Chapter 1 Introduction

1-1 Structural Design

The structural designs of buildings, whether of structural steel or reinforced concrete, require the determination of the overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the selection of the cross sections of individual members. ARCHITECT: building design& organization of spacesCONSTRAINTS ENGINEER: works within these constraints GO BETWEEN process ARCHITECT ENGINEER achieves a project that does not fall down. Priorities of the ENGINEER are = Safety, Serviceability, and Economy. Process of design involves the establishment of multiple framing plans, and chooses the most economical one (as finalized project).

1-1 Structural Design

Types of structural members: 1. Trusses: (Fig. 1.1) Pin-connected members, loads applied only at the joints. Therefore each member of the truss is a two-force member, subject to either axial compression or tension.

1-1 Structural Design

2. Rigid Frame: (Fig. 1.2) The members of this frame are rigidly connected by welding and can be assumed to force a continuous structure. If the supports allow any rotation, then the member is pinned at the support.
The frame is symmetric in geometry and in loading. This implies that the rotation at B = 0 because . M BA M BC AB and BC are subjected primarily to bending, or flexure, and thus called BEAMS. BD is subjected only to axial compression, and thus called COLUMN. AE and CF subjected to axial compression and bending, and thus called BEAM-COLUMN.
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1-2 Loads
The forces that act on a structure are called loads. The types of loads are:
DEAD LOAD = Dead Loads are those that are permanent, including the self-weight of the structure. LIVE LOAD = Loads that vary in time and location, and applied slowly to the structure (no impact effects of fatigue effects due to cyclic loading are considered in this course). WIND LOAD = pressure or suction exerted on the exterior surfaces of building. EARTHQUAKE LOAD = need to be considered only in those geographic locations where there is a reasonable probability of occurrence. SNOW LOAD = another type of live load. Other types of live load are often treated as separate categories, such as hydrostatic pressure and soil pressure.
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1-3 Building Codes

Building must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of a building code, which is a legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety, fire safety, plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility to physically disabled. Building codes do not give design procedures, but they do specify the design requirements and constraints that must be satisfied. Some building codes:

1-3 Building Codes

Uniform Building Code (International Conference of Building Officials 1999); Standard Building Code (SBCC, 1999), essentially used west of the Mississippi.
Standard Building Code (Southern Building Code Congress International, 1999), used in the southeastern states. BOCA National Building Code (Building Officials Code of Administrators, 1999), used in the northeastern states. A unified building code, the International Building Code (International Code Council, 2009) replaced the three above regional codes. Although it is not a building code, ASCE 7 (latest edition ASCE 7-10), Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005) is similar in form to a building code. The International Building Code incorporates much of ASCE 7-10 in its load provisions.
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1-4 Design Specifications

In contrast to building codes, design specifications give more specific guidance for the design of structural members and their connections. They present the guidelines and criteria that enable a structural engineer to activate the objectives mandated by a building code.

1-4 Design Specifications

The specifications of most interest to the structural steel designer are those published by the following organizations: American Institution of Steel Construction (AISC): (AISC, 2010a). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO): (AASHTO, 2010). American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA): (AREMA, 2010), formerly American Railway Engineering Association (AREA). American Iron and Steel Design (AISI): (AISI, 2007).

1-5 Structural Steel

If a specimen is subjected to an axial load P (Fig. 1.3), the stress and strain can be computed as follows:
f P L and A L

where f = axial tensile stress A = cross-sectional area = axial strain L = unstretched length of specimen L = change in length

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1-5 Structural Steel

This curve is typical of a class of steel known as ductile or mild steel. Up to proportional limit: the material follows Hookes law: . A peak value, Upper Yield Point is quickly reached, followed by a leveling off at the Lower Yield Point. Yield Plateau of Plastic Range: constant stress, but increasing strain. At a strain approximately 12 times the strain at yield, strain hardening begins; an additional load (and stress) is required to cause additional elongation (and strain). Maximum of stress, after which the specimen begins to neck down as stress decrease with increasing strain, and fracture occurs. Engineering stress: stress computed assuming the cross-section A remains constant (no Poisson effect). Engineering strain: strain computed using the original length of specimen. Ductility can be measured by the elongation: e L f L0 100 / L0
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1-5 Structural Steel

e = elongation (expressed as a percent) Lf = length of the specimen at fracture L0 = original length of specimen The Elastic Limit of a material is a stress that lies between the Proportional Limit and the Upper Yield Point: up to this stress, the specimen can be unloaded without permanent deformation; (O-PL-EL-O). When strain goes beyond EL to A; (O-PL-EL-UYP-LYP-A-B) the curve is then idealized in Fig. 1.4. Within the elastic range, f E Where, E = Youngs modulus, or modulus of elasticity = 29,000 ksi = 200,000 MPa. It is the same for all structural steels
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1-5 Structural Steel

Figure 1.5 shows a typical stress-strain curve for high-strength steels, which are less ductile than the mild steel. The yield stress for this type of steel is called the yield strength and is defined as the stress at the point of unloading that corresponds to a permanent strain of some arbitrarily defined amount. A strain of 0.002 is normally selected (0.2% offset method). The term yield stress will be used, and it can mean either yield point or yield strength.

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1-5 Structural Steel

Structural steels can be grouped according to their composition as follows:

Plain carbon steels: mostly iron and carbon, with less than 1% carbon.
Low-alloy steels: iron and carbon plus other components (less than 5%). High alloy or specialty steels. Different grades of structural steel are identified by the designation assigned them by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM A36, or A36: Yield stress: Fy = 36,000 psi (36 ksi) = 250 MPa Tensile strength: Fu = 58,000-80,000 psi (58-80 ksi) = (400-550 MPa)
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1-6 Standard Cross-Sectional Shapes

Cross sections of some of the more commonly used hot-rolled shapes are shown in Fig. 1.6.

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1-6 Standard Cross-Sectional Shapes

W-shape: wide-flange shape Ex: W18 50 , where W indicates the type of shape, 18 is the nominal depth parallel to the web, and 50 is the weight in pounds per foot of length. S-shape: American Standard Ex: S18 70 , where S indicates the type of shape, 18 is the nominal depth parallel to the web, and 70 is the weight in pounds per foot of length. Angle shapes: available in either equal-leg or unequal-leg versions. Ex: L6 6 3 4 or L6 3 5 8 European Shapes: IPE , HEA 220, HEB 220, HEM 220, etc.

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