffs are managed by the respective BSC (thus, the MSC is only
notified of the handoff).
77



Figure 7.1: Inter-BTS, Intra-BSC [101]
To perform the handoff the mobile station controls continuously its own signal strength and
the signal strength of the neighboring cells. The list of cells that must be monitored by the
mobile station is given by the base station. Power measurements allow deciding which the
best cell is in order to maintain the quality of the communication link. Two basic algorithms
are used for handoffs:
The `minimum acceptable performance' algorithm. When the quality of the
transmission degrades, the power level of the mobile is increased, until the increase of
the power level has no effect on the quality of the signal. Upon this link layer hint, a
handoff is initiated.
78

The `power budget' algorithm: Here the handoff pre-empts the power increase, to
obtain a good SIR.
7.4 Mobility Management (MM)
The MM component handles:
Location Management: Location is managed through periodically or on-demand. At
power-on time, the MH signals an IMSI attach. On-demand location updates are
signaled when the MN moves to a different PLMN or new location area (LA). The
signal is sent to the new MSC/VLR, which forwards it to the subscriber's HLR. Upon
authorization in the new MSC/VLR, the subscriber's HLR removes the registration
entry of the MN at the old MSC/VLR. If after the update time interval, the MN has not
registered, it is then deregistered. On power-off, the MN performs an IMSI detach.
7.5 Security and authentication
Authentication involves the SIM card and the Authentication Center. A secret key, stored in
the SIM card and the AuC together with a ciphering algorithm called A3, are used to
authenticate the user. The MN and the AuC computes a SRES through A3 using the secret
key and a nonce generated by the AuC. If the two computed SRES are the same, the
subscriber is authenticated. The different services to which the subscriber has access are also
checked. Next the a security check is performed in the equipment identity (IMEI). If the
IMEI number of the mobile is authorized in the EIR, the mobile station is allowed to connect
the network. To assure user confidentiality, the user is registered with a Temporary Mobile
Subscriber Identity (TMSI) after its first location update procedure. Enciphering is another
option to guarantee a very strong security.

79

7.6 Communication Management (CM)
The CM component manages:
Call control (CC): it controls call setup, management and tear-down in relation to
management of type of service. Call routing is the primary task for this component. To reach
a mobile subscriber, a user dials the Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN) number which
includes:
a country code
a national destination code; this identifies the subscriber's operator
a code mapping to the subscriber's HLR.
The call is then passsed to the GMSC (if the call is originated from a fixed
network) that 'knows' the HLR corresponding to the particular MSISDN number.
The GMSC signals the HLR for call routing information. The HLR requests this
information from the subscriber's current VLR. This VLR allocates temporarily a
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) for the call. The MSRN number is the
information returned by the HLR to the GMSC. It is latter that routes the call
through the MSRN number, to the subscriber's current MSC/VLR. In the
subscriber's current LA, the mobile is paged.
1. Supplementary Services management: This involves the MN and the HLR.
SMS management: Here the GSM network contacts the Short Message Service Center
through the two following interfaces:
SMS-GMSC for Mobile Terminating Short Messages (SMS-MT/PP). It has the
same role as the GMSC.
SMS-IWMSC for Mobile Originating Short Messages (SMS-MO/PP). [103], [104]
80

7.7 Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)
The OAM component allows the operator to monitor and control the system as well as
modify the configuration of the elements of the system. Not only the OSS is part of the
OAM, but also the BSS and NSS participate in functions such as:
Provide the operator with all the information it needs. This information is forwarded to
the OSS to control the network.
Perform self-test tasks in addition to the OAM functions.
Control of multiple BTSs by the BSS.

Call Management Overview
Objective :
Describe the steps of a mobile originate Call
Describe the steps of a mobile terminated Call.








81

Mobile-To-Land Call Scenario

The following table lists the phases of a mobile-to-land call.

Stage Description
1
Request for service, the MS request to setup a call.
2 Authentication; the MSC/ VLR request the AUC for
authentication parameters. Using these parameters the MS is
authenticated.
3 Ciphering: Using the parameters that were made available
earlier during the authentication the uplink and the downlink
are ciphered.
4 Equipment Validation: the MSC/VLR requests the EIR to
check the IMEI for validity.
5 Call Setup; the MSC established a connection to the MS.
6 Handovers
7 Call release, the speech path is released.


82

The following figure shows the Phases 1, 4 and 5.

Fig : 3
OPTIONAL PHASES
The authentication, ciphering, equipment validation and handover phases are optional; the
service provider may decide that some of these phases might not take place in a mobile-to-
land call.
83



STEPS IN REQUEST FOR SERVICE PHASE

The following is an example of a scenario of a mobile-to-land call. It is assumed that the MS
is already registered with the system and has been allocated a Temporary Mobile subscriber
Identity Number (TMSI)
.
A Mobile originated call starts by the user entering the director number digits, associated
with the person to be called, on the MS handset. The user presses the Sent key after all
digits have been entered
.
MS transmits a channel request message over the Random Access Channel (RACH)

Once the BSS receives the Channel Request message, it allocated a Stand-alone
Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) and forwards this channel assignment
information to the MS over the Access Grant channel (AGCH). It is over the SDCCH
that the MS will communicate with the BSS and MSC until a traffic channel is
assigned.
The MS transmits a service request message to the BSS over the SDCCH. Included in
this message are the MS TMSI and Location Are Identification (LAI). The BSS
forwards the service request message to the MSC/ VLR.






84

The following figure shows the request for service phase.

















Fig : 4

MS BSS
MSC
/
VLR
Channel Request
SDCCH Assignment
Service Request
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment
Validation Call
set up
Handover(s)
Call release
Um A
RACH
AGCH
SDCCH

C
C
85

AUTHENTICATION AND CIPHERING PHASES
The Authentication and ciphering phase that might be performed here to setup a mobile-to-
land call are exactly the same as seen before in the location update scenarios.
EQUIPMENT VALIDATION
The Mobile-equipment validation process is the means by which a specific piece of mobile
equipment can be identified regardless of the user. It is needed to prevent the use of stolen,
unauthorized, or malfunctioning equipment in the network.
Each piece of mobile equipment is uniquely identified by an International Mobile Equipment
identify (IMEI) code. The IMEI code which is incorporated into the equipment by the
manufacturer has three components: a Type Approval Code (TAC), a Final Assembly Code
(FAC), and a Serial Number (SNR). The IMEI code is secure and physically protected
against unauthorized change.
The Equipment Identify Register (EIR) is responsible for storing the IMEI codes that identify
the mobile equipment deployed in the GSM system.

STEPS IN EQUIPMENT VALIDATION PHASE
At this point in time, the MS has been authenticated and the radio channel is being encrypted.
The MSC will interrogate the MS for its equipment number and checks the equipments
against information in the Equipment Identify Register (EIR).
The MSC transmits a request to the MS requesting it to
respond with its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
The MS upon receiving this request, reads its equipment serial number and returns this
value to the MSC
The MSC then requests the EIR to check the IMEI for validity. The EIR will first
check to see if the IMEI value is within a valid range. If, so it then checks to see if the
IMEI is on a suspect or know list of invalid equipment.
The EIR returns to the MSC the results of the IMEI validation. If the results are
negative, the MSC might abort the call or possibly let the call continue but inform the
network service provider of the event. In this scenario, well assume that the IMEI is
valid.


86

The following figure shows the equipment validation phase.

















Fig : 5
Request for
service
Authenticati
on Ciphering


MS BSS
MSC
/
VLR
IME I Request
Um A
SDCCH
SDCCH

C
C
C
IMEI Response (IMEI)
EIR
F
IMEI Check Results
Check IMEI
Call
setup
Handove
r(s)
Call
release
C
C

C
87

STEPS IN CALL SETUP PHASE WITH THE MS :-
The call is setup a voice path is phase with MS created between the MS and the MSC by
allocating a radio traffic channel and a voice trunk
The MS transmits a call setup request message to the MSC/ VLR after it has ciphered
the radio channel. Included in this request message are the dialed digits. The MSC,
upon receiving the call setup request message, will request the VLR to supply
subscriber parameters necessary for handling the call. The VLR will check for call
barring conditions, such as the MS being barred from making specific outgoing call
(e.g. international calls), or possibly if some supplementary services are active which
prevent the call from being granted. If the VLR determines that the call cannot be
processed, the VLR will provide the reason to the MSC. In this scenario, well assume
that his procedure is successful. The VLR returns a message to the MSC containing
the service parameters for the particular subscriber.
The MSC informs the MS that the call is proceeding.

The following figure shows the call setup phase.









Fig : 6
MS BSS
MSC
/
VLR
Call Setup Request
Request for
service
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment
Validation
Um A
SDCCH
SDCCH

C
Call Proceeding
88

VOICE PATH ESTABLISHMENT
The next four steps involve establishing a voice path between the MSC and the MS.
The MSC allocates a trunk to the BSS currently serving the MS. The MSC sends a
message to the BSS supplying it with the trunk number allocated (TN), and requests
the BSS to allocate a radio traffic channel (TCH) for the MS
The BSS allocates a radio traffic channel and transmits this assignments to the MS
over the SDCCH
The MS tunes to the assigned radio traffic channel and transmits an acknowledgment
to the BSS.
The BSS connects the radio traffic channel to the assigned trunk of the MSC. Since a
small portion of a radio traffic channel is available for out-of-band signaling, the
SDCCH is no longer used for signaling between the BSS and MS. The BSS de-
allocates the SDCCH. The BSS then transmits a trunk and radio assignment complete
message to the MSC.

STEPS IN CALL SETUP PHASE WITH LAND NETWORK
At this point in time a voice path has been established between the MS and the MSC. The
MS user hears silence since the complete voice path has not yet been established. The last
phase of setting up a mobile-originated call involves the MSC establishing a voice path from
the MSC to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
The MSC sends a network setup message to the PSTN requesting that a call be setup.
Included in the message are the MS dialed digits (DD) and details specifying which
trunk should be used for the call.
The PSTN may involve several switching exchanges before finally reaching the final
local exchange responsible for applying the ringing tone to the destination phone. The
local exchange will generate the ringing tone over the trunk, or series of trunks (if
several intermediate switching exchanges are involved), to the MSC. At this point in
time, the MS will hear ringing tone. The PSTN notifies the MSC with a network
alerting message when this event occurs.
The MSC informs the MS that the destination number is being altered. Note: this is
primarily a status message to the MS. The MS will hear a ringing tone from the
destination local exchange through the established voice path.
89

When the destination party goes off-hook, the PSTN will inform the MSC of this
event. This event usually triggers the beginning of billing. At this point. The MS will
be connected to the destination party.
The MSC informs the MS that the connection has been established.
The MS acknowledges the receipt of the connect message.
The following figure shows the call setup with land network phase.

























Fig : 7
Request for Service
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment validation

M
S
BSS
MS
C/
VLR
PST
N
Um A
Network setup
(DD ....)
Network Alerting
Connect (answer)
Start Billing
Alerting
FACCH
Connect
FACCH
Connect
Acknowledgement
14
15
16
17
18
19
FACCH
90


STEPS IN RELEASE PHASE MS INITIATED :-
Under normal conditions, the termination of a call is: MS initiated or network initiated. In
this scenario, well assume that the MS initiated the release of the call. A network initiated
release is illustrated in the land-to-mobile call scenario in the upcoming pages.

The mobile user initiated the release of the call by pressing the end button (the
button might be labeled with a different term on the MS. The MS sends a Disconnect
message to the MSC).

The other party (The PSTN party) is notified of the termination of the call by a Release
message from the MSC. The end-to-end connection is terminated.


When the MSC determines that the call has no more reason to exist (no side tasks to
complete, e.g. charging indication) a Release message is sent to the MS.

The MS answers back with a Release complete message. At this stage the lower
connections are released (unless they are used for something else in parallel)


The voice trunk between the MSC and the BSS is released.

The traffic channel is cleared.


The release of the resources is completed.




91



The following figure shows the release phase MS initiated.
















Fig : 8

MS BSS
MSC
/
VLR
PSTN
Um A
Disconnect
Network Release
Stop Billing
Clear
comma
nd
Release
Release complete
Clear Complete
FACCH
FACCH
Channel Release
FACCH
20
0
21
0
22
0
23
0
2
4
2
5
FACCH
2
6
92


LAND-TO-MOBILE CALL SCENARIO

The following table lists the phases of a mobile call

Stage Description
Routing Analysis: the MS terminated call is routed to the
visited MSC using information from the HLR and VLR.
Paging : the MSC initiates a communication with the MS.
Authentication: the MSC/VLR requests the AUC for
authentication parameters. Using these parameters the MS is
authenticated.
Ciphering: using the parameters which where made available
earlier during the authentication the uplink and the downlink
are ciphered.
Equipment Validation: the MSC/VLR requests the EIR to
check the IMEI for validity.
Call Setup: the MSC establishes a connection to the MS.
Handover (s)
Call release: The speech path is released.

93

The following figure shows the phases of a land-to-mobile call.


Fig : 9




94

OPTIONAL PHASES
The authentication, ciphering, equipment validation and handover phases are optional; the
service provider may decide that some of these phases might not take place in a land-to-
mobile call.

STEPS IN ROUTING ANALYSIS PHASE

The following is a scenario of a mobile terminating call. It is assumed that the MS is already
registered with the system and has been allocated a Temporary Mobile Identity Number
(TMSI). It is also assumed that a land subscriber dials the directory number of a mobile
subscriber and the call enters the GSM network via a Gateway MSC (GMSC).

I. The PSTN routes the call to the GMSC of this directory number, based on the Mobile
Subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN)

II. The GMSC, not knowing whether this MS is roaming in its own service area or not,
sends a message, with the MSISDN in it, to the HLR.

III. The HLR requests the MSC/ VLR to provide routing information about this MS.

IV. The MSC/ VLR returns to the GMSC via the HLR, a director number where the MS can
be reached, which is referred to as the MS Roaming Number (MSRN)

V. The call is routed from the GMSC to the visited MSC.



95

The following figure shows Land-to-mobile call- Routing Analysis


















Fig : 10
MSC
/ VLR
Relea
se
Paging
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment validation
Call setup
Handover (s)
Call release
Incoming Call
(MSISDN)


Routing info (MSRN)
Get Route (MSISDN)
Get Route (IMSI)

1
2
3
4
5
Incoming Call (MSISDN)
Pa
ge

HLR

GMS
C

PSTN
Routing info (MSRN)
96

STEPS IN PAGING PHASE

I. The MSC uses the location area identity, provided by the VLR, to determine which BSSs
should page the MS. The MSC transmits a message to each of these BSSs requesting that
a page to be performed. Included in the message is the TMSI of the MS.

II. Each of the BSSs broadcasts the TMSI of the mobile in a page message on the paging
channel (PCH)


III. When a MS detects its TMSI, or IMSI, broadcasts on the paging channel, it responds with
a channel request message over a common access channel. Random Access Channel
(RACH)

IV. Once the BSS receives the Channel Request message, it allocates a Stand-alone Dedicated
Control Channel (SDCCH) and forwards this channel assignment information to the MS
over the Access Grant Channel (AGCH). It is over the SDCCH that the MS will
communicate with the BSS and MSC until a traffic channel is assigned.


V. The MS transmits a page response message to the BSS over the SDCCH. Included in this
message is the MS TMSI and Location Area Identification (LAI)

VI. The BSS forwards the page response message to the MSC. The MSC informs its VLR
that a particular MS is responding to a page.






97

The following figure shows the Land-to-mobile call- Paging Phase.

















Fig : 11

MS BSS
MSC
/ VLR

Um A
Relea
se
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment validation
Call setup
Handover (s)
Call release
Routing analysis

PCH
SDCCH Assignment
Perform Page (TMSI)
Channel Request

6
7
8
9
10
AGCH
Page Response
(TMSI, LAI)
SDCCH
Page Response 11
Page
RACH
98


AUTHENTICATION, CIPHERING AND EQUIPMENT VALIDATION PHASES
The Authentication and ciphering that might be performed here to phases setup a mobile-
to-land call are the same as seen before in the location update scenario. The equipment
validation phase is done in the same way as in the mobile-to-land scenario.

STEPS IN CALL SETUP PHASE WITH MS
The call with the mobile is setup; a voice path is created between the MS and a voice trunk:
I. After the MSC receives the Encipher complete message from the MS, the MS is
informed that a call will be setup via a setup message.
II. The MS, upon receiving a setup message, performs compatibility checking before
responding to the setup message- it is possible that the MS might be incompatible for
certain types of call setups. Assuming that the MS passes compatibility checking. It
acknowledges the call setup with a setup confirm message.
III. The MSC selects a trunk (terrestrial channel) to the BSS. The MSC then send an
assignment request message to the BSS requesting it to assign radio resources. Included
in the message are attributes describing the type of radio resource to be allocated and the
trunk (terrestrial channel) to be used.
IV. The BSS upon receiving an Assignment Request message allocates an appropriate radio
traffic channel and transmits an Assignment Command over the SDCCH to the MS
informing in to tune to a new radio channel configuration.
V. The MS tunes to the specified traffic channel and transmits an assignments complete
message back to the BSS. The MS then begins alerting the user (i.e. the phone rings).
Prior to this point in time, the MS user in unaware that he/she is receiving a call. The
MS no longer uses the SDCCH after receiving a traffic channel assignment.
VI. The BSS upon receiving the assignment complete message connects the assigned traffic
channel to the trunk (terrestrial channel) that was allocated by the MSC. The BSS places
the SDCCH on a free list and transmits an assignment complete message to the MSC.
It was assumed in the past three steps that the BSS had no complications in assigning and
connecting a radio traffic channel to the specified trunk. Several possible errors include: no
radio resource available. Equipment failure, requested transcoding/ rate adaptation
99

unavailable, and terrestrial resource already allocated if any of these or other errors occur, the
BSS would send an assignment failure message to the MSC.

The following figure shows the Land-to-mobile call- Call Setup with MS phase






























Fig : 12
MS BSS
MSC
/ VLR

Um A
Relea
se
Handover (s)
Call release
Routing analysis
Paging
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment validation
SDCCH

Assign Trunk &
Radio Channel
Call Setup Confirm
SDCCH
Call Setup
Radio Assignment
Complete
12
13
14
15
16
SDCCH
Assign Radio
Channel
SDCCH
Trunk & Radio
Assignment
Complete
17
100

STEPS IN CALL SETUP PHASE WITH LAND NETWORK

o As discussed with the previous land figure, the MS will begin alerting the user after it
receives a traffic channel assignment. Once alerting has begun, the MS sends an alerting
message to the MSC.

o The MSC, upon receiving an Alerting indication from the MS, would begin generating
audible ringing to the calling party and send a network alerting via the GMSC to the PSTN.
Prior to this point, the calling party heard silence.

o At this point in the call, the MS is alerting the called party by generating an audible tone to
the calling party. One of three events can occur; calling party hangs-up, mobile subscriber
answers the phone, or the MSC times-out waiting for the mobile subscriber to answer.
Since a radio traffic channel is a valuable resource, GSM does not allow a MS to ring
forever.

o In this scenario it is assumed that the mobile subscriber answers the phone, the MS in
response to this action stops alerting and sends a connect message to the MSC.
o The MSC removes audible to the PSTN and connects the PSTN trunk to the BSS trunk
(terrestrial channel), and sends a connect message via the GMSC to the PSTN. The caller
and called party now have a complete talk path. This event typically denotes the beginning
of the call for billing purposes.

o The MSC sends the MS a connect acknowledgement message.




101

The following figure shows the Land-to-mobile Call-Call Setup with Land Network phase.


































Fig : 13
MS BSS
MSC
/ VLR

Um A
Connect
FACCH

Network Altering

FACCH
Connect (Off - hook)
FACCH
Connect
HLR GMS
C
PSTN
Mobile Alerting
Relea
se
Connect Acknowledge
Handover (s)
Call release
18
19
20
21
22
Routing analysis
Paging
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment validation
102


STEPS IN RELEASE PHASE NETWORK INITIATED

The release triggered by the land user is done in a similar way as the release triggered by
the mobile user.

I. 1 The MSC receives a Release message from the network to terminate the end-to-end
connection.

II. This causes the sending of a Disconnect message towards the MS


III. The MS answers by a release message, the MSC release the connection to the PSTN.

IV. This is acknowledged by a Release Complete from the MSC


V. The Voice trunk between the MSC and the BSS is cleared

VI. The traffic channel is released.


VII. The resources are completely released.




103

The following figure shows the Land-to-mobile Call- Release Network Initiate phase.













Fig : 14
MS BSS
MSC
/ VLR

Routing analysis Paging
Authentication
Ciphering
Equipment validation
Call setup
Handover(s)
Um A
Release Complete
FACCH

Network Release
FACCH
Release Complete
FACCH
Clear Command
HLR GMS
C
PSTN
Disconnect
Release
Channel Release
Clear Complete
FACCH
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
104

MOBILE-TO-MOBILE CALL SCENARIO
The Mobile-to-mobile call is established using the same phases as seen earlier.
As shown on the opposite page, the mobile-to-mobile call phases can be subdivided in to two
parts:
The originating mobile part where the phases are the same as those of a mobile-to-land
call, except that the call setup phase is partially performed. This means that only the
call setup with Mobile is done.
The terminating mobile part consist of the same phases as the land-to-mobile call
scenario except again that the call setup phase performs only call setup with mobile.

ORIGINATING MOBILE
The phases of an Originating mobile are:
Request for service
Authentication (Optional)
Ciphering (optional)
Equipment validation (optional)
Call setup
Release.
TERMINATING MOBILE
The phases of a Terminating mobile are:
Routing analysis
Paging
Authentication (Optional)
Ciphering (optional)
Equipment validation (optional)
Call setup
105

8. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF GSM
8.1 Advantages of GSM
GSM is mature; this maturity means a more stable network with robust features
Less signal deterioration inside buildings
Ability to use repeaters
Talk-time is generally higher in GSM phones due to the pulse nature of transmission
The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch networks and
handsets at will
GSM covers virtually all parts of the world so international roaming is not a problem.
The subscriber can enjoy the broadest international coverage. It is possible with the
GSM roaming service.
Good coverage indoors on 850/900 MHz. Repeaters possible. 35 km hard limit.
Very good due to simple protocol, good coverage and mature, power-efficient
chipsets.

8.2 Disadvantages of GSM
Pulse nature of TDMA transmission used in 2G interferes with some electronics,
especially certain audio amplifiers. 3G uses W-CDMA now.
Intellectual property is concentrated among a few industry participants, creating
barriers to entry for new entrants and limiting competition among phone
manufacturers.
GSM has a fixed maximum cell site range of 35 km, which is imposed by technical
limitations.

106

9. CONCLUSIONS
From our discussion on the GSM technology in this report, it may be concluded that GSM is
a very complex standard for the telecommunications. it may be considered as the first attempt
to create a global and universal communication system involving all the countries of the
world. Then the GSM technology was used as the basis for developing the Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System (UMTS). Today, 160 different countries are using the GSM, and
the growth is much rapid with increase in the GSM subscriber in millions a year. The GSM
provides continuous and uninterruptible communication to all its subscribers with strong
signal quality. The marvelous and awe-inspiring feature of roaming in GSM increases the
attraction of this technology, making it more popular among people than any other
technology. Actually, GSM has many features for its users which require much space to
cover in depth.
The GSM architecture is quite amazing as it employs the modular structure. The advantage
associated with this type of modular structure is that it becomes easy to work with and
understand each of the modules separately without causing the functionality of remaining
modules to be interrupted. The main three parts involved are; Radio subsystem (RSS),
Network (switching) subsystem (SSS), and Operation and maintenance subsystem (OMS).
The RSS consists of; Mobile Equipment (ME), Base Station (BS), and Radio Interface (Um).
The SSS has five main parts; Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC), Home Location
Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR), Authentication Centre (AuC), Equipment
Identification Register (EIR). Finally, an OMS, the heart of the BSS, consists of one or more
Operation & Maintenance Centre (OMC).
The services provided by the GSM are divided into three categories; the teleservices, Bearer
services, and supplementary services. Its functions include; Transmission, Radio Resources
107

Management (RRM), Mobility Management (MM), Communication Management (CM),
Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM).
There are many advantages of GSM technology, but few of them are; GSM more stable
network with robust features, there is less signal deterioration inside buildings etc., the
availability of SIMs allows users to switch networks and handsets at will, GSM covers
virtually all parts of the world so international roaming is not a problem, the subscriber can
enjoy the broadest international coverage. It is possible with the GSM roaming service, Very
good due to simple protocol, good coverage and mature, power-efficient chipsets.
Nothing in this world is ideal, drawbacks are always there. The disadvantage associated with
the GSM is that pulse nature of TDMA transmission used interferes with some electronics,
especially certain audio amplifiers. GSM has a fixed maximum cell site range of 35 km,
which is imposed by technical limitations.
Overall, GSM is really a great and efficient technology bringing world together and making
every place as our homes due to a communication with people anywhere anytime.








108

BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.mtnl.net.in
en.wikipedia.org
www.google.com/images
GSM PDFs