Becquerel

1
Becquerel
The becquerel (symbol Bq) is the SI derived unit of radioactivity. One Bq is defined as the activity of a quantity of
radioactive material in which one nucleus decays per second. The Bq unit is therefore equivalent to s
`1
. The
becquerel is named for Henri Becquerel, who shared a Nobel Prize with Pierre and Marie Curie for their work in
discovering radioactivity.
In a fixed mass of radioactive material, the number of becquerels changes with time. Therefore, a sample radioactive
decay rate is always stated with a timestamp for short-lived isotopes, sometimes after adjustment to some specific
date of interest (in the past or in the future). For example, one might quote a ten-day adjusted figure, that is, the
amount of radioactivity that will still be present ten days in the future. This can de-emphasize short-lived isotopes.
SI uses the becquerel rather than the second for the unit of activity measure to avoid dangerous mistakes: a
measurement in becquerels is proportional to activity, and thus a more dangerous source of radiation gives a higher
reading. A measurement in seconds is inversely proportional.
The becquerel can be used for the frequency of aperiodic or stochastic events; that is, events which occur randomly
and cannot be exactly predicted. For periodic events, the hertz, which is also defined as s
`1
, is used as a unit.
Prefixes
As any SI unit, Bq can be prefixed; commonly used multiples are kBq (kilobecquerel, 10
3
Bq), MBq
(megabecquerel, 10
6
Bq), GBq (gigabecquerel, 10
9
Bq), TBq (terabecquerel, 10
12
Bq), and PBq (petabecquerel, 10
15
Bq). For practical application, 1 Bq is a small unit; therefore, the prefixes are common. For example, natural
potassium (
40
K) in a typical human body produces 4,000 disintegrations per second, 4 kBq of activity.
[1]
The nuclear
explosion in Hiroshima (14 kt or 59 TJ) is estimated to have produced 810
24
Bq (8YBq, 8 yottabecquerel).
[2]
Bq versus counts per second
When measuring radioactivity of a sample with a detector, a unit of "counts per second" (cps) or "counts per minute"
(cpm) are often used. These units can be converted to the absolute activity of the sample in Bq if one applies a
number of significant conversions, e.g., for the radiation background, for the detector efficiency, for the counting
geometry, for self-absorption of the radiation in the sample.
Relationship to the curie
The curie (Ci) is an older, non-SI unit of radioactivity equal to the activity of 1 gram of radium-226.
The conversion factors are:
1Ci = 3.710
10
Bq
and
1Bq = 2.7010
`11
Ci
Definition
1 Bq = 1 s
`1
This SI unit is named after Henri Becquerel. As with every SI unit whose name is derived from the proper
name of a person, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase (Bq). When an SI unit is spelled out in English, it
should always begin with a lowercase letter (becquerel), except where any word would be capitalized, such as
at the beginning of a sentence or in capitalized material such as a title. Note that "degree Celsius" conforms to
this rule because the "d" is lowercase.
Becquerel
2
aBased on The International System of Units
[3]
, section 5.2.
References
[1] Radioactive human body aHarvard University Natural Science Lecture Demonstrations (http:/ /www.fas. harvard.edu/ ~scdiroff/lds/
QuantumRelativity/ RadioactiveHumanBody/ RadioactiveHumanBody.html)
[2] Michael J. Kennish, Pollution Impacts on Marine Biotic Communities (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=CJqcq2C792UC&
printsec=frontcover#PPA74,M1) , CRC Press, 1998, p. 74. ISBN 9780849384288.
[3] http://www. bipm. org/ en/si/ si_brochure/chapter5/5-2.html
External links
Derived units (http:// www1.bipm. org/en/si/derived_units/ 2-2-2. html) on the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures (BIPM) web site
Curie
1
Curie
The curie (symbol Ci) is a unit of radioactivity, defined as
1Ci = 3.710
10
decays per second.
This is roughly the activity of 1 gram of the radium isotope
226
Ra, a substance studied by the pioneers of radiology,
Marie and Pierre Curie, for whom the unit was named.
[1]

[2]
In addition to the curie activity can be measured using
an SI derived unit, the becquerel (Bq), which equates to one decay per second. Therefore:
1Ci = 3.710
10
Bq = 37 GBq
(100 mCi = 3.7 GBq)
and
1Bq `2.7010
a11
Ci
A radiotherapy machine may have roughly 1000 Ci of a radioisotope such as cesium-137 or cobalt-60. This quantity
of nuclear material can produce serious health effects with only a few minutes of exposure.
Also, a commonly-used measure of radioactivity is the microcurie:
1Ci = 3.710
4
disintegrations per second = 2.2210
6
disintegrations per minute
The typical human body contains roughly 0.1Ci of naturally occurring Potassium-40.
References
[1] curie - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http://www.britannica. com/eb/article-9028251/curie#245574.hook)
[2] Paul W. Frame. "How the Curie Came to Be" (http:/ /www.orau. org/ ptp/ articlesstories/ thecurie.htm). . Retrieved 2008-04-30.
See also
Ionizing radiation
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
Radiation exposure
Radiation poisoning
Geiger counter
Rntgen
1
Rntgen
The rntgen or roentgen (symbol R) is a unit of measurement for exposure to ionizing radiation (such as X-ray and
gamma rays), and is named after the German physicist Wilhelm Rntgen. Adopted in 1928
[1]
, 1R is the amount of
radiation required to liberate positive and negative charges of one electrostatic unit of charge (esu) in 1cm of dry air
at standard temperature and pressure (STP). This corresponds to the generation of approximately 2.0810
9
ion pairs.
Until 2006, the rntgen was accepted for use with the SI system but its value is expressed in terms of the SI units
charge divided by unit mass (C/kg) rather than as in the original definition. Although its use was allowable under the
SI system, it is not itself an SI unit and continued use is "strongly discouraged" by the National Institute of Standards
and Technology.
[2]
Explanation
The rntgen was occasionally used to measure exposure to radiation in forms other than X-rays or gamma rays. To
adjust for the different impact of different forms of radiation on biological matter, "rntgen equivalent man" or rem
was also in use. Exposure in rems is equal to the exposure in rntgens multiplied by the Q value, a constant
describing the type of radiation. The rem is now superseded by the sievert (see the latter for a list of Q values).
Conversion
In SI units, 1 R = 2.5810
`4
C/kg (from 1 esu a 3.3356410
`10
C and the standard atmosphere air density of
~1.293kg/m).
[2]
Exposure
The weather station outside of the Atomic
Testing Museum on a hot summer day. Displayed
background gamma radiation level is 9.8R/h
which would be approximately 86mR per
yearbless than typical. The station is part of the
Community Environmental Monitoring Network
[3]
(CEMP).
On this scale an exposure of about 500R in 5 hours is lethal for
humans.
A typical exposure of normal background radiation for a human is
200mR per year or 23 R per hour.
See also
Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen
rad (unit) bc.g.s. unit of absorbed dose
Gray (unit) bSI unit of absorbed dose
Microdose
References
[1] Van Loon, R.; and Van Tiggelen, R., Radiation Dosimetry in Medical Exposure. A
Short Historical Overview (http://www.radiology-museum. be/Pdf/
RADIATIONDOSIMETRY. pdf), 2004>
[2] Taylor, BN, " Units temporarily accepted for use with the SI (http://physics. nist.gov/ Pubs/SP811/ sec05.html#5. 2)", NIST Guide for the
Use of the International System of Units (SI), chapter 5, Physics Laboratory Publications, April 1995, retrieved and archived (http://www.
webcitation. org/ 5YWY1pd2K) 12th June 2008
[3] http://www. cemp.dri. edu/
Rad (unit)
1
Rad (unit)
The rad is a largely obsolete unit of absorbed radiation dose, equal to 1centigray. The rad was first proposed in
1918 as "that quantity of X rays which when absorbed will cause the destruction of the [malignant mammalian] cells
in question..."
[1]
It was defined in CGS units in 1953 as the dose causing 100 ergs of energy to be absorbed by one
gram of matter. It was restated in SI units in 1970 as the dose causing 0.01 joule of energy to be absorbed per
kilogram of matter.
The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission requires the use of the units curie, rad, and rem as part of the
Code of Federal Regulations 10CFR20.
However, it is now superseded in the SI by the gray; 1 rad is equal to 10milligray, and 100 rads are equal to 1 Gy.
The continued use of the rad is "strongly discouraged" by the author style guide of the U.S. National Institute of
Standards and Technology.
[2]
Radiation Poisoning
To gauge biological effects the dose in rads is multiplied by a 'quality factor' which is dependent on the type of
ionising radiation. The modified dose is now measured in rems (roentgen equivalent mammal, or man)
[3]
. 100 rem =
1 sievert (Sv). A dose of under 100 rems is subclinical and will produce nothing other than blood changes. 100 to
200 rems will cause illness but will rarely be fatal. Doses of 200 to 1000 rems will likely cause serious illness with
poor outlook at the upper end of the range. Doses of more than 1000 rems are almost invariably fatal
[4]
.
See also
Gray (unit)
Radiation poisoning
Rntgen
Rntgen equivalent man (rem)
Sievert
Ionizing radiation
References
[1] "Russ S, Archives of Radiology and Electrotherapy 23 (1918) 226-32." (http://lists.radlab.nl/ pipermail/ radsafe/ 2007-October/ 008087.
html). .
[2] "NIST Guide to SI Units - Units temporarily accepted for use with the SI" (http://physics.nist. gov/Pubs/SP811/ sec05.html#5. 2). .
[3] The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised ed., US DOD 1962, p. 579
[4] The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised ed., US DOD 1962, pp. 592`593
Gray (unit)
1
Gray (unit)
The gray (symbol: Gy) is the SI unit of absorbed radiation dose of ionizing radiation (for example, X-rays), and is
defined as the absorption of one joule of ionizing radiation by one kilogram of matter (usually human tissue).
[1]
It
supersedes the old cgs unit, the rad (10mGy), which is now "strongly discouraged" by the author style guide of the
U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology.
[2]
Definition
One gray is the absorption of one joule of energy, in the form of ionizing radiation, by one kilogram of matter.
For X-rays and gamma rays, these are the same units as the sievert (Sv). To avoid any risk of confusion between the
absorbed dose (by matter) and the equivalent dose (by biological tissues), one must use the corresponding special
units, namely the gray instead of the joule per kilogram for absorbed dose and the sievert instead of the joule per
kilogram for the dose equivalent. The word "gray" is both the singular and plural spelling.
This SI unit is named after Louis Harold Gray. As with every SI unit whose name is derived from the proper
name of a person, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase (Gy). When an SI unit is spelled out in English, it
should always begin with a lowercase letter (gray), except where any word would be capitalized, such as at
the beginning of a sentence or in capitalized material such as a title. Note that "degree Celsius" conforms to
this rule because the "d" is lowercase.
`Based on The International System of Units
[3]
, section 5.2.
The gray was defined in 1975 in honour of Louis Harold Gray (1905a1965), who used a similar concept, "that
amount of neutron radiation which produces an increment of energy in unit volume of tissue equal to the increment
of energy produced in unit volume of water by one rntgen of radiation," in 1940.
Effect on the body
The gray measures the deposited energy of radiation. The biological effects vary by the type and energy of the
radiation and the organism and tissues involved. The sievert attempts to account for these variations.
A whole-body exposure to 5 or more gray of high-energy radiation at one time usually leads to death within 14 days.
This dosage represents 375 joules for a 75kg adult (equivalent to the chemical energy in 20mg of sugar). Since gray
are such large amounts of radiation, medical use of radiation is typically measured in milligrays (mGy).
As experienced from follow-up after radiation therapy, epilation may occur on any hair-bearing skin with doses
above 1 Gy. It only occurs within the radiation field/s. Hair loss may be permanent with a single dose of 10 Gy, but
if the dose is fractionated permanent hair loss may not occur until dose exceeds 45 Gy. The salivary glands and tear
glands have a radiation tolerance of about 30 Gy in 2 Gy fractions, a dose which is exceeded by most radical head
and neck cancer treatments, potentially causing dryness. Dry mouth (xerostomia) and dry eyes (xerophthalmia) can
become irritating long-term problems and severely reduce the patient's quality of life. Similarly, sweat glands in
treated skin (such as the armpit) tend to stop working, and the naturally moist vaginal mucosa is often dry following
pelvic irradiation.
The threshold for what is considered completely safe for fetuses is 0.1 Gy.
[4]
Dangerously high doses of radiation
during the first trimester primarily affect the heart and limbs, while later in pregnancy the brain is the major affected
site.
[4]
Gray (unit)
2
Dose by source
In radiation therapy, the amount of radiation varies depending on the type and stage of cancer being treated. For
curative cases, the typical dose for a solid epithelial tumor ranges from 60 to 80 Gy, while lymphomas are treated
with 20 to 40 Gy. Preventative (adjuvant) doses are typically around 45 - 60 Gy in 1.8 - 2 Gy fractions (for Breast,
Head, and Neck cancers.)
The average radiation dose from an abdominal x-ray is 1.4 mGy, that from an abdominal CT scan is 8.0 mGy, that
from a pelvic CT scan is 25 mGy, and that from a selective CT scan of the abdomen and the pelvis is 30 mGy.
[5]
Conversions
1 rad is equal to 1 centigray, and 300krad are equal to 3kGy.
The rntgen is defined as the radiation exposure equal to the quantity of ionizing radiation that will produce one esu
of electricity in one cubic centimetre of dry air at 0 C and a standard atmosphere, and is conventionally taken to be
worth 0.258 mC/kg (using a conventional air density of about 1.293kg/m
3
). Using an air ionization energy of about
36.161 J/C, we have 1 Gy b115 R.
SI multiples for gray (Gy)
Submultiples Multiples
Value Symbol Name Value Symbol Name
10
c1
Gy
dGy decigray
10
1
Gy
daGy decagray
10
c2
Gy
cGy centigray
10
2
Gy
hGy hectogray
10
c3
Gy
mGy milligray
10
3
Gy
kGy kilogray
10
c6
Gy
Gy microgray
10
6
Gy
MGy megagray
10
c9
Gy
nGy nanogray
10
9
Gy
GGy gigagray
10
c12
Gy
pGy picogray
10
12
Gy
TGy teragray
10
c15
Gy
fGy femtogray
10
15
Gy
PGy petagray
10
c18
Gy
aGy attogray
10
18
Gy
EGy exagray
10
c21
Gy
zGy zeptogray
10
21
Gy
ZGy zettagray
10
c24
Gy
yGy yoctogray
10
24
Gy
YGy yottagray
Common multiples are in bold face.
Gray (unit)
3
See also
Dose area product (Gycm
2
)
International System of Units base units
SI derived unit to which Gray is part
Rad (unit) the old unit for absorbed dose by matter
References
[1] "The International System of Units (SI)" (http://www. bipm. org/utils/ common/pdf/ si_brochure_8_en.pdf). Bureau International des
Poids et Mesures (BIPM). . Retrieved 2010-01-31.
[2] "NIST Guide to SI Units - Units temporarily accepted for use with the SI" (http://physics.nist. gov/Pubs/SP811/ sec05.html#5. 2). .
[3] http://www. bipm. org/ en/si/ si_brochure/chapter5/5-2.html
[4] medscape.com >What Risk Dose X-Ray Pose to Fetus? (http:/ /www.medscape. com/viewarticle/ 728471?src=mp&spon=25&
uac=149266AJ) From USMLEasy from McGraw-Hill. Posted: 09/16/2010.
[5] Baden, Jeffrey M.; Jay B. Brodsky (1985). The Pregnant surgical patient. London: Futura. ISBN0-87993-238-4.
Sievert
1
Sievert
The sievert (symbol: Sv) is the SI derived unit of dose equivalent. It attempts to reflect the biological effects of
radiation as opposed to the physical aspects, which are characterised by the absorbed dose, measured in gray. It is
named after Rolf Sievert, a Swedish medical physicist famous for work on radiation dosage measurement and
research into the biological effects of radiation.
Definition
The equivalent dose to a tissue is found by multiplying the absorbed dose, in gray, by a dimensionless "quality
factor" Q, dependent upon radiation type, and by another dimensionless factor N, dependent on all other pertinent
factors.
N depends upon the part of the body irradiated, the time and volume over which the dose was spread, even the
species of the subject. Together, Q and N constitute the radiation weighting factor, W
R
. Q is the same thing as the
Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE). For an organism composed of multiple tissue types a weighted sum or
integral is often used. (In 2002, the CIPM decided that the distinction between Q and N causes too much confusion
and therefore deleted the factor N from the definition of absorbed dose in the SI brochure. [1].)
In terms of SI base units:
1 Sv = 1 J/kg = 1 m
2
/s
2
= 1 m
2
s
`2
Although the sievert has the same dimensions as the gray (i.e. joules per kilogram), it measures a different quantity.
To avoid any risk of confusion between the absorbed dose and the equivalent dose, the corresponding special units,
namely the gray instead of the joule per kilogram for absorbed dose and the sievert instead of the joule per kilogram
for the dose equivalent, should be used. For a given amount of radiation (measured in gray - the plural of gray is
gray), the biological effect (measured in sievert) can vary considerably as a result of the radiation weighting factor
W
R
. This variation in effect is attributed to the Linear Energy Transfer [LET] of the type of radiation, creating a
different relative biological effectiveness for each type of radiation under consideration. Per most government
regulations, the RBE [Q] for electron and photon radiation is 1, for neutron radiation it is 10, and for alpha radiation
it is 20. There is some controversy that the Q or RBE for alpha radiation is underestimated due to mistaken
assumptions in the original work in the 1950s that developed those values. That original work neglected the
component of the nucleus recoil radiation for alpha emitters.
SI multiples and conversions
Frequently used SI multiples are the millisievert (1 mSv = 10
a3
Sv) and microsievert (1 Sv = 10
a6
Sv).
An older unit of the equivalent dose is the rem (Rntgen equivalent man); 1 Sv is equal to 100 rem, for a quality
factor Q=1. In some fields and countries, rem and mrem continue to be used along with Sv and mSv, causing
confusion.
Explanation
Various terms are used with this unit:
Dose equivalent
Ambient dose equivalent
Directional dose equivalent
Personal dose equivalent
Organ equivalent dose
Sievert
2
The millisievert is commonly used to measure the effective dose in diagnostic medical procedures (e.g., X-rays,
nuclear medicine, positron emission tomography, and computed tomography). The natural background effective dose
rate varies considerably from place to place, but typically is around 2.4 mSv/year [2] (pdf).
For acute (that is, received in a relatively short time, up to about one hour) full body equivalent dose, 1 Sv causes
nausea, 2-5 Sv causes epilation or hair loss, hemorrhage and will cause death in many cases. More than 3 Sv will
lead to LD 50/30 or death in 50% of cases within 30 days, and over 6 Sv survival is unlikely. (For more details, see
radiation poisoning.)
Given the linear no-threshold model of radiation response, the collective dose that a population is exposed to is
measured in "man-sievert" (manSv).
2values
Here are some quality factor values:
[3]
Photons, all energies : Q = 1
Electrons and muons, all energies : Q = 1
Neutrons,
energy < 10 keV : Q = 5
10 keV < energy < 100 keV : Q = 10
100 keV < energy < 2 MeV : Q = 20
2 MeV < energy < 20 MeV : Q = 10
energy > 20 MeV : Q = 5
Protons, energy > 2 MeV : Q = 5
Alpha particles and other atomic nuclei : Q = 20
N values
Here are some N values for organs and tissues:
[4]
Gonads: N = 0.08
Bone marrow, colon, lung, breast, stomach: N = 0.12
Bladder, brain, salivary glands, kidney, liver, muscles, oesophagus, pancreas, small intestine, spleen, thyroid,
uterus: N = 0.05
Bone surface, skin: N = 0.01
And for other organisms, relative to humans:
Viruses, bacteria, protozoans: N b0.03 `0.0003
Insects: N b0.1 `0.002
Molluscs: N b0.06 `0.006
Plants: N b2 `0.02
Fish: N b0.75 `0.03
Amphibians: N b0.4 `0.14
Reptiles: N b1 `0.075
Birds: N b0.6 `0.15
Humans: N = 1
Sievert
3
Spelling
This SI unit is named after Rolf Maximilian Sievert. As with every SI unit whose name is derived from the
proper name of a person, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase (Sv). When an SI unit is spelled out in
English, it should always begin with a lowercase letter (sievert), except where any word would be capitalized,
such as at the beginning of a sentence or in capitalized material such as a title. Note that "degree Celsius"
conforms to this rule because the "d" is lowercase.
cBased on The International System of Units
[5]
, section 5.2.
See also
Counts per minute
Curie (unit)
Gray (unit)
Ionizing radiation level examples - Example exposure scenarios
Rad (unit)
Rem (unit)
Rntgen (unit)
Rutherford (unit)
Sverdrup (unit) (a unit of volume transport with the same symbol Sv as Sievert)
Background radiation
Relative Biological Effectiveness
Radiation poisoning
Linear Energy Transfer
References
Comit international des poids et mesures (CIPM) 1984, Recommendation 1 (PV, 52, 31 and Metrologia, 1985,
21, 90)
Abdeljelil Bakri, Neil Heather, Jorge Hendrichs, and Ian Ferris; Fifty Years of Radiation Biology in Entomology.
Lessons Learned from IDIDAS
[6]
, Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 98(1): 1-12 (2005)
Introduction to Quantities and Units for Ionising Radiation
[7]
National Physical Laboratory
[1] http://www. bipm. fr/en/ CIPM/ db/2002/ 2/
[2] http://www. unscear.org/ docs/ reports/gareport.pdf
[3] 1990 Recommendations (http://www.icrp.org/ docs/ Summary_B-scan_ICRP_60_Ann_ICRP_1990_Recs. pdf) of International
Commission on Radiological Protection (Last accessed: 12 Sept. 2008)
[4] Recommendations by the ICRP (2008), p.164. http:/ /stacks.iop.org/ JRP/ 28/ i=2/a=R02/pdf
[5] http://www. bipm. org/ en/si/ si_brochure/chapter5/5-2.html
[6] http://docserver. esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/ pdf/ esa/freepdfs/ 00138746/ v98n1s1.pdf
[7] http://www. npl.co. uk/ionrad/quantities.html
Rntgen equivalent man
1
Rntgen equivalent man
The rntgen (roentgen) equivalent in man (or mammal
[1]
) or rem (symbol rem) is a traditional historical unit of
radiation dose equivalent. It is the product of the absorbed dose in rads and a weighting factor, W
R
, which accounts
for the effectiveness of the radiation to cause biological damage.
A rem is a large amount of radiation, so the millirem (mrem), which is one thousandth of a rem, is often used for
the dosages commonly encountered, such as the amount of radiation received from medical x-rays and background
sources.
Rems and millirems can be converted in a straightforward way to the SI unit, sievert:
1 rem = 0.01 Sv = 10 mSv = 10000 Sv
1 millirem = 0.00001 Sv = 0.01 mSv = 10 Sv
Continued use of the rem is "strongly discouraged"
[2]
by the style guide of the U.S. National Institute of Standards
and Technology for authors of its publications.
[3]
A dose of under 100rems is subclinical and will produce nothing other than blood changes. 100 to 200rems will
cause illness but will rarely be fatal. Doses of 200 to 1000rems will likely cause serious illness with poor outlook at
the upper end of the range. Doses of more than 1000rems are almost invariably fatal.
[4]
See radiation poisoning for a
more complete analysis of effects of various dosage levels.
See also
Radiation poisoning
Rad (unit)
Gray (unit)
Sievert (unit)
Banana equivalent dose
Health threat from cosmic rays
References
[1] The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised ed., US DOD 1962, p. 579
[2] http://physics. nist. gov/Pubs/SP811/ sec05.html#5. 2
[3] http://physics. nist. gov/cuu/pdf/ sp811.pdf
[4] The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised ed., US DOD 1962, pp. 592`593