Logical Deduction for CSAT, UPPCS and other Aptitude Tests.

Logical Deduction: The phenomenon of deriving a conclusion from a single proposition or a set of given propositions, is known as logical deduction. The given propositions are also referred to as the premises. Two Inferential Processes of Deduction: I. Immediate Deductive Inference: Here, conclusion is deduced from one of the given propositions, by any of the three ways -conversion, obversion and contraposition. 1. Conversion: The Conversion proceeds with interchanging the subject term and the predicate term i.e. the subject term of the premise becomes the predicate term of the conclusion and the predicate term of the premise becomes the subject of the conclusion. The given proposition is called convertend, whereas the conclusion drawn from it is called its converse. Table of Valid Conversions Convertend A: All S is P Ex. All pins are tops. E: No S is P. Ex. No fish is whale. Converse I: Some P is S Some tops are pins. E: No P is S. No whale is fish.

I: Some S is P. I: Some P is S. Ex. Some boys are poets. Some poets are boys. O: Some S is not P. No valid conversion

Note that in a conversion, the quality remains the same and the quantity may change. 2. Obversion: In Obversion, we change the quality of the proposition and replace the predicate term by its complement. Table of Valid Obversion

Obvertend A: All birds are mammals. E: No poets are singers. I: Some nurses are doctors.

Obverse E: No birds are non-mammals. A: All poets are non-singers. O: Some nurses are not non-doctors.

O: some politicians are not statesmen. I: Some politicians are non-statesmen. 3. Contraposition: To obtain the contra positive of a statement, we first replace the subject and predicate terms in the proposition and then exchange both these terms with their complements. Table of Valid Contrapositions Proposition A: All birds are mammals. Contra positive A: All non-mammals are non-birds.

I: Some birds are mammals. I: Some non-mammals are non-birds. Note: The valid converse, obverse or contra positive of a given proposition always logically follows from the proposition. II. Mediate Deductive Inference (SYLLOGISM): First introduced by Aristotle, a Syllogism is a deductive argument in which conclusion has to be drawn from two propositions referred to as the premises. Example: 1. All lotuses are flowers. 2. All flowers are beautiful. 3. All lotuses are beautiful. Clearly, the propositions 1 and 2 are the premises and the proposition 3, which follows from the first two propositions, is called the conclusion. Term: In Logic, a term is a word or a combination of words, which by itself can be used as a subject or predicate of a proposition. Syllogism is concerned with three terms: 1. Major Term: It is the predicate of the conclusion and is denoted by P (first letter of 'Predicate').

2. Minor Term: It is the subject of the conclusion and is denoted by S (first letter of 'Subject'). 3. Middle Term: It is the term common to both the premises and is denoted by M (first letter of 'Middle'). Example: Premises: 1. All dogs are animals. 2. All tigers are dogs. Conclusion: All tigers are animals. Here 'animals' is the predicate of the conclusion and so, it is the major term. P. 'Tigers' is the subject of the conclusion and so, it is the minor term, S. 'Dogs' is the term common to both the premises and so, it is the middle term, M. Major And Minor Premises : Of the two premises, the major premise is that in which the middle term is the subject and the minor premise is that in which the middle term is the predicate. RULES FOR DERIVING CONCLUSION FROM TWO GIVEN PREMISES: 1. The conclusion does not contain the middle term. Example. Statements: 1. All men are girls. 2. Some girls are students. Conclusions: 1. All girls are men. 2. Some girls are not students.

Since both the conclusions 1 and 2 contain the middle term 'girls', so neither of them can follow.

2. No term can be distributed in the conclusion unless it is distributed in the premises. Example. Statements: 1. Some dogs are goats. 2. All goats are cows. Conclusions: 1. All cows are goats. 2. Some dogs are cows. Statement 1 is an I-type proposition which distributes neither the subject nor the predicate. Statement 2 is an A type proposition which distributes the subject i.e. 'goats' only. Conclusion 1 is an A-type proposition which distributes the subject 'cow' only since the term 'cows' is distributed in conclusion 1 without being distributed in the premises, so conclusion 1 cannot follow.

3. The middle term (M) should he distribute at least once in the premises. Otherwise, the conclusion cannot follow. For the middle term to be distributed in a premise. (i) M must be the subject if premise is an A proposition. (ii) M must be subject or predicate if premise is an E proposition. (iii) M must be predicate if premise is an O proposition. Note that in I proposition, which distributes neither the subject nor the predicate, the middle term cannot be distributed.

Example. Statements : 1. All fans are watches. 2. Some watches are black. Conclusions : 1. All watches are fans. 2. Some fans are black. In the premises, the middle term is 'watches'. Clearly, it is not distributed in the first premise which is an A proposition as it does not form its subject. Also, it is not distributed in the second premise which is proposition. Since the middle term is not distributed even once in the premises, so no conclusion follows.

4. No conclusion follows (A) if both the premises are particular Example. Statements : 1. Some books are pens. 2. Some pens are erasers. Conclusions: 1. All books are erasers. 2. Some erasers are books. Since both the premises are particular, so no definite conclusion follows. (b) If both the premises are negative. Example. Statements :

1. No flower is mango. 2. No mango is cherry. Conclusions : 1. No flower is cherry. 2. Some cherries are mangoes. Since both the premises are negative, neither conclusion follows. (c) If the major premise is particular and the minor premise is negative. Example. Statements: 1. Some dogs are bulls. 2. No tigers are dogs. Conclusions: 1. No dogs are tigers. 2. Some bulls are tigers. Here, the first premise containing the middle term 'dogs' as the subject is the major premise and the second premise containing the middle term 'dogs' as the predicate is the minor premise. Since the major premise is particular and the minor premise is negative, so no conclusion follows.

5. If the middle term is distributed twice, the conclusion cannot be universal. Example. Statements : 1. All fans are chairs. 2. No tables are fans. Conclusions:

1. No tables are chairs. 2. Some tables are chairs. Here, the first premise is an A proposition and so, the middle term 'fans' forming the subject is distributed. The second premise is an E proposition and so, the middle term 'fans' forming the predicate is distributed. Since the middle term is distributed twice, so the conclusion cannot be universal.

6. If one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. Example. Statements: 1. All grasses are trees. 2. No tree is shrub. Conclusions: 1. No grasses are shrubs. 2. Some shrubs are grasses. Since one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. So, conclusion 2 cannot follow.

7. If one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular. Example. Statements: 1. Some boys are thieves. 2. All thieves are dacoits. Conclusions : 1. Some boys are dacoits.

2. All dacoits are boys. Since one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular. So, conclusion 2 cannot follow.

8. If both the premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be affirmative. Example. Statements : 1. All women are mothers. 2. All mothers are sisters. Conclusions : 1. All women are sisters. 2. Some women are not sisters. Since both the premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be affirmative. So, conclusion 2 cannot follow.

9. If both the premises are universal, the conclusion must be universal. Complementary pair: A pair of contradictory statements i.e. a pair of statements such that if one is true, the other is false and when no definite conclusion can be drawn, either of them is bound to follow, is called a complementary pair. E and I-type propositions together form a complementary pair and usually either of them follows, in a case where we cannot arrive at a definite conclusion, using the rules of syllogism. Let us study the various possible cases and draw all possible inferences in each case, along with verification through Venn diagrams. Case 1: All men are boys. All boys are students. Immediate Deductive Inferences:

The converse of first premise i.e. 'Some boys are men' and the converse of second premise i.e. 'Some students are boys' both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: Since both the premises are universal and affirmative, the conclusion must be universal affirmative. Also, the conclusion should not contain the middle term. So, it follows that 'All men are students'. The converse of this conclusion i.e. 'Some students are men' also holds.

Case 2: All birds are animals. All fishes are animals. Immediate Deductive Inferences: The converse of first premise i.e. 'Some animals are birds' and the converse of second premise i.e. 'Some animals are fishes' both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: Both, being A-type propositions, distribute subject only. Thus, the middle term 'animals' is not distributed even once in the premises. So, no definite conclusion follows.

Case 3: All puppets are dolls. Some dolls are rattles. Immediate Deductive Inferences: The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some dolls are puppets' and the converse of the second premise i.e. 'Some rattles are dolls', both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: First premise, being an A-type proposition, distributes the subject only while the second premise, being an I-type proposition, distributes neither subject nor predicate. Since the middle term 'dolls' is not distributed even once in the premises, so no definite conclusion can be drawn.

Case 4: Some writers are players. All players are musicians.

Immediate Deductive Inferences : The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some players are writers' and the converse of the second premise i.e. 'Some musicians are players', both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: Since one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular and should not contain the middle term. So, it follows that 'Some writers are musicians'. The converse of this conclusion i.e. 'Some musicians are writers' also holds.

Case 5: All boxes are toys. Some boxes are clips. Immediate Deductive Inferences : The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some toys are boxes' and the converse of the second premise i.e. 'Some clips are boxes', both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: Since one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular and should not contain the middle term. So, it follows that 'Some toys are clips'. The converse of this conclusion i.e. 'Some clips are toys' also holds.

Case 6: All buses are vans. Some cycles are vans. Immediate Deductive Inferences:

The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some vans are buses' and the converse of the second premise i.e. 'Some vans are cycles', both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: First premise, being an A-type proposition, distributes subject only and the second premise, being an I-type proposition, distributes neither subject nor predicate. So, the middle term 'vans' is not distributed even once in the premises. Hence, no definite conclusion can be drawn.

Case 7: Some radios are cameras. Some cameras are statues. Immediate Deductive Inferences: The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some cameras are radios' and the converse of the second premise i.e. 'Some statues are cameras', both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences : Since both premises are particular, no definite conclusion follows.

Case 8: All cakes are candies. No candy is pastry. Immediate Deductive Inferences: The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some candies are cakes' and the converse of the second premise i.e. 'No pastry is candy', both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: Since both premises are universal, the conclusion must be universal. Since one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. So, it follows that 'No cake is pastry'. The converse of this conclusion i.e. 'No pastry is cake' also holds.

Case 9: No coin is ring. All rings are bangles. Immediate Deductive Inferences : The converse of the first premise i.e. 'No ring is coin' and the converse of the second premise i.e. Some bangles are rings', both hold.

Mediate Deductive Inferences: First premise, being an E-type proposition, distributes both the subject and the predicate. Second premise, being an A-type proposition, distributes the subject. Thus, the middle term 'ring' is distributed twice in the premises. So, the conclusion cannot be universal. Also, since one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. Thus, the conclusion must be particular negative i.e. O-type. So, it follows that 'some bangles are not coins'.

Case 10: Some lamps are candles. No candle is bulb. Immediate Deductive Inferences : The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some candles are lamps' and the converse of the second premise i.e. 'No bulb is candle', both hold. Mediate Deductive Inferences: Since one premise is particular and the other negative, the conclusion must be particular negative i.e. O-type, so, it follows that 'Some lamps are not bulbs'.

Important Points to Remember: While deriving logical conclusions, always remember that the following conclusions hold : 1. The converse of each of the given premises; 2. The conclusion that directly follows from the given premises in accordance with the rules of syllogism; 3. The converse of the derived conclusions.

Seating Arrangement
In order to solve seating arrangement questions, first of all diagram should be made. By doing so questions are easily and quickly solved. Example 1: 1. 2. 3. 4. 6 Boys are sitting in a circle and facing towards the centre of the circle. Rajeev is sitting to the right of Mohan but he is not just at the left of Vijay. Suresh is between Babu and Vijay. Ajay is sitting to the left of Vijay.

Who is sitting to the left of Mohan ?

Solution :

Hence, Babu is sitting to the left of Mohan.

Example 2: 1. Eleven students A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J and K are sitting in first line facing to the teacher. 2. D who is just to the left of F, is to the right of C at second place. 3. A is second to the right of E who is at one end. 4. J is the nearest neighbour of A and B and is to the left of G at third place. 5. H is next to D to the right and is at the third place to the right of I. Who is just in the middle ? Solution :

Hence, I is just in the middle.

Example 3: Siva, Sathish, Amar and Praveen are playing cards. Amar is to the right of Sathish, who is to the right of Siva. Who is to the right of Amar ? Solution :

Hence Praveen is to the right of Amar.

Example 4: 1. A, B and C are three boys while R, S and T are three girls. They are sitting such that the boys are facing the girls. 2. A and R are diagonally opposite to each other. 3. C is not sitting at any of the ends. 4. T is left to R but opposite to C. (A). who is sitting opposite to B ? (B). who is sitting diagonally opposite to B ? Solution :

(A). Hence, R is sitting opposite to B. (B). Hence, S is sitting diagonally opposite to B.

Venn Diagrams
Introduction: The main aim of this section is to test your ability about the relation between some items of a group by diagrams. In these questions some figures of circles and some words are given. You have to choose a figure which represents the given words. Some critical examples are given below: Example 1: If all the words are of different groups, then they will be shown by the diagram as given below. Dog, Cow, Horse

All these three are animals but of different groups, there is no relation between them. Hence they will be represented by three different circles.

Example 2: If the first word is related to second word and second word is related to third word. Then they will be shown by diagram as given below. Unit, Tens, Hundreds

Ten units together make one Tens or in one tens, whole unit is available and ten tens together make one hundreds.

Example 3: If two different items are completely related to third item, they will be shown as below. Pen, Pencil, Stationery

Example 4: If there is some relation between two items and these two items are completely related to a third item they will be shown as given below. Women, Sisters, Mothers

Some sisters may be mothers and vice-versa. Similarly some mothers may not be sisters and vice-versa. But all the sisters and all the mothers belong to women group.

Example 5: Two items are related to a third item to some extent but not completely and first two items totally different. Students, Boys, Girls

The boys and girls are different items while some boys may be students. Similarly among girls some may be students.

Example 6: All the three items are related to one another but to some extent not completely. Boys, Students, Athletes

Some boys may be students and vice-versa. Similarly some boys may be athletes and vice-versa. Some students may be athletes and vice-versa.

Example 7: Two items are related to each other completely and third item is entirely different from first two. Lions, Carnivorous, Cows

All the lions are carnivorous but no cow is lion or carnivorous.

Example 8:

First item is completely related to second and third item is partially related to first and second item. Dogs, Animals, Flesh-eaters

All the dogs are belonging to animals but some dogs are flesh eater but not all.

Example 9: First item is partially related to second but third is entirely different from the first two. Dogs, Flesh-eaters, Cows

Some dogs are flesh-eaters but not all while any dog or any flesh-eater cannot be cow.

Logical Sequence of Words

In this type of question, some words are given. You have to arrange these words in a meaningful order. The order may be according to age, size and need etc. Example 1: Arrange the following words in a meaningful order. 1. Death 2. Marriage 3. Education 4. Birth 5. Funeral (A) 5, 1, 2, 3, 4

(B) 4, 2, 3, 1, 5 (C) 4, 3, 2, 5, 1 (D) 4, 3, 2, 1, 5 Answer is Option D Explanation: First of all a man is born then he takes education; after this he is married. Then after sometimes he dies. After death the order is of Funeral. So the correct order is 4, 3, 2, 1 and 5.

Example 2: Arrange the following words in a logical sequence. 1. Grass 2. Curd 3. Milk 4. Cow 5. Butter (A) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (B) 2, 3, 4, 5, 1 (C) 4, 1, 3, 2, 5 (D) 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 Answer is Option C Explanation: We know that cow eats grass and then gives milk. With the milk, curd is made and then from curd, butter is made. Hence logical sequence is Cow, Grass, Milk, Curd, and Butter.

Blood Relation Test

Introduction:

The questions which are asked in this section depend upon Relation. You should have a sound knowledge of the blood relation in order to solve the questions. To remember easily the relations may be divided into two sides as given below: 1. Relations of Paternal side: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Father's father Grandfather Father's mother Grandmother Father's brother Uncle Father's sister Aunt Children of uncle Cousin Wife of uncle Aunt Children of aunt Cousin Husband of aunt Uncle

2. Relations of Maternal side: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mother's father Maternal grandfather Mother's mother Maternal grandmother Mother's brother Maternal uncle Mother's sister Aunt Children of maternal uncle Cousin Wife of maternal uncle Maternal aunt

Relations from one generation to next:

Different types of questions with explanation: Type 1: If A + B means A is the mother of B; A x B means A is the father of B; A $ B means A is the brother of B and A @ B means A is the sister of B then which of the following means P is the son of Q? (A) Q + R @ P @ N (C) Q x R $ P @ N Solution: (D) Q x R = Q is the mother of R [-Q, R] R $ P = R is the brother of P [+ R, P] P $ N = P is the brother of N [+ P, N] Therefore P is the son of Q. (B) Q + R * P @ N (D) Q x R $ P $ N

Type 2: A has 3 children. B is the brother of C and C is the sister of D, E who is the wife of A is the mother of D. There is only one daughter of the husband of E. what the relation between D and B is? Solution: With the chart

Therefore, D is a boy because there is only one daughter of E. Hence, B is the brother of D.

Type 3:

Pointing to a photograph, Rekha says to Lalli, "The girl in the photo is the second daughter of the wife of only son of the grandmother of my younger sister." How this girl of photograph is related to Rekha? Solution: First Method - By Generating Charts:

Second method:

1. Grandmother of younger sister of Rekha Grandmother of Rekha 2. Wife of only son of grandmother Mother of Rekha 3. Younger daughter of the mother Younger sister. Note: While solving the question (+) can be used for male and (-) can be used for female.

Cause and Effect

Introduction: In this type of questions two statements are given. Out of these two statements one may be the cause and other the effect or either these two may be independent causes any effect or independent effects of any cause etc. The following examples will you a clear cut idea to solve this type of problems. Example 1: Statements: 1. Ram's father was ill. 2. Ram brought medicine after consulting the doctor. Answer with Explanation: As Ram's father was ill, he brought medicine on the advice of doctor. Therefore, I statement is the cause while II statement is the effect.

Example 2: Statements: 1. The Central Government has recently declared to finish the rebate on farming. 2. The Central Government faces financial loss on account of giving rebate on farming for the last few years. Answer with Explanation: As the Central Government faced financial loss on accounts of giving rebate on farming for the last few years, therefore, they declared to finish the rebate of farming. Hence statement II is the cause while statement I is the effect.

Cube and Cuboids

Introduction:

In a cube or cuboids there are six faces in each. In a cube length, breadth and height are same while in cuboids these are different. In a cube the number of unit cubes = (side) 3. In cuboids the number of unit cube = (l x b x h).

Example: A cube of each side 4 cm has been painted black, red and green on pars of opposite faces. It is then cut into small cubes of each side 1 cm.

The following questions and answers are based on the information give above: 1. How many small cubes will be there? Total no. of cubes = (sides)3 = (4)3 = 64 2. How many small cubes will have three faces painted ? From the figure it is clear that the small cube having three faces colored are situated at the corners of the big cube because at these corners only three faces of the big cube meet. Therefore the required number of such cubes is always 8, because there are 8 corners. 3. How many small cubes will have only two faces painted ?

From the figure it is clear that to each edge of the big cube 4 small cubes are connected and two out of them are situated at the corners of the big cube which have all three faces painted. Thus, to edge two small cubes are left which have two faces painted. As the total no. of edges in a cube are 12. Hence the no. of small cubes with two faces coloured = 12 x 2 = 24 (Or) No. of small cubes with two faces coloured = (x - 2) x No. of edges Where x = (side of big cube / side of small cube)

4. How many small cubes will have only one face painted ? The cubes which are painted on one face only are the cubes at the centre of each face of the big cube. Since there are 6 faces in the big cube and each of the face of big cube there will be four small cubes. Hence, in all there will be 6 x 4 = 24 such small cubes (or) (x - 2)2 x 6.

5. How many small cubes will have no faces painted ? No. of small cubes will have no faces painted = No. of such small cubes = (x - 2)3 [ Here x = (4/1) = 4 ] = (4 - 2)3 = 8. 6. How many small cubes will have only two faces painted in black and green and all other faces unpainted ? There are 4 small cubes in layer II and 4 small cubes in layer III which have two faces painted green and black. Required no. of such small cubes = 4 + 4 = 8. 7. How many small cubes will have only two faces painted green and red ? No. of small cubes having two faces painted green and red = 4 + 4 = 8. 8. How many small cubes will have only two faces painted black and red ? No. of small cubes having two faces painted black and red = 4 + 4 = 8. 9. How many small cubes will have only black painted ? No. of small cubes having only black paint. There will be 8 small cubes which have only black paint. Four cubes will be form one side and 4 from the opposite side. 10. How many small cubes will be only red painted ?

No. of small cubes having only red paint = 4 + 4 = 8.

11. How many small cubes will be only green painted ? No. of small cubes having only green paint = 4 + 4 = 8. 12. How many small cubes will have at least one face painted ? No. of small cubes having at least one face painted = No. of small cubes having 1 face painted + 2 faces painted + 3 faces painted = 24 + 24 + 8 = 56. 13. How many small cubes will have at least two faces painted ? No. of small cubes having at least two faces painted = No. of small cubes having two faces painted + 3 faces painted = 24 + 8 = 32.

Syllogism
Introduction: The questions which are asked in this section contain two or more statements and these statements are followed by two or more conclusions. You have to find out which of the

conclusions logically follow from the given statements. The statements have to be taken true even if they seem to be at variance from the commonly known facts. For such questions, you can take the help of Venn Diagrams. On the basis of the given statements, you should draw all the possible diagrams, and then derive the solution from each of these diagrams separately. Finally, the answer common to the all the diagrams is taken. Example 1: Statements: 1. All dogs are asses. 2. All asses are bulls. Conclusions: 1. 2. 3. 4. Some dogs are not bulls. Some bulls are dogs. All bulls are dogs. All dogs are bulls.

Solution: On the basis of both statements, the following one diagram is possible.

From the diagram it is clear that (2) and (4) conclusions logically follow.

Example 2: Statements: 1. Some dogs are asses. 2. Some asses are bulls. Conclusions:

1. Some asses are not dogs. 2. Some dogs are bulls. Solution: From these given statements the following diagrams are possible:

From the diagram neither (1) nor (2) conclusions follow.

Dice
Dice is a cube. In cube there are 6 faces. Some important points are given below: 1. There are 6 faces in the cube - ABCG, GCDE, DEFH, BCDH, AGEF and ABHF.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Always four faces are adjacent to one face. Opposite of ABCG is DEFH and so on. CDEG is the upper face of the cube. ABHF is the bottom of the cube.

There are certain rules with the help of these rules question on dice can easily be determined.

Rule No. 1: Two opposite faces cannot be adjacent to one another. Example: Two different positions of a dice are shown below. Which number will appear on the face opposite to the face with number 4?

Solution: Faces with four numbers 6, 2, 5 and 3 are adjacent of to the face with No. 4. Hence the faces with no. 6, 2, 5 and 3 cannot be opposite to the face with no. 4. Therefore the remaining face with no.1 will be the opposite of the face with no. 4.

Rule No. 2:

If two different positions of a dice are shown and one of the two common faces is in the same position then of the remaining faces will be opposite to each other. Example: Two different positions of a dice are shown below.

Here in both shown positions two faces 5 and 3 are common. The remaining faces are 2 and 4. Hence the number on the face opposite to the face with number 2 is 4.

Rule No. 3: If in two different positions of dice, the position of a common face be the same, then each of the opposite faces of the remaining faces will be in the same position. Example:

Here in both positions of common (3) is same. Therefore, opposite of 5 is 6 and opposite of 4 is 2.

Rule No. 4: If in two different positions of a dice, the position of the common face be not the same, then opposite face of the common face will be that which is not shown on any face in these two positions. Besides, the opposite faces of the remaining faces will not be the same. Example:

Here in two positions of a dice the face with number 1 is not in the same position. The face with number 6 is not shown. Hence the face opposite to the face with number 1 is 6. Besides the opposite face of 3 will be the face with number 2 and opposite face to face 5 will be the face with number 1.

Analogy
Introduction: Analogy means similarity. In this type of questions, two objects related in some way are given and third object is also given with four or five alternatives. You have to find out which one of the alternatives bears the same relation with the third objects as first and second objects are related. Example 1: Curd : Milk :: Shoe : ? (A) Leather (C) Jute (B) Cloth (D) Silver

Answer: Option A As curd is made from milk similarly shoe is made from leather.

Example 2: Calf : Piglet :: Shed : ? (A) Prison (C) Pigsty (B) Nest (D) Den

Answer: Option C Calf is young one of the cow and piglet is the young of Pig. Shed is the dwelling place of cow. Similarly Pigsty is the dwelling place of pig.

Example 3: Malaria : Mosquito :: ? : ? (A) Poison : Death (C) Rat : Plague Answer: Option B As malaria is caused due to mosquito similarly cholera is cause due to water. (B) Cholera : Water (D) Medicine : Disease

Example 4: ABC : ZYX :: CBA : ? (A) XYZ (C) YZX (B) BCA (D) ZXY

Answer: Option A CBA is the reverse of ABC similarly XYZ is the reverse of ZYX.

Example 5: 4 : 18 :: 6 : ? (A) 32 (C) 11 (B) 38 (D) 37

Answer: Option B As, (4)2 + 2 =18

Similarly, (6)2 + 2 = 38.

Direction Sense Test

Introduction: There are four main directions - East, West, North and South as shown below:

There are four cardinal directions - North-East (N-E), North-West (N-W), South-East (SE), and South-West (S-W) as shown below:

1. At the time of sunrise if a man stands facing the east, his shadow will be towards west. 2. At the time of sunset the shadow of an object is always in the east. 3. If a man stands facing the North, at the time of sunrise his shadow will be towards his left and at the time of sunset it will be towards his right. 4. At 12:00 noon, the rays of the sun are vertically downward hence there will be no shadow.

Main types of questions are given below: Type 1: Siva starting from his house, goes 5 km in the East, then he turns to his left and goes 4 km. Finally he turns to his left and goes 5 km. Now how far is he from his house and in what direction? Solution:

From third position it is clear he is 4 km from his house and is in North direction.

Type 2: Suresh starting from his house, goes 4 km in the East, then he turns to his right and goes 3 km. What minimum distance will be covered by him to come back to his house? Solution:

Type 3: One morning after sunrise Juhi while going to school met Lalli at boring road crossing. Lalli's shadow was exactly to the right of Juhi. If they were face to face, which direction was Juhi facing? Solution: In the morning sunrises in the east.

So in morning the shadow falls towards the west. Now Lalli's shadow falls to the right of the Juhi. Hence Juhi is facing south.

Type 4: Hema starting from her house walked 5 km to reach the crossing of Palace. In which direction she was going, a road opposite to this direction goes to Hospital. The road to the right goes to station. If the road which goes to station is just opposite to the road which IT-Park, then in which direction to Hema is the road which goes to IT-Park? Solution:

From II it is clear that the road which goes to IT-Park is left to Hema.