Aquacultural Engineering 1 (1982) 239-244

C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D USE O F F R E E - S T A N D I N G S O L A R S I L O S AS C O M B I N E D MASS A L G A L / F I S H C U L T U R E U N I T S

BARRY A. COSTA-PIERCE*
Goddard College, Plainfield, Vermont 05667, USA

A BS TRA CT Construction o f solar silos or'or combined mass algal/fish culture is detailed and their speciality use outlhTed f o r nzixed culture of' unicellular green algae and blue tilapia

(Sarotherodon aureus).

INTRODUCTION The main goal of any unicellular mass algal production unit is to maximize photosynthetic conversion efficiencies (assimilation ratios) and net production of plant organic matter through efficient use of available solar energy. Phytoplankton require unlimited quantities of phosphorus, nitrogen, iron, trace metals and carbon dioxide to attain high net productivities. Highest yields reported for freshwater mass algal culture of over 30 g dry wt m -2 day -1 have been realized when all nutrients, particularly high phosphorus, iron and carbon dioxide, are present in excess, forcing light and temperature to become growth limiting factors (Brown, 1971; Goldman, 1979a,b). In this regard, optimizing light and temperature should actuate even higher yields in algal mass culture due to increased photosynthetic rates concomitant with the onset of optimal light and temperature regimes (Aruga, 1965). Engineering concepts such as shallow laminar-flow ponds or translucent, free-standing silos that expose a greater volume of water to incident solar radiation and higher temperatures could conceivably increase algal yields dramatically. * Present address: Department of Oceanography, University of tlawaii, ftonolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA. 239 Aquacultural Engineering 0144-8609182/0001-0239/$02.75 Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1982 Printed in Great Britain

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Much work has been accomplished using the laminar-flow raceway designs (see Goldman, 1979a). Comparatively little or no work has been done with free-standing silos for mass algal culture or fish rearing even though previous researchers have documented higher algal productivities (Tamiya, 1957) and greater photosynthetic efficiencies (Cook, 1950) with cylinders or tanks with transparent side walls over laminar-flow raceway designs. Recently Zweig e t al. (1981) and Pierce (1980) have used free-standing, translucent fiberglass cylinders for the mass culture of mixed species of freshwater algae combined with the rearing of herbivorous fish, S a r o t h e r o d o n aureus (McLarney and Todd, 1977; Todd, 1976, 1977; Zweig, 1977). This paper details the simple contruction and use of these solar silos and their primary productivity and fish yield as combined algae/fish production units.

SILO CONSTRUCTION

Although solar silos may be constructed in a wide variety of shapes and sizes the standard size appears to be 1.52 m (5 ft) in diameter and height, holding 2380 litre (630 gallons) of water. For indoor areas or greenhouses of little floor space, tall, thin silos may be more appropriate. In greenhouses these translucent tanks may serve the dual purpose of heat storage (thermal mass) and aquaculture units. Generally the size of the cylinder will be a function of the special needs of the aquaculturist for portable tanks that may produce algae, hold fish, etc. On this occasion cylinders were needed for algal culture in a passive solar greenhouse of limited floor space (7.2 m x 7.2 m). Therefore it was decided that tall, thin tanks (1.98 m high, 0.46 m in diameter) should be constructed; details of construction are given here. The author and coworkers have also successfully constructed numerous full size (1.52 m 1-52 m) silos using identical methods (Fig. 1). The silos are constructed of Kalwall (Kalwall Solar Corp., PO Box 237, Manchester, New Hampshire, USA), a fiberglass-like material available in rolls 15.24m 1-52 m x 0.10 cm having a purported ability to transmit 90% of incident solar radiation when new. The material is expected to last 20 years. The cylinders are easily constructed into watertight tanks by sealing strips together wth an epoxy and a catalyst. First a measured rectangle (height of desired silo multiplied by the circumference plus 5.2 cm) is cut from the roll. A simple jig is constructed to hold the piece in place while the resin and catalyst are prepared (Fig. 2). The epoxy, Arcon 2795, and the catalyst, Versamid 140, are mixed in a 3:1 ratio for application to the overlapping seam (the 5.2 cln allowed for overlap above), making a cylinder. (Both epoxy and catalyst were from the Mlied Resin Corp., Weymouth Industrial Park, East Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA.) The Kalwall surface contains a sealing (release coat) which must be sanded shortly before applying the resin to the seam to ensure proper adhesion. A 1.98 m x 0.46m cylinder requires about 200ml of mixed resin to seal the seam. After application, the simple jig and 'C' clamps hold the Kalwall in place while the

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Fig. 1. (a) Indoor solar silo (1.52 m X 1.52 m) in a passive solar greenhouse producing vegetables. The 'hat' is used as added insulation in winter, (b) Outdoor solar silos in a reflective marble courtyard. (Photos taken at the New Alchemy Institute, Hatchville, Massachusetts, USA.)

resin sets for 48 h (Fig. 2). Weights are added along the top o f the seam to apply pressure all along its length. A f t e r drying, the top and b o t t o m edges are reinforced with 5.2 cm wide strips o f Kalwall around the circumference and allowed to dry 48 h before the b o t t o m is constructed. For the b o t t o m , the cylinder is placed upright, its diameter measured and two identical circular pieces are cut, leaving a

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//5

1 cm

5.1 cm

Fig. 2. A construction jig for 1.98m0.46m silos. A 1.2nll-2nl20.3cm box cut in half serves to hold the precut piece of Kalwall. A circle with the desired radius is marked on the end of the half box with a compass and cut with a jigsaw. The Kalwall piece is placed in the jig and the cut out, wooden circles are pushed back into the cylinder to give structural integrity.

margin of 2-5 cm greater than the measured diameter. Alternatively the cylinder is put upright and a line is traced around its circumference, leaving a 2.5 cm margin. After the pieces are cut, the adjoining sides are sanded, glued together, and allowed to dry for 48 h with weight on top. Lastly the cylinder is put upright on to this b o t t o m piece, a line is traced around the circumference and a small bead o f mixed resin (about 50 ml) then added around the line. The cylinder is put on top of the b o t t o m piece and weight added to the top to hold it in place for 48 h. After drying, 50 ml of mixed resin are added into the top of the cylinder and the whole cylinder rotated on its b o t t o m edge to insure the sealing of the interior b o t t o m wall seam. The cylinder is allowed to dry for 48 h, filled and checked for leaks. If any are found they are patched with light applications of the mixed resin (10 ml). Cost o f constructing the tall, thin silos was just $19.00 while cost of the larger 1 . 5 2 m x 1 . 5 2 m units was just $65.00, or less than one-half the cost o f identical units purchased in 1982 ($163.00). Before the silos are used for algae or fish culture they must be conditioned to prevent the leaching of dioctyl phthalates from the resin into the water (Cormignani and Bennett, 1976). Each silo is washed with warm, salty water (36-380/00) and the sides and b o t t o m scrubbed with a brush. They are then filled with water and allowed to stand for 7-10 days. This water is discarded, fresh water readded, and the system readied for stocking.

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SILO USE

Silos have numerous speciality uses but mostly have been used for combination mass algal culture/fish culture. Up to 16 algal species may coexist in the nutrient-saturated systems (Table 1). Photosynthetic rates in the mixed algal community, measured by oxygen light/dark bottle methods, reach 3-0 g C m -3 d -1, among the highest rates recorded for eutrophic systems (Wetzel, 1975), or at rates comparable to the most productive mass algae production systems (Goldman, 1979a).

TABLE 1 Sixteen common phytoplankton species found in solar silos (identification according to Prescott (1962))
Algal species A nkistrodesrnus braunii Chlorella sp. Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Gloeocystis major Golenkinia paucispina Haematococcus lacustris Lepocinclis fusiJbrmis Micractinium pusillum Navicula sp. Pediastrurn integrum Scenedesmus acurninatus Scenedesmus longus Scenedesmus quadricauda Sphaeorocystis schroeteri Tetraederon duospinum Trachelomonas sp. Cell or colony

Cell Cell Colony Colony Cell Cell Cell Colony Cell Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Cell Cell

Generally a seasonal production cycle operates as follows (Todd et al., 1979; Pierce, 1980). The systems are filled with fresh well water, seeded with water from a local eutrophic pond (or not seeded), and fertilized once with soluble nutrients derived from manure, a manure 'tea' (or not fertilized at all). A monoculture of tilapia (Sarotherodon aureus) is stocked with an initial stocking density of 2 - 4 kg per silo of fish ranging from 30 to 120 g size classes. Fish are fed 3% of their body weight daily of commercial trout developer feed and allowed to grow for 90-120 days. Water quality management is accomplished by simply siphoning 20% of the water volume every week and adding fresh well water as replacement. Aeration is provided only at night by bubbling from a commercial aerator (Silent Giant, Cont6, etc.). Fish productivity per 90-120 days growing season varies around 25 kg per year, with one pond

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fed insects at a high rate (175 g day -1) having a fish productivity o f 4 8 k g per year (Zweig e t al., 1981). The construction and use o f modular, solar silo units as experimental tanks, special holding tanks, mass algal p r o d u c t i o n units, or as units for aquaculture food p r o d u c t i o n is a simple operation which m a y allow the silo design to b e c o m e m o r e readily available to aquaculturists and researchers worldwide. Preliminary results indicate that primary and secondary productivities in these silo units are among the highest recorded and further use and research of free-standing solar silos is encouraged. Silos may present a low cost alternative to the high capital start-up costs involved with laminar-flow raceway designs for algae and fish culture w i t h o u t sacrificing high productivity.

REFERENCES Aruga, Y. (1965). Ecological studies of photosynthesis and matter production of phytoplankton. II. Photosynthesis of algae in relation to light intensity and temperature. Botany Mag. Tokyo, 78, 360-5. Brown, R. L. (1971). Removal o f Nitrate by an Algal System, ELY 4/71-7. US Environmental Agency Bull. No. 1303. Cook, P. M. (1950). Large-scale culture of Chlorella. In: The Culturing o f Algae, a Symposium, eds. J. Brunel, G. W. Prescott & L. H. Tiffany, Charles F. Kettering Foundation, Yellow Springs, Ohio, pp. 53-75. Cormignani, G. M. & Bennett, J. P. (1976). Leaching of plastics used in closed aquaculture systems. Aquaculture, 7, 89-91. Goldman, J. C. (1979a). Outdoor algal mass cultures. I. Applications. Water Res., 13, 1-19. Goldman, J. C. (1979b). Outdoor algal mass cultures. II. Photosynthetic yield limitations. Water Res., 13,119-36. McLarney, W. O. & Todd, J. H. (1977). Aquaculture on a reduced scale. Comm. Fish Farmer and Aquaculture News, 3, 10-17. Pierce, B. A. (1980). Biotic effects of grazing by a planktivorous fish, Tilapia aurea (Steindachner), on the phytoplankton of an experimental aquaculture system. MSc Thesis, University of Vermont, Burlington. Prescott, G. W. (1962). Algae o f the Western Great Lakes Area. W. C. Brown and Co., Dubuque, Iowa. Tamiya, H. (1957). Mass culture of algae. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol., 8,309-29. Todd, J. H. (1976). The new alchemists. Co-Evolution Quart., 6, 54--65. Todd, J. H. (1977). A search for sustainable futures. In: Alternatives to Growth, ed. D. Meadows, Ballinger Publishing, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp. 45-57. Todd, J. H., Zweig, R. D., Doolittle, A. M., Engstrom, D. G. & Wolfe, J. R. (1979). Assessments o f a Semi-closed Renewable Resource-based Aquaculture System. Office of Problem Analysis, National Science Foundation. Wetzel, R. G. (1975). Limnology, W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. Zweig, R. D. (1977). The saga of the solar-algae ponds. Jor. New Alchemists, 4, 1, 63-8. Zweig, R. D., Wolf, J. R., Todd, J. H., Engstrom, D. G. & Doolittle, A. M. (1981). Solar aquaculture: an ecological approach to human food production. In: Bio-Engineering Symposium for Fish Culture, eds. L. J. Allen & E. C. Kinney, Fish Culture Section, American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, pp. 210-26.