MST Radar A major advance has been made in the radar probing of the atmosphere with the realization

in early seventies that it is possible to explore the entire mesospherestratosphere-troposphere (MST) domain by means of a high power VHF back-scatter radar operating ideally around 50 MHz. This led to the concept of an MST radar which came to dominate the atmospheric radar scene over the past nearly two decades. The MST radar technique as a unified approach to explore atmospheric dynamics upto a height of about 100 km has evolved from the pioneering work of woodman and Guillen (1974. An MST radar is a highly sensitive high resolution pulse coded phase coherent radar operating typically around 50 MHz with an average power-operative product exceeding about 5X107 Wm2. Radars operating at higher frequencies or smaller power operative products are termed stratosphere-troposphere (ST) radars. A number of radars of this kind have been established all over the world in recent years and extensive observations have been made of the structure and wind fields in the middle atmosphere with unprecedent height and time resolutions observational efforts using ST and MST radars were greatly intensified under the coordinated Middle Atmospheric Programme (MAP). A number of excellent reviews have appeared dealing with various aspects of the MST radar technique, theory and observations. Indian MST Radar. A major MST radar has been established in India as a national faculty of Gadanki near Tirupathi (Geo.13.5N 79.2E, Geomag Lat 63). This radar is highly sensitive, pulse coded, coherent VHF phased array radar operating at 53 MHz with an average power aperture product of 7 X 108 Wm2. Scattering Mechanisms The scattering and reflection mechanisms responsible for the ST radar signal return are generally classified as (a) Turbulent scatter (b) Fresnel (Partial reflection/scatter and (c) Thermal (incoherent or Thomson) scatter. The first two mechanisms provide coherent scatter which results from macroscopic fluctuations in refractive index associated with clear air turbulence (CAT). The third arises from Thomson scatter by free electrons in the ionosphere and the signal return is characterised by the statistical fluctuations of electron density due to radon thermal motions of electrons and ions. While the turbulent scatter and the Fresnel reflection are the dominant mechanism for the MST Signal return, it has been shown that it is possible to map the mesospheric wind fields using the Thomson backscatter technique as well. The radio reflective index is relevant to the MST radar return is expressed approximately as n-1 = (3.73 X 10-1 e/T2) + (77.6 X 10-6 P/T) (Ne/2Nc) Where, e(mbar) is the partial pressure of the water vapour, P(mbar) the total atmospheric pressure, T (K) the absolute temperature, Ne the number density of electrons and Nc the critical electron density corresponding to the operating radar

frequency. The first two term, in the above expression, represent the contributions due to bound electrons of water vapour and dry air, while the third expresses the contribution due to the presence of free electrons. The refractive index fluctuations arising from the first two contribute to the radar returns from troposphere and stratosphere. The neutral turbulence induced electron density fluctuations represented by the third term become the major factor contributing to the radar return from the mesosphere. Turbulent Scatter. According to the theory of radio wave scattering from turbulent fluctuations of refractive index, the radar back scattered signal arises from the spatial Fourier component whose wavelength is equal to one half of the radar wavelength R. Hence in order to have coherent back scatter, the condition to be satisfied is min < R/2 < max where min and max are related to the inner (lo) and outer (Lo) scale sizes of the turbulence. Fresnel (Partial) Reflection and Scattering Fresnel (Partial) reflection occurs from a sharp vertical gradient in refractive index that if horizontally coherent over a scale greater than a Fresnel zone. Radar observations at VHF have shown evidence for the importance of Fresnel reflection from horizontally layered structures in the neutral atmosphere of troposphere and stratosphere and electron density stratifically in the ;mesosphere. Radar returns from the mesosphere, particularly at long wavelengths, are generally referred to as partial reflections. It should be noted that there is observational evidence to suggest that the radar return are due to both Fresnel reflection from coherent electron density gradients and scattering from turbulent irregularities. The general case of partial reflection in which there are many closely spaced layers randomly distributed in height is called Fresnel scatter. It is in contrast to Fresnel reflection which arises from a single layer or a coherent distribution of layers (Fig 1C/P432) Figure illustrates the processes of Bragg Scatter, Fresnel reflection and Fresnel scatter, in terms of the spatial variations of the refractive index is in the vertical direction Z within the radar gate Z. In view of the random stratification of n, the problem of Fresnel Scatter can be treated only through statistical approach. Thomson (Incoherent) Scatter Thomson Scatter, often referred to as incoherent scatter, is clearly the most potent of the ground based radar techniques to prose the earths ionosphere. Recent advances have extended as application to mesosphere, Thomson backscattered radar signal from the ionosphere is very weak, as it arises from small electron density fluctuations due to random thermal motions of the ion and electron. When the radar wavelength is much larger than the Debye length, the scattering can no longer be regarded as form the individual electrons, but, instead is best thought of as arising from density fluctuations associated with plasma waves. The principal waves contributing to the radar backscattered signal are the ion-acoustic and electron plasma waves. The two spectral components are termed ionic and electronic. In the mesosphere, where the collisions are

important, both the electron and ion components are the spectrum become significantly narrowed. The effect of the collisions on the spectrum are characterised by a parameter given by the ratio of the radar wavelength to mean free path. MST Radar Technique Basic System. An MST radar is comprised of a high resolution two-dimensional phased array, high power transmitters, with appropriate feed network, T/R switch(es), a phase coherent receiver with quadrature channels, a signal processor consisting of two identical channel of A/D converter, decoder and integrator, a computer interface and a ;mini/super micro computer with essential peripherals and software support. Antenna Array. An MST radar uses a two-dimensional filled array for both transmission and reception. To effect an improved side lobe suppression, a tapering of the antenna array can be applied by introducing a weighting function to the power fed to the elements or by using unequal element spacing. The phased antenna array consists of two orthogonal sets, one for each polarization of 1024 three-element Yagi-Uda antennas arranged in a 32 X 32 matrix over an area of 130m X 130m. The array is illuminated in either of the polarization using 32 transmitters of varying power, each feeding a linear sub-array of 32 antennas. Transmitting System. A total transmitter power of 2.5 MW (peak) is provided by 32 transmitters ranging in power from 15 KW to 120 KW, each feeding a sub array of 32 Yagis. The input to the transmitter is a low-level (1mw) pulse-modulated (Coded/uncoded) signal at 53 MHz generated by a mixer which receives as inputs a 5 MHz pulse-modulated signal and an appropriately phase-shifted 48 MHs local oscillator (LO) signal. Receiver & Signal Processor. The receiver unit consists of a blanking switch, a low-noise amplifier (LNA), and a mixer-pre amplifier for each of the 32 channels. The LNA is a 53MHz turred amplifier with a gain of 24 dB and a band-width of 4 MHz. The output of an LNA is mixed with an appropriately phase shifted 48 MHz LO signal and amplified in a mixer preamplifier having an effective gain of 7 dB. The IF outputs from the 32 channels are combined and amplified in a broadband modular amplifier with a gain of about 15 dB. * Radar echoes for several seconds, and move bodily without getting distorted or becoming turbulent. The data from these trails can be used for deriving lower thermospheric winds and temperature. Some Highlights of Scientific Results from Indian MST Radar , Radar Reflectivity, Vector Wind and Turbulence The radar is operated for observations as troposphere and lower stratosphere employing usually 16s coded pulses and 5-beam auto-scan. The height and time

resolution for this mode of operation are 150 m and 90s respectively. The data are recorded in the form of Doppler spectra and analysed to yield height profiles of signal tonoise ratio, vector wind components, and spectral width representing turbulence. The three components of vector wind (vertical, zonal & meriodional) are derived from the fine-beam spectral data using the Doppler beam swinging method. The Doppler spectral width can be used to derived turbulent energy dissipation rate. The eddy dissipation rate is calculated also from the refractivity structure constant derived from the measured signal power. Deduction of Temperature Profile from Wind Spectrum The MST radar is unique in its capability of measuring very small vertical velocities in lower and middle atmospheric regions. The temperature profile can be derived from MST radar data of vertical winds. Mesospheric Observation The MST radar is unique in its capability to map the structure and dynamics of the mesosphere. The radar back scatter from mesosphere arises from turbulent fluctuations and steep gradients in electron density in the region. The spectral data are analysed in the same way as in the case of lower atmosphere to derived information on the structure, vector winds and turbulence. Meteor Trail observations Recently, radar back scatter studies have also been made of the plasma processes operating on the ionized meteor trails. A fairly large number of meteor echoes have been detected over the observational windows. Many meteor trail echoes show a steep increase followed by an expantial decay in amplitude and a quasi-sinusoidal Doppler wave form. Some meteor trails produce Field-Aligned E-Region Irregularities The MST radar has been operated is ionospheric coherent back scatter mode for mapping the structure and dynamics of the E region field-aligned irregularities (FAI) For observations on the E region FAI, the radar beam is oriented at 13.2 due magnetic north to look transverse to the magnetic field at a height of about 100 km. Field-Aligned F-Region Irregularities For an experiment specification file (ESF) observations, the radar beam is oriented at 14.8 due magnetic north which is the nominal direction looking transverse to the magnetic field at a height of about 330 km. The height and time resolution of the observations are 48 km and 32 sec respectively. MST Radar A Concept

The gaseous envelope surrounding earth is known as the terrestrial atmosphere. By virtue of its composition the atmosphere regulates the temperature and provides shielding effect from harmful wavelengths of the solar radiation, thus making the life as the earth possible. The division of the atmosphere is in the form of spherical shells named as the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere, and is characterised by the way temperature varies with the height. Statistical description of atmospheric motions over the earth, their role in transporting the constituents of the atmosphere and the transformation if different forms of energy constitute the subject of atmospheric dynamics and is studied with sophisticated instrumentation systems and analysed using a model of atmospheric general circulation. The MST radar is a state of art instrument capable of providing estimates of atmospheric parameters with high resolution on a continuous basis which is essential in the study of different dynamical processes in the atmosphere. It is an important research tool in the investigation of prevailing winds, waves including gravity waves), turbulence, and atmosphere stability & other mesoscale phenomena. A reliable three dimensional model of the atmosphere over the low latitudes improves our understanding of the climate and weather variations so important to a predominantly agricultural economy like India. The Radar. The MST radar is a new generation high power coherent pulse Doppler radar operating in the VHF band; capable of sounding the different region of middle atmosphere viz Mesosphere, stratosphere and troposphere. The MST Radar Technique. Techniques to measure velocities with radars make use of spectrum analysis or correlation methods, either in the frequency or in the time domain. Basically two techniques are employed to measure wind velocity vector at different height ranges of the atmosphere. Doppler Beam Swinging Technique. This method uses a narrow perial beam of the radar pointed in different directions to measure the three dimensional velocity vector. A beam in the zenith direction and at least two more beams off zenith, in two mutually perpendicular directions are used to measure radial velocity (Doppler shift) in each beam direction. The horizontal components (u,v) and vertical component (w) of the wind vector are estimated from the resultant radar returns. This is called the Doppler Beam Swinging Technique. Spaced Antenna Drift Technique. Another method uses three or more spaced antennas and the received signals are cross correlated to determine the covariance matrix, yielding the horizontal velocity components. This method, providing the horizontal components, is known as the Spaced Antenna Drift Technique. The vertical component can be determined from the auto correlation function of the radar returns from any of the spaced antenna. The Indian MST radar uses the Doppler Beam Swing Technique.

Indian MST Radar System Configuration & Features. The Indian MST radar uses a semi active phased array antenna. The radar beam can be switched in any combinations using the following seven beams in an automatic sequence selected using Radar controller :Zenith in X polarization Zenith in Y polarization 20 deg off zenith in North, South, East & West 14.8deg off zenith in North, to look transverse to the magnetic field for ionosphere studies. Additionally in manual mode, the beam can be oriented at any position in the factor cordinal directions upto an off zenith angle limited by the grating lobe. Considering the possible uses for such a radar for upper atmospheric and ionospheric research and without prejudice to the measurements for neutral atmospheric studies, the Indian MST Radar antenna array was oriented along the geomagnetic meridian. After careful calculations using geomagnetic models, the antenna is oriented 2 due west with reference to the geographic meridian. Based on the initial sub range at mesospheric height and the frequency clearance available in the Indian subcontinent, a carrier frequency of 53 MHz with an operating band width of 2 MHz was chosen. With a peak power aperture product of 3 X 10 10 wm2 the Indian MST Radar is in league with the largest MST Radars in the world. The phased antenna array covers an area of nearly 15,000 Sqr M and employs 1024 crossed three element Yagi antenna arranged in the form of a 32 X 32 matrix. Thirty two units of modular transmitter units (MOPA type) energize the 32 sub array in each polarization using a centre fed excitation. The antenna has an illumination taper based on stepped Taylor distribution. The transmitter wave form is programmable with complementary biphase coding through the radar controller, the user can programme his experiment using the radar controller to set the different parameters of the experiments like the Transmitter wave form (pulse width, coding and PRF), the number of beams, the beam sequence, the number of pulses to be coherently averaged, the number of FFI points to provide the required velocity resolution and the number of incoherent averagings to provide the necessary time resolution and spectral averaging. Moments of the echo viz, power, mean Doppler and the spectral width are extracted off line. The horizontal (u,v) and vertical (w) components if wind are then extracted from the moments. An adaptive algorithm is used to extract wind profiles where signal to noise ratio (SNR) is low. The radar is capable of being operated in the neutral atmospheric mode to study the MST regions as well as in the ionospheric mode to study the F region as well as the E region of the ionosphere. Scientific Objectives A reliable three dimensional dynamical model of the atmosphere over the low latitudes improves our understanding of climatic and weather variations especially those

due to transport of minor constituents; generation of gravity waves from wind shears jet streams and dynamics of weather fronts, cyclones, storms and monsoon circulations. The Indian Middle Atmosphere Programme (IMAP) is already being persued as a multi institutional activity using various ground based, balloon and rocket borne as well as satellite based experiments for investigating the dynamical, chemical and elctrodynamical characteristics of the atmosphere in the region between 10-100 kms in height. The ability of the MST Radar to continuously monitor the atmospheric dynamical processes will enable the investigation of prevailing winds, planetary waves and tides, gravity waves and turbulence. Such high resolution observations are not possible on a continuous basis using the techniques of satellites, rockets or balloons. In addition to the middle atmospheric phenomena, the radar can be used in a coherent back scattered mode for ionospheric studies. It would be possible to study the characteristics of ionospheric irregularities and associated electrodynamics. Indian MST Radar Major Areas of Scientific Studies * Middle Atmospheric Dynamics winds, waves (planetary waves, tides and gravity waves), atmospheric stability, turbulence parameters and coupling processes. Meteorological Applications Tropospheric wind profile including shear prior to during the onset of cyclones Tropospheric stratospheric interaction including wave transients and transport of atmospheric constituents Structure and variability of stable layers like tropopause * Inospheric Field aligned Coherent Back Scatter F and E region irregularities, plasma instabilities and associated electrodynamic processes. MST Radar Highlights Highlights of the scientific results obtained are the following (a) Mapping of high resolution vector winds including the detection of strong wind shears particularly in the zonal components. (b) Detection of tropopause and its structure including the associated phenomenon of tropopause breaking observation of multiple stable layers at different heights below tropopause. (c) Detection of turbulent layers with scales of the order of the range resolution of the radar (approx 150 ms) with strong aspect sensitivity. (d) Short period (5 to 10 min) fluctuations observed in the horizontal and vertical wind components specially in the height region of 6 to 8 kms which was also the region of strong wind shears. (e) Measurements of vertical convection using E-W and N-S polarization of the orthogonal Yagi arrays and high resolution observations of reflectivity turbulence structure constant (Cn2) profiles. (f) Observations of coherent backscatter from the field aligned F-regions plasma irregularities by pointing the radar beam perpendicular to the geomagnetic

field lines, The basic characteristics of the Doppler spectra and Range Time Intensity (RTI) maps of the received signal suggest the same as over the equator. (g) Field aligned irregularities have been observed at E region heights which are distinctly different from that of the F-region. Co-Locatable Facilities The following co-locatable facilities are identified to be introduced at NMRF is a phased manner. The Radio Acoustic Sounding System (RASS) to derive temperature profiles in the troposphere. The Raleigh lidar to measure the stratospheric winds in the region of 30 to 60 kms LIDAR Light Detection And Ranging A lidar system essentially consists of A laser transmitter A receiver system A data acquisition & processing unit In a typical system; a laser beam from the source is directed to the atmosphere with the help of a suitably designed transmitting optics. The beam interacts with various atmospheric constituents like gas, molecules, aerosols & particles and is scattered on all directions. In a mono static lidar (transmitter and receiver are collocated), the portion of the incident energy that is scattered back towards the receiver, is received for detection. The received signal contains information on the concentration and range of the scatterers/ absorbes of the target. From the receiver, signal is detected and displayed on an oscilloscope or recorded in the data acquisition system. A bistatic geometry of lidar system require considerable separation between transmitter and receiver. This arrangement is preferred in specific application such as study of angular scattering. The bistatic systems operate with continuous wave laser source. This arrangement does not rely upon sophisticated laser termology of nano-and pico second source pulse generating capability. Lidar Transmitting System.Selection of a laser source in the transmitter depends on the particular application and the nature of constituent under study. This in turn determines the transmitted wavelength, duration of the pulse and the peak power requirements, for the source beam. Recent developments in high power laser systems have been a catalysing force in the advancement of a lidar technology. CO2 lasers have been widely used in lidar system. Nd :Y AG lasers having nonosecond pulse generating capability with sufficient high peak power and fine tuning possibilities through dye pumping are now proving suitable transmitters for most lidar

applications. However in some applications like the study of cloud base heights or other short range applications, low power sources are sufficient. Ruby Sapphire Al2, O3 containing small amount of chromium in the form Cr2 O3. YAG Yurium Alluminium Garnet. Lidar Receiver System. The receiver system of a lidar includes a large aperture Newtonian Casserain type telescope, a spectrum analyser and photodetecting electronics. The telescope collects the back scatter radiation which is specially analysed and is passed on to a photomultiplier. The overall design for the receiver optics is influenced by the environmental constraints. For photo detection, the major requirement is high sensitivity. Advanced filtering techniques and Fabry-Perot interferometers are used for spectral analysis. Data Acquisition & Display. The configuration of a system for data acquisition is governed by the nature of measurement parameters, data to be processed / archived and the format in which output is desired. The rapid advancement in micro processors has been a substantial contributory factor in the growth of lidar technology. It is possible to analyse the return signal of lidar in real time mode from a source of high pulse repetition rate. The complex return signal can be digitised, processed and stored / displayed with the advent of micro computers. Lidar Equation For monostatic geometry, the back scattered power on terms of transmitted power is determined using the following lidar equation.
C (R) Ar R-2 exp P(R) = Po 2
D 2 ( R )dR 0

Where Po = Transmitted Power C = Velocity of light = Pulse duration C / 2 = Length of illuminated path R = Range Ar = Effective Receiver Area ( R ) = Volume Scattering Coefficient ( R ) = Optical extinction coefficient In writing the basic assumption is that for each radiated pulse only a single scattering event takes place. However, it can be seen that a lidar can detect scattering from atmospheric volumes of the order of few cubic meters even at a distance of tens of kilometres. This excellent spatial resolution is unattainable in other remote sensing technique, used in probing the atmosphere.

The information on atmospheric parameters is contained in ( R ) , volume extinction coefficient and the ( R ) , the volume scattering coefficient. These values can be determined by measuring P(R).
( R ) has a contribution from Rayleigh back scattering coefficient from the gas molecules as well as Mie back scattering coefficient from aerosols, dust particles etc, the range of values can extend from 10-3/m/Sr for large particles Mie scattering to less than 10-12m/Sr for Rayleigh scattering situations. Similarly the extinction coefficient ( R ) is a summation of all attenuation process in the atmosphere ie. both through scattering and absorption by gases and particles along the beam.

Both ( R ) and ( R ) are inter dependant. Appropriate methods have been developed for deriving these from the observed scattered power. The analysis could get further complicated in the real situation, as the lidar back scattered signal is affected by the particulate geometry and multiple scattering processes. The final resolution capabilities of a lidar systems are affected by signal to Noise ratio. Noise due to background light during day time can be minimised by using narrow band pass filter. The receiver and detector may add to the noise component which can be controlled through a proper design. Lidar Measurement Technique Differential Absorption Lidar (DIAL) DIAL technique is an important tool in Atmospheric Technology. It exploits strong wavelength dependence of the absorption spectra of minor constituents. DIAL uses a tunable two wavelength laser transmitter, having slightly different wavelength. One of the wavelengths is selected to resonate with the strong absorption band of the constituent under study. As the two wavelength pulse propagates in the atmosphere, the extinction and volume back scattering coefficients are expected to be same for both, but one of these undergo peak absorption. A dual channel receiver detects the back scattering signals and the ratio of backscatter cross section is a measure of concentration of the absorbing material/constituent gas. The location of the gas can be measured from the range resolution if the LIDAR. DIAL thus provides a measure of concentrations as well as spatial distribution of large number of gases. Frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser pumped dye laser source has tenability over a broad wavelength range, and is the most suitable candidates for DIAL operations. Using DIAL both path averaged and high vertical resolution profiles upto 50 km height have been possible to achieve. However, the requirement of two wavelengths, little apart from each other puts a strongest requirement for certain species. Complication can also arise if the absorption of other gases overlap the absorption of the tgt gas. Raman Lidar. A lidar based on the principle of Raman scattering is called a Raman lidar. According to Raman scattering, a lidar beam irrelastically interacting with atmospheric gas molecules undergoes a characteristic shift in the frequency. The amount of shift in the wavelength of a coherently scattered radiation gives the specific

information on the molecular constituents in the tgt. A shift can occur either due to rotational or vibrational molecular transitions. A Raman lidar can identify nitrogen, ozone, methane, water vapour molecules in the atmosphere and can also help in detection and location of unknown pollutants in the atmosphere. The Nd:YAG lidar systems have been successfully operated for measuring raman scattering by nitrogen molecules for determining temperature profiles and scattering by water vapour for moisture profiling. A Xecl Raman lidar designed for methane measurements has demonstrated an accuracy of 10% for the concentrations ranging from 2-20%. Raman technique provides better, resolution for measurements of close range, even when gas concentrations are small, in which case DIAL resolutions are weak. A Raman lidar can reduce the system complexity and cost, since only are laser wavelength is required instead of two. It has another advantage over DIAL, as ct does not require repeated selection of source wavelengths corresponding to the target gas. However, achieving the adequate day time signal to noise ratio is one of the challenges. There is great need to develop cost effective Raman lidar system for stmospheric applications in tropis. Measurements of water vapour profiles is of crucial importance, and a Raman lidar could be valuable remote sensing tool. Doppler Lidar. The application of Doppler principle in the design of a lidar involves measurement of frequency shift as a result of radial motion of the scattering target. The sign of the Doppler shift in frequency determines the direction of motion. A Doppler lidar is desirable for detecting turbulent motions. In a typical system, a laser beam is split into two beams, and sent in two divergent paths. From the measurement of Doppler shift in frequency, two wind velocity components along the beam directions can be determined. The third velocity component perpendicular to be beam direction is measured from the time it takes the inhomogeneous to move from one beam to the other. Thus combination of the time-of-flight and Doppler techniques provide 3 components of wind velocity. An overview of different lidar techniques used in wind and turbulence measurements. One of the primary requirements of Doppler lidar system is the high peak pulse energy of the order of 10J for achieving adequate return signal. Satellite mounted coherent Doppler lidar are future atmospheric probes likely to become reality by the middle of this decade. Doppler Radar Most meterological radars are non-coherent and are used to observe the location and to measure the intensity of the back scattered signals. The radars also can detect the pulse-to-pulse change of signal strength. For many purposes, it is useful to know the velocity of the scatterers with respect to a fixed point on the ground. A non-coherent radar can not give such information except in a few special circumstances.

The velocity of scatterers on the free atmosphere can be obtained by means of coherent radars. The name Doppler Radar has been given to the class of radar sets which measures the shift in microwave frequency caused by moving targets. The Doppler Shift Frequency Assume that a target is at a range r from a radar set operating at a frequency

(corresponding to a wavelength ). The total distance traversed by a narrow pulse in going to the target and back to the antenna obviously is 2r. Measured in terms of the wavelength, the distance amounts to 2r/ or, in radians, (2r/ ) 2 = 2r/ . If the em wave emitted by the antenna has a phase o, the phase after it turns will be